Preface

I would like to say thanks to Allah Swt because he gave me health and spirit to do this task. This task title is A Contrastive Analysis of the Differences between English and Indonesian Language. It is included phoneme, morpheme, and sentence. Part of phoneme is consonant, vowel, diphthong, and triphthong. Part of morpheme is prefix, suffix, mix, cross division, and changes. Part of sentence is compound sentence, complex sentence, and compound complex sentence. In Indonesian sentence those are kalimat majemuk such as kalimat majemuk setara, kalimat majemuk bertingkat, and kalimat majemuk campuran. There are also kalimat inti, luas and transformasi. The sentence is according to its function. Kalimat dibedakan menjadi kalimat mayor, minor, pernyatan, pertanyaan, perintah, permintaan, seruan, and paralel. I would like to say thanks to everyone that give me contribution in finishing this paper, they are: 1. Mr. Siswana, M, Pd. as an error and contrastive analysis lecturer 2. Friends of mine in 7G. I believe that this paper will make good progress especially me in having knowledge about contrastive analysis.

Writer

NOVIDA SULISTYORINI

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Contrastive Analysis

1. Definition of Contrastive Analysis According to Robert Lado, Linguistics Across Cultures, 1957: "Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture both productively and when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by natives." (1957, in Gass and Selinker 1983, p. 1). Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia : Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of pair of language with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies. 2. Kinds of Contrastive Analysis There are some kind of contrastive analysis : a. Intralingual 1) Analysis of contrastive phonemes 2) Feature analysis of morpho syntactic categories 3) Analysis of morphemes having grammatical meaning 4) Analysis of word order 5) Componential analysis of lexemes 6) Analysis of lexical relations b. Cross-linguistic 1) Comparative analysis of morpho syntactic systems 2) Comparative analysis of lexical semantics 3) Analysis of translational equivalence 71

4) Study of interference in foreign language learning Contrastive Analysis as a research methodology: Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991, An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman.) claims that the study of SLA can be said to have passed through a series of phases defined by the modes of inquiry researchers have utilized in their work: contrastive analysiserror analysis performance analysis discourse analysis. Objectives of Contrastive Analysis: 1. Providing insights into similarities and differences between languages; 2. Explaining and predicting problems in L2 learning; and
3. Developing course materials for language teaching

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis: Lado maintained a more controversial position, however, when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult" (Lado 1957:2, Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers). This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53) There are 3 versions of the Contrastive Analysis hypothesis:
1) The Strong Version: Fries & Lado

It (a priori) claimed that prediction of difficulties in learning L2 could be made based upon a comparison of two languages. This starts with a cross linguistic analysis and then attempts to predict trouble spots.
2) The Weak Version: Wardhaugh (1970)

It (a posteriori) claimed that cross-linguistic comparison could help to explain learner errors. This starts with learner errors and attempts to account for them with crossgrammatical comparisons.
3) The Moderate Version: Oller & Ziahosseiny

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It differs from the above two in that it emphasizes the significance of minimal distinctions, which may actually cause the greatest interferences and difficulties. Summary The theoretical bases, basic assumptions and three versions of the contrastive analysis hypothesis, as well as the procedures of contrastive analysis and its applications are demonstrated in this section. CAH criticized: 1. People produce and understand new sentences all the time. 2. Evidence of overgeneralization of the past tense indicated that language is more the application of rules than it is of mimicry and analogy. Conclusion: while interference plays a role in SLA, so do many other factors and thus the role of the first language is less than what was thought by proponents of CA.

