CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION It is very essential to know the exact state of a digital circuit in an electronic or computer device for this reason. A range of instruments must be provided for measuring the various quantities involved. Measuring instruments are the back bone of modern, science and engineering. Without a standard means of measurement, it will be very difficult to get the real value of a particular quantity. Therefore, to achieve accuracy in design and construction of various devices and equipments will be very tedious.

Instrumentation is the means by which a quantity is measured. This goes to say that quantities like length. Like length. Pressure, voltage, time and frequency. Electronic instruments are many but are generally classified into two categorizes namely: abso9lute and secondary instruments.

Absolute instruments are those that give values of the quantities being measured based on their constant and their deflection only. These types of instruments do not require previous calibration or comparison examples are galvanometers. While secondary instruments are those that the value of quantities being measured is obtained from their deflection so long as they have been calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument examples are water level indicators etc.

These secondary instruments are being classified into three categories based on their function. There are: (i) (ii) (iii) Indicating instrument Recording instruments Controlling instruments

An indicating instrument is the simplest of all measuring instruments. It indicates the value of the quantity been measured. This type of instrument is the cheapest of the three and the most commonly used example is thermometer. Recording instrument record the state of phenomenon being investigated examples computer. In a controlling instrument, the

information supplied or indicated by the indicating or recording instrument is used in controlling or maintaining a specific level of input signal example Air conditioners.

1.2

STATEMETN OF THE PROBLEM A logical probe falls under the indicating measuring instruments, the purpose of a logic probe is to examine and indicate the logic states of a particular point in an electronic circuit. It is usually used in fault finding and testing but it can also be sued to find out how a piece of electronic equipment works or assist in electronic design. In a digital circuit a signal is represented as either high (+5v) or low (Ov). Because these signals are present in only a short time in [ms] or oscillate rapidly, a simple voltmeter is

1.3

MOTIVATION The importance of knowing the exact state of a digital circuits in an electronic device whether High/Low or ON/OFF, Motivate me to construct a logic probe with pulse.

1.4

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this project is to construct a logic probe with pulse which

is used to examine and indicate the logic states of a particular point in an electronic circuit. The objective is to be able to verify the quality of electronic circuits.

1.5

METHODOLOGY It consists of an amplifier, a comparator, an oscillator and output units. The circuit is simple and comprises a, 2N2219 (A) transistor, 7400 quid NAND gate, a 555 timer and a couple of resistors and capacitors.

INPUT PROBE

AMPLIFIER UNIT

COMPARATOR UNIT

OSCILLATOR UNIT

OUTPUT UNIT

Figs. 1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Logic Probe; Provide you with three visible indicator; Logic_(+red, led) Logic 0 (-green led), and pulse (yellow led). Good for TTL and CMOS. The yellow or pulse led comes on for approximately 200ms to indicate a

pulse without regards to its width. This feature enable one to observe a short duration pulse that would otherwise not be seen on the logic1 and logic0 leds. A smalls switch (subminiature slide or momentary push) across the 20k resistor can be used to keep this Pulse led on permanently after a pulse occurs. ON in operation for alogic0 input signal, both the 0 led the pulse led will com, but the pulse led will go off after 200msec. the logic level are detected via resistor R1 (1K), then amplifier by T1 (NPN,SI-AF preamplifier/Driver), and selected by the 7400ICforwhat they are Diode D1is a small signal diode to protect the 7400 and the led form excessive inverse voltages during capacitor discharge. For a logic 1 input, only the logic 1 led (red) will be ON. With the switch closed, the circuit will indicate whether a negative going or positive-going pulse has occurred. If the pulse is positive-going, both the 0 and [pulse leds will be on. If the pulse is negative-going, the 1 and pulse leds will be on.

1.6

LIMITATION This particular module can only operate with a 5volt battery any thing less than that or more that may damage the module if a voltage regulator is not use.