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Transfer Language

Two types of transfer: 1. Positive transfer = facilitation: habits are similar and result in correct utterance 2. Negative transfer = interference: habits are different and result in incorrect utterance

1. Negative Transfer This is my story I am in the fifth semester now. Hopefully, next year I will get my college degree as a teacher. I have done many things in almost 4 years, besides attending the lecture I have been teaching as a tutor freelance in one of courses in South Jakarta. I had a story when I joined the program of my course. It was really embarrassing moment for me. Two years ago, the students and tutors of my course went to Jaksa Street. The program was to help students to be confident of their knowledge about English. The point is it was really good program. I followed two groups. Each group had to make conversation with moreover 5 foreigners. As the information there are many foreigners. My students were really shy to have the word first. So, I decided to make the words first. When I started to make conversation I said, Do you have time? suddenly, the two foreigners looked their watch and they said it is 09.50 WHAT! I dont mean that. Oh my god I used the wrong sentence. Luckily, I had sharp memory. I have ever read the book told me that if you want to say apa anda punya waktu? say it with do you have watch? In a hurry I corrected my sentence, no, I mean do you have watch? then, the foreigner said oh yeah of course then the conversation went on. My students asked many questions to them. One thing that I liked the foreigners had good attitude in appreciating us. Now I know that. Sometimes, what we know it is not as the same as the English means. So, it is really useful in reading books. Explanation: The sentence, do you have time? Means to ask time it is as same in asking what time is it? The sentence, do you have watch? means asking someone is he/she has time in doing conversation with us or we make it in bahasa apakah anda punya waktu?

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2. Positive Transfer I love it I love to watch movie especially western movie whether it is American, British, or etc. It doesnt not only entertain but also study, Example building our knowledge in vocabulary, conversation and etc. In one of movie that I watched I heard the sentence it is not a big deal I was curious with the meaning. So I looked at the subtitle it means it is not a problem or in bahasa tidak masalah. Explanation: May be people in Indonesia if they want to say tidak masalah in English they will say no problem. They mybe dont know that there is other way to sa tidak masalah in English which is not a big deal. No problem with no Not a big deal with not

PHONEME 71

A. Definition of Phoneme In a language or dialect, a phoneme (from the Greek: , phnma, "a sound uttered") is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances. A phoneme is a sound of given language that native speakers agree is just one segment, and which enables them to recognize differences of meaning between words. ( Suzette Haden Elgin, What is Linguistics ? 2nd Edition). B. Function of Phoneme A member of the set of the smallest units of speech that serve to distinguish one utterance from the another in a language or dialect /p/ of English pat and the English fat are two different phonemes. C. Kinds of Phoneme 1. Vocal A. Vokal Bahasa Indonesia Bahasa Indonesia mempunyai sepuluh vocal ( Soebardi, 1973 : 5-8). Sebagai berikut : No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Huruf /i/ /I/ /e/ / / /a/ // / / / o/ // /u/ Awal ibu idola ekor esensial ada emas otot oto ukur utara Tengah kita pinggir karena leher pada iseng roti toko urus bulan Akhir cari hari kampanye apa kado dulu paku

Vocal in English Vocal atau monofthong bahasa Inggris jumlahnya dua belas :

Phonetic Spelling in English

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A.

Vowels

No. 1.

Phoneme //

Name Shortphighpfront unrounded vowel Initial economy /kn..mi/ entity /en.t.ti/ annually /n.ju..li/ Under /n.d r / entrepreneur /n.tr.prn r /

Distribution Middle continued /kntn.jud/ percent /psent/ Final by /ba/

2.

/e/

shortomid-front unrounded vowel

3.

//

short unrounded lowermid front vowel

lack /lk/
Instructure /n.frstrk.t r / project /prd.ekt/ could /kd/ grow /gr/ the // body

4.

//

Mid low vowels

5.

//

Low vowels

6. 7.

// //

Mid vowels, back Mid-central vowels officially /f. l.i/

development /dvel.p.mnt/

8.

/i/

High front unrouded

Create
/kriet/

/b.di/

9. 10.

/u/
/i/

short rounded high back vowel. each /it/ /rsivd/ demand /dm nd/ more /m r / Prove /pru v/ 71 New /nju / received key /ki/

11.

//

after /f.t r /

12.

//

Mid back vowels

13.

/u/

14.

/ /

Mid low vowels

commercially /km. l.i/

2. Dipthong

No. 1.

Phoneme /e/

Name Initial able /e.bl/ Idle

Distribution Middle made /med/ advisory /dva.z r.i/ loan /ln/ power /pa r / jointly /dnt.li/ hear /h r / Share /e r / during /dj.r/ grow /gr/ Final monday /mn.de/

2.

/a/

/a.dl/
3. // only /n.li/ outlook /at.lk/ 5. // -

4.

/a/

6. 7.

// /e/

8.

//

3. Triphtong

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No. 1.

Phoneme /a/

Name Initial hour /a r /

Distribution Middle Final

2.

/a/

Fire /fa r / Player /ple. r / Employer /mpl. r / Grower /gr. r /

3.

/e/

4.

//

5.

//

B.

Consonants

No. 1.

Phoneme /p/

Name Voiceless,bilabial, plossive Initial President /prez..d nt/ business /bz.ns/

Distribution Middle Corporation /k.p re. n/ chamber /tem.b r / Sanitation /sn.te. n/ engine /en.dn/ Friction /frk. n/ part /pt/ Brand /brnd/ Week /wik/ Final Trip /trp/

2.

/b/

Voiced, bilabial , plossive

3.

/t/

Voiceless,alveolar,pplosive

Total
/t.t l/

4.

/d/

Voiced, alveolar, plossive

Dominate /dm..net/ Class /kls/

5.

/k/

Voiceless, velar, plossive

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6.

/g/

Voiced, velar, plossive

garment /g.mnt/

Analog /n..lg/

7.

/t/

Voiceless, palatal,africative Voiced, palatal, africative

chief /tif/ Giant /da. nt/ Foreign /fr.n/ Vice /vas/ through /ru/

feature /fi.t r / Digital /dd..t l/

launch /ln t/ challenge /tl.nd/

8.

/d/

9.

/f/
/v/

Voiceless,plabio-dental, fricative Voiced,labiodental,fricative

10.

investor /nves.t r/

Executive /gzek.j.tv/

11.

/ /

Voiceless,pdental, fricative

growth /gr/ gather /g. r /

12.

//

Voiced, alveolar, fricative

13.

/s/

Voiceless,oalveolar, fricative Voiced, alveolar, fricative Voiceless,oalveolar, fricative Voiced, alveolar, fricative Voiced, glotal, fricative Voiced, bilabial, nasal stop

Stood /std/

disburse /dsbs/

Fierce /fs/

14. 15.

/z/ //

Show //

commissioner /km. n. r /

launch /ln t /

16. 17. 18.

// /h/ /m/

Hold /hld/ Market /m.kt/ need /nid/ Recommendation /rek..mende. n/ Country /kn.tri/ conquer Team /tim/ discipline /ds..pln/ consulting

19.

/n /

Voiced,palveolar, stop

nasal

20.

//

Voiced, velar, nasal

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/k.k r / 21. /l/ Voiced, alveolar, lateral Lost /lst/ rate Dollar /dl. r / Preparation /prep. re. n/ deputy /dep.j.ti/

/knsl.t/ role /rl/ Share /e r / -

22.

/r/

Voiced, uvular ,trill

/ret/ 23. /j/ Voiceless affricate unique /jnik/

24.

/w/

Voicelesspbilabial approximant

World /wld/

Equity /ek.w.ti/

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Phonetic Spelling in Indonesia

A.

Vokal

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fonem /a/ /e/ /i/ /u/ /o/

Nama Vokal rendah, depan Vokal madya ,tinggi, depan Vokal tinggi, depan Vokal tinggi, tengah Vokal tinggi, belakang Awal akan /akan/ Emisi /emisi/ Indikasi /indikasi/ untuk /untuk/ Orang /ora/

Distribusi Tengah Relatif /relatif/ Perseroan /perseroan/ Senilai /senilai/ Menurut /menurut/ Laporan /laporan/ Akhir harga /harga/ Fase /fase/ konsolidasi /konsolidasi/ Satu /satu/ Foto /foto/

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B.