1.7

OUTLINE OF REPORT This project contain charter one to five in which charter one comprises the introduction, Methodology, Statement of problem, Limitation, aims and objective, Motivation and Outline of report. Charter Two contain the literature review and summery. Charter three contains the construction and Packaging. Charter four contains the testing and result. Chapter five contains the conclusion and recommendation.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW A dictionary of electronic defined logic as a system of computation based on the concepts of and, either or, neither nor, etc. which makes use of only two condition leads. PROBE: According to the oxford dictionary source (1987), it is a small device especially on electrode for measuring, testing or detecting. The long man dictionary (1984) defined probe as a pointed metal conductor of electricity or sound that is temporarily to be inserted in the device whose quantity is to be measured. From the above definitions a logic probe is a device used for testing and monitoring digital circuits. The most common testing instruments or devices are the multi-meter and oscilloscope (universal instrument) etc. Among the various types of testing, monitoring and measuring instruments, the logic probe is simple to construct, less expensive compact and reliable. A digital system uses two states either ON/OFF or a high/Low voltage to encode receives and transmits information. Digital electronics is the technology that under lines digital techniques. Low power miniature integrated circuits (Chips) provide the means for the coding, storage, transmission, processing and construction of information of all kinds. This

project: titled Construction of a logic probe with pulse is an effort to build a low cost, simple and reliable logic probe that may be used in a laboratory environment as a lab module for laboratory practical. Similar work have been undertaken by a number of individuals in electrical engineering department of Kaduna polytechnic in the year 1995,2000,2002 and 2003 respectively. The project constructed by lkechuku (2000) which was construction of dual logical probe was designed to give the actual number of pulses passing through the dual probe. The objective were not achieved because only l or high pulse is being recognized by the logic probe while the low or o pulse was rejected. Discrete components were used fro the construction and two seven-segment displays were also used for indication. There are series of adjustments on the circuit before was achieved. In this project, NPN and PNP transistor were used for the switching. The third one was carried out by Nura (1993) which was construction of pulse tracing techniques on logic system. There was a problem of continuous replacement of les such as the 741 and 4011 IC before the circuit response. In the project, typically Red and Green led were used to indicate the logic 1 state and logic O state respectively. The problem encountered was that in some cases both the two LED switch on at a time while only one is expected o light on. The fourth project was carried out by

Balarabe (2002) which was the construction of audible logic probe. In this project, two oscillators were used to generate the frequency and also employ a loud speaker to indicate they output. The output depends on the frequency generated by the oscillator. There is a lot of replacement of Ics because of rough handling the CMOS K. and also an integrated circuit 745Lic was used as amplifier circuits and ED4011 ICs was used for comparator. The problems encountered by those constructed projects above were overcome by changing some of he components and a proper consideration was made. A logic probe is actually the most useful and can be employed for testing the most counts in digital circuit. It is relatively in expensive and its compactness makes it an ideal portable serving tool in the previous projects, CMOS ics were used as the comparator while in this project TTI ics are used. In addition, the pervious constructed projects were only emphasizing on the two normal outputs or states of a logic circuit (ON/OFF), and they never talk about the causes of continuous pulsating. In which an advancement is made in this project to indicate the pulsating output or state of a digital circuit with switch closed, the circuit will indicate whether a negative going or positive going pulse has occurred and three LEDS are used for the indication.

Also, in the previous two projects audible alarm and seven segments display was used which are not featured in this particular project, Though audible alarm sometimes necessary but is not employs in this project and seven segments is not used because it will only add to the complexity of the projects. All in all, the only similarity is that all are used to detect the state of a digital circuit system using probe and other components used were the same.

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CAHPTER THREE 3.0 Introduction In this chapter, the design analysis of the components values used in this project worth is presented each unit of the circuit is analyzed separately and the construction procedure are being highlighted by writing the stages of construction that were being carried out. The component was tested to ensure that wrong value of component is being used. 3.1 Analysis of Amplifier This is made up of a transistor (NPN, Si-AF preamplifier/Driver). It employs 2N2219 (A) transistor coupled with a resistor 1K in which the resistor detect the logical level and the send to the transistor to amplified comparator to compare. The block diagram of an NPN transistor is shown below.