Konsonan

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Fonem / / /p/ /b/ /m/ /f/ /w/ /t/ /d/

Nama Awal Emas / mas/ Bilabial stop / plosif Bilabial stop / plosif Bilabial nasal Labio dental frikatif Labio dental semi vokal Apiko plosif Apiko plosif alveolar alveolar stop stop / / Pasar /pasar/ Belum /belum/ Minat /minat/ Fokus /fokus/ Wakil /wakil/ Teko /teko/ Dalam /dalam/ Nasional /nasional/ Luar /Luar/ Rahang /rahang/ Jamsostek /jamsostek/ Nyata /ata/ Sinergi /sinergi/ 71

Distribusi Tengah Telah /t lah/ Rapat /rapat/ Pabrik /pabrik/ Sama /sama/ Daftar /daftar/ Penawaran penawaran Antara /antara/ Modal /modal/ Tanah /tanah/ Dalam Akhir Kode /kod / tangkap /takap/ Saham /saham/ Kondusif /kondusif/ Pulau /pulaw/ Aset /aset/ Tambahan /tambahan/ Operasional /operasional/ Hancur /hancur/ Miraj /miraj/

/n/
/l/

Apiko alveolar nasal Apiko alveolar lateral

/dalam/ Serta /serta/ Pajak /pajak/ Penyertaan /pe ertaan/ Prospektif /prospektif/

11. 12. 13.

/r/ /j/ /

Apiko alveolar trill Medio laminal stop / plosif Medio laminal nasal

14.

/ s/

Lamino alveolar frikatif

15

/ /

Voiceless palatal frikatif

Syarat / arat/ Kinerja /kinerja/ Gagal /gagal/ Hal /hal/

Asyik /Aik/ Kaki /kaki/ Negara /Negara/ Rangka /raka/ Pahala /pahala/ Nakhoda /naxoda/ Publik /publik/ Rentang /renta/ Jumlah /jumlah/

16 17 18 19 20 21. 22. 23. 24.

/k/ /g/ // /h/ /x/ /c/ /y/ /z/ /?/

Dorso velar stop / plosif Dorso stop / plosif Dorso velar nasal Faringal frikatif Dorso velar frikatif Medio laminal plosive Lamino vocal alveolar stop /

Cabang /caba/ Yang /yang/ Saya /saya/ Izin /izin/

semi

Lamino alveolar frikatif glottal

No
71

C onclus

1 T h ere are 24

No 1 2
71

Conclu

There are 1

There 8 d

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MORPHEMES

A. Definition of Morpheme From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia MORPHEME is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound), and in written language morphemes are composed of graphemes (the smallest units of written language). The concept morpheme differs from the concept word, as many morphemes cannot stand as words on their own. A morpheme is free if it can stand alone, or bound if it is used exclusively alongside a free morpheme. Its actual phonetic representation is the morph, with the different morphs representing the same morpheme being grouped as its allomorphs. B. Types of Morphemes
1.

FREE MORPHEME = a morpheme that can stand alone as an independent word (e.g. 'item').
2. BOUND MORPHEME = a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an independent

word, but must be attached to another morpheme/word (affixes, such as plural '-s', are always bound; roots are sometimes bound, e.g. the 'kep-' of 'kept' or the '-ceive' of 'receive'.

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3. BASE = an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which

additional morphemes are added. Also called a STEM. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness'. But a base can also be a word that itself contains more than one morpheme. For example, we can use the word 'kindness as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the base 'kindness'.
4. ROOT = a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through the

addition of affixes. The root usually has a more-soecific meaning than the affixes that attach to it. Ex.: The root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. The root is the item you have left when you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In the word dehumanizing, for example, if you strip off all the affixes -- -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what you have left. It cannot be divided further into meaningful parts. It is the root of the word.
5. AFFIX = a bound morpheme which attaches to a base (root or stem). PREFIXES

attach to the front of a base; SUFFIXES to the end of a base; INFIXES are inserted inside of a root. An example of a prefix is the 're-' of 'rewrite'; of a suffix, '-al' of 'critical'.
6. INFLECTION = the process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate basic

grammatical categories such as tense or plurality (e.g. in 'cat-s', 'talk-ed', '-s' an d'-ed are inflectional suffixes). Inflection is viewed as the process of adding very general meanings to existing words, not as the creation of new words. The part of speech of the root stays the same.
7. DERIVATION = the process by which affixes combine with roots to create new

words (e.g. in 'modern-ize', 'read-er', '-ize' and '-er' are derivational suffixes). Derivation is viewed as using existing words to make new words. The inflection/derivation difference is increasingly viewed as shades of gray rather than an absolute boundary. Derivation is much less regular, and therefore much less predictable, than inflectional morphology. For example, we can predict that most English words will form their plural by adding the affix <-s> or <-es>. But how we derive nouns from verbs, for example, is less predictable. Why do we add <-al> to 'refuse', making 'refusal', but '-ment' to 'pay' to make 'payment'? 'Payal' and 'refusement' are not possible English words. We have to do more memorizing in

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learning derivational morphology than in learning inflectional morphology. The part of speech of the word may change.
8. CONTENT MORPHEME: A morpheme that has a relatively more-specific

meaning than a function morpheme; a morpheme that names a concept/idea in our record of experience of the world. Content morphemes fall into the classes of noun, verb, adjective, and adverb.
9. FUNCTION MORPHEME: A morpheme that has a relatively less-specific

meaning than a content morpheme; a morpheme whose primary meaning/function is to signal relationships between other morphemes. Function morphemes generally fall into classes such as articles ('a', 'the'), prepositions ('of', 'at'), auxiliary verbs ('was eating', 'have slept'), etc.
10.

SIMPLE WORD = a word consisting of a single morpheme; a word that COMPLEX WORD = a word consisting of a root plus one or more affixes COMPOUND WORD = a word that is formed from two or more simple or MORPHOPHONEMICS/ALLOMORPHY = the study of the processes by

cannot be analyzed into smaller meaningful parts, e.g. 'item', 'five', 'chunk', 'the'.
11.

(e.g. 'items', 'walked', 'dirty').

12.

complex words (e.g. landlord, red-hot, window cleaner).

13.

which morphemes change their pronunciation in certain situations. C. Affixes in English 1. There are some prefixes in English : No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Prefix AAbAdAeroAmbiAnAnteAntiAntropoArchAstroAudioAutoRoot side road minister dynamics dexterous esthetic diluvia toxin id bishop anomy visual graph Word Aside Abnormal Adjacent Aerodynamic Ambidextrous Anesthetic Antedeluvian Antitoxin Anthropoid Archbishop Astronomy Audio-visual Autograph

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14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 No 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 No 59 60 61

BeBiBiblioBioByCentChronCoColContraDeDemiPrefix DiDiaDisElectroEnEquiExExtraForeGeoHemoHeteroHomoHydroHyperIlImInInterIntraIrMacroMalMatriMegaMicroMilMilliMisMonoMultiNeoNeuroPrefix NonOpOut-

come lingual graph energy product meter meter operation elaborate ception fence god Root oxide gram appeared magnet title distance temporary marital front graphy globin gen gen carbon active legal pact convenience faith venous rational biotic practice arch lithic phone lenium meter communication type lateral liberal logy Root active position Side