R B +M V OM VMV C C Q 1

R L

+VC C INPUT +VC OV

OUTP UT

Fig. 3.1 NPN TRANSISTOR

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With Qi properly based direct current flows continue, with or without an input signal, throughout the entire circuit. The direct current flowing through the circuit develops more then just base biased, it also develops the collector voltage (VC) as it flows through Q1 and RL. Resistor RL, the collector load resistor, is placed in the circuit to keep the full effect of the collector supply voltage off the collector. This permits the collector voltage (vc) to change with an input signal, which in turn allow the transistor to amplify voltage. Without RL in the circuit, the voltage on the collector would always be equal to Vcc.

The coupling capacitor (Cc) is another new addition to the transistor circuit. It is used to press the ac input signal (and block the dc voltage from the preceding circuit. This prevents dc in the circuitry on the left of the coupling capacitor form affecting the bias on Q1. The coupling capacitor also blacks the bias of Q1 from reaching the input signal source.

The coupling capacitor (Cc) is anther new addition to the transistor circuit. It is used to pass the ac input signal and black the dc voltage from the preceding circuit. This prevents dc in the circuitry on the left of the coupling

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capacitor from affecting the bias on Q1. The coupling capacitor also blocks the bias of Q1 From reaching the input signal soruce. Table 3,1 Data sheet for 2N2219 (A) NPN

Vceo Vcbo max 40 max 75

Vebo Ic max 6.0

Pd

max max 800 3.0

The: Current gain

at ic = 0.1mA, 150MA, 150mA 35,100 current gain Bandwidth = 300, Noise figure 4.0

3.2

Analysis of comparator unit At this stage of the circuit for NAND gates are used to serve as a

comparator they are arranged in a single chip connected together to perform a required function. In order to avoid complicity of component an integrated circuit is being used. The NAND gates are in such a way that whenever there is a signal coming to the circuit, the signal will first of all pass through the comparator before reachi9ng the Oscillator. If the signal is higher or pulse 1 state then one of NAND gates (N2) will pass the high signal to (N4).

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The Ic 7400 is being used as the comparator. The top view of the comparator is shown below. Fig 3.2
V+ +
1 4

1 3

1 2

1 1

1 0

7400

Quad 2-input NAND gate Top view

PIN ARRANGEMETN OF 7400 IC

1A 1B /1Y 2A 2B /2Y GND

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

+---------------+ 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

VCC 4B 4A /4Y 3B 3A /3Y

Fig 3.2b

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Table 3.2 Characteristics fro 74L 500 (TTL) LH EPHL VOH VOL Max (v) 04 VIH Min (v) 2 VIL Max (v) 0.8 104 Max IOL Max 114 Max ITL Max

MAX MAX Min (MS) 15 (NS) 15 (V) 2.7

(MA] (Ma] -0.4 8

(MA) (MA) 20 -04

ON the discharge transistor and short out the capacitor. The output at pin 3 is High (as shown in figure below for a time tH given by tH = 1.1 RACA) The duration of the output pulse is determined by the value of a and ca. in the experiment, ca is fixed while a is varied.
+v

The top view of 555/c timer and circuit diagram for monostable oscillator
8

are shown below. R

3

Ground
Input trigger

6 2

555

Vcc Output Discharge

Trigger
7

Output
C

Threshold
+ 1 Gnd 15

Reset

Control voltage

Fig. 3.3: Dual in line 555 Ic Timer Fig. 3.3b: Block Diagram of Oscillator

3.4

ANALYSIS OF THE OUTPUT UNIT

This employs three LED (light emitting Diode) Which display the logic signal level.