Become Bilingual Bibliography Bioenergy By-product Centimeter Chronometer Cooperation Collaborate Contraception Defence Demigod Word Dioxide Diagram Disappeared Electromagnet Entitle Equidistance Extemporary Extramarital Forefront Geography Hemoglobin Heterogen Homogen Hydrocarbon Hyperactive Illegal Impact Inconvenience Interfaith Intravenous Irrational Macrobiotic Malpractice Matriach Megalithic Microphone Millenium Millimeter Miscommunication Monotype Multilateral Neoliberal Neurology Word Nonactive Opposition Outside

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62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

OverPaleoPanPhotoPsych(o)PolyPostPreProProtoPseudoQuasiQuadrReRetroSemiSocioSubSuperSymTechnoTeleTheoThermoTransTriUltraUnUnderUniUpViceWellCircumCounterAnySomeEveryHalf-

Weight Ontology Try Copy Therapy Clinic Card Elementary Contra Plasma Invariant serious lateral Presentative Spective Permiable Linguistic Precint Power Metric Logy communication Logy Meter Former colour Violet Employment Ground Form Town President Born Stances Attack Thing One Day Time

Overweight Paleontologi Pantry Photocopy Psychotherapy Polyclinic Postcard Pre-Elementary Pro-contra Protoplasma Pseudo invariant Quasi-serious Quadrilateral Representative Retrospective Semipermiable Sociolinguistic Sub-precint Superpower Symmetric Technology Telecommunication Theology Termometer Transformer Tricolour Ultraviolet Unemployment Underground Uniform Uptown Vice-president Well-born Circumstances Counterattack Anything Someone Everyday Halftime

Some part of Speech in English 1. Noun Marker No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Root Biography Anomy Operation Meter Meter Logy Word Autobiography Astronomy Cooperation Chronometer Centimeter Anthropology 71 Part of Speech Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

Logy Graph Graph Illusion Difference Arch Operation Magnet Lateral Gen Wave Card Side Fortune Form Minister Therapy Final State Energy Hit God Physics Tone Space Word Distance Gen Practice Head Analysis Graph Meter Phone Final American Colour President Type Copy Carbon Lithic Film Cure Plasma Arch Age Attack Gender

Neurology Geography Photographer Disillusion Indifference Matriarch Cooperation Electromagnet Unilateral Homogen Microwave Postcard Outside Misfortune Uniform Administer Psychotherapy Semifinal Prostate Bioenergy Megahit Demigod Astrophysics Monotone Aerospace Byword Equidistance Heterogen Malpractice Forehead Psychoanalysis Orthography Millimeter Telephone Semifinal Pan- American Tricolour Vice-president Archetype Photocopy Hydrocarbon Megalithic Microfilm Procure Protoplasma Patriarch Nonage Counterattack Transgender 71

Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun

56 57 58 59 60 2. Verb Marker No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Power Violet Lateral Bishop Product

Superpower Ultraviolet Unilateral Archbishop By-Product

Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun Noun - Noun

Root Populate Understand Assert build Relate Come Road

Word Depopulate Missunderstand Reassert Rebuild Interrelate Become Abroad

Part of Speech Verb - Verb Verb - Verb Verb - Verb Verb - Verb Verb - Verb Verb - Verb Noun - verb

3. Adjective Marker No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Root diluvia dexterous dynamics visual lingual satisfactory elaborate hancing front marital legal active national rational venous biotic llenium millionaire position fabricate invariant Serious lateral metric spective ground coming born Word Antediluvian Ambidextrous Aerodynamics Audio-visual Bilingual Disatisfactory Collaborate Enhancing Forefront Extramarital illegal Hyperactive International Irrational Intravenous Microbiotic Millenium Multi-millionaire Opposition Prefabricate Pseudoinvariant Quasi- serious Quadrilateral Symmetric Retrospective Underground upcoming Well- born Part of Speech Adjective - Adjective Adjective Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Verb - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective Adjective Noun - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Adjective - Adjective Noun - Adjective Adjective Adjective

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No 1 2 3 4

Root thing One thing Time

Word Anything Someone Everything Halftime

Part of speech Noun adverb Noun adverb Noun adverb Noun ad--orb

4. Adverb Maker 2. There are some Suffixes in English : No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Suffix -ance -ence -ion -ist -ity -ment -ness -s -ing -ed -ing -fy -ize -es Root Perform Audi Obligate Science Superior Develop Competitive Division Warm Expect Refresh Type Memory Facility Word Performance Audience / Independence / Intelligence Obligation / Eradication Scientist / Terrorist / Economist Superiority Development / Appointment / Involvement Competitiveness / Effectiveness Divisions / Explosives Warming / Training / Finding / Leading Expected / Pardoned Refreshing Typify Memorize Facilities / Agencies

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15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

-ate -ly -word -able -al -ent -er -est -ful -ible -ic -ish -ive -ing -ous -y -en -age -or -ar -ce -cy -ity -dom -ess -hood -ian -ism -ist -ship -ster -let -ling -ette

Saliva Complete Key Laud Environment Transcend Weak / Question Great Peace Response Optimist Man Effect Complete Religi / Danger Complacence Short Marry Inspect Beg Important Democrat Creative Earl Murder Child / Mother Guard Favorite Biology Sportsman Game Cover Cat Cigar 71

Salivate Completely Keyword Laudable / Disputable Environmental Transcendent Weaker / Questioner Greatest / Strongest Peaceful Responsible Optimistic / Islamic / Pornographic Manish Effective / Comprehensive Completing / Extending Religious / Dangerous Complacency Shorten Marriage / Blockage Inspector Beggar Importance Democracy Creativity Earldom Murderess Childhood / Motherhood Guardian Favoritism / Counter Terrorism Biologist Sportsmanship / Partnership Gamester Coverlet Catling Cigarette

48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

-less -ary Ish -ent -ble -ose -est -by

Care / Regard Budget Child Insist Capa Verb Young near

Careless / Regardless Budgetary Childish Insistent Capable Verbose Youngest / Finest Nearby

some part of speech in English: 1. Noun makers No Root Word 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Perform Audi Obligate Science Superior Develop Competitive Warm Facility Key Complacent Short Marry Inspect Beg Important Move Creative Earl Murder Child Guard Favorite Performance Audience Obligation Scientist Superiority Development Competitiveness Warming Facilities Keyword Complacency Shorten Marriage Inspector Beggar Importance Movement Creativity Earldom Murderess Childhood Guardian Favoritism 71

Part of speech Verb noun Noun noun Verb noun Noun noun Noun noun Verb noun Adjectivenoun Verb noun Noun noun Noun noun Adjective noun Noun noun Adjective noun Verb noun Verb noun Verb noun Noun noun Adjective noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Adjective - noun

24 25 26 27 28 29

Biology Sportsman Game Cover Cat Cigar

Biologist Sportsmanship Gamester Coverlet Catling Cigarette

Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun

2. Verb makers No 1 2 3 4 Root Division Expect Memory Saliva 3. Adjective makers No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Root Refresh Laud Essence Slow Great Peace Response Transcend Optimist Man Effect Danger Child Budget Care Insist Word Refreshing Laudable Essential Slower Greatest Peaceful Responsible Transcendent Optimistic Manish Effective Dangerous Childish Budgetary Careless Insistent Part of speech Verb adjective Adverb adjective Noun adjective Adjective adjective Adjective adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Adjective adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Verb adjective Word Divisions Expected Memorize Salivate Part of speech Noun verb Verb verb Noun verb Noun verb

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17 18 19

Critic Young Verb 4. Adverb makers

Critical Youngest Verbose

Noun adjective Adjective adjective Verb adjective

No 1 2 3 3. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Root Type Hard Previous

Word Typify Hardly Previously

Part of speech Noun adverb Adjective adverb Adjective - adverb

There are some multi affixes in English Affixes Dis-able Dis-ance Dis-ed