RE D R2 1500hm 3 4 12 8 13 5 11

YELLO W R3 1500hm

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2 9 10

Fig. 3.4:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF INPUT UNIT

3.5 3.5.1

CONSTRUCTION BREAD BOARD CONNECTION After the prototype, the components were inserted into the bread as specified on the diagram. The bread board connection serve as a test

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of the circuit designed. The design was discovered reliable, jumper wires were used where necessary
3.5.2

VERO BOARD CONNECTION I started by flitting in the ic socket, resistor and transistor as connected above. The connection was done on vero board which was final soldered. The vero board was a rows of copper trucks spaced at 0.1 intervals and each strip or rows has holes. Again space at 0.1 metric holes on the vero board making sure that the component are inserted correctly. The components are then soldered on the board carefully to avoid the solder bridging from one strip to an adjacent one. Note that side of the vero board is completely insulated. Fig 3.5 layout diagram.

3.5.3 PRECAUTIONS TAKEN The soldering of the component on the vero board is done bearing in mind that its imperative to observe the maximum heat for the minimum time rule. This is because some of these components when subject to heat for a long time may malfunction or tend to change their characteristics. A heat sink e.g squeezer can be used for temperature sensitive component like transistor. All components and tracks was confined which carry main current to one area of the board. All tracks were made as short as possible and main rated insulated wires were

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sued to carry main current between terminals on different part of the board. I also checked that, if the project is distorted will not come into contacts with bare metal. It was also ensured that there is no thin wire of copper remaining around the rim of the hole and that of circuit to adjacent tracts.

3.6

PACKAGING After testing the circuit, it was enclosed in a white plastic casing which is the Permanent housing of the circuit. Only the switch was made accessible from the outside.

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CHAPTER FOUR TESTING AND RESULT 4.1 TESTING All component used were tested for fitness before being used in this particular project. The capacitor, amplifier and dc 7400 ic which is being used as a comparator and the rest. At the first stage of the testing the output of logic probe was only indicating red LED in the other are not indicated in this case the regulator which to regulate the voltage applied was overheated and oscillator was not properly connected. In which I follow the circuit step by step in order to see that all ic terminal and the leads are connected properly to the rightful position. Although, the connection of regulator and 555 ic corrected and the problem was solved. 4.2 Result At the end of all connection and soldering, the testing, the circuit gave a conclusive result by using it to test the negative and positive part a battery and also used to detect. The state of digital circuit. This justified the construction specification of this project.

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Table 4.2

TURTH TABLE OF THE RESULT

A 0 0 1 1 Fig 4.2

B 0 1 0 1

Y 1 1 1 0

4.3

CONCLUSION

Whenever a student is constructing a circuit care should be taken to avoid over soldering because it can lead to the destruction of the component. During packaging, great care and observance should be taken to prevent cutting of leas that are being used. Layout diagram

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 CONCLUSION

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The successful completion of the construction of logic probe with pulse has increased my knowledge and understanding of the use and function of different circuit. Although the problem encounter during this project I that some of the component value was not gotten but it was solved by replacing g them with the alternative value. Also, lack of clear understanding can lead to tremendous damaging of component (equipment), waste of time and money which were experienced at the first beginning of this project. Further, inadequate understanding of the operation on some of the components can lead to malfunction of the system. In addition, more knowledge has been acquired in constructing, testing and

troubleshooting. Finally, the process of packaging, requirements was made for ventilation to avoid over heating of component.

5.2

Recommendation As mention above lack of clear understanding of component can lead to tremendous damage on the component under use. In view of this

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observation, it is here by recommended that before embarking on any circuit operation at very stage by fully studying the circuit diagram and knowing the terminal of every component under use. In order to avoid unnecessary difficulty that might arise in future.

REFERENCES 1. Ronald J.T. (1995) Digital System Principles and Application prentice hall, inc. Englewood cliffs, N.J. 07632 pp437-453.

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2. http://www.tpu.com/neets/book7/25c.htm

3. http://www.voguelph.ca/-antom/gadgets/555.htm

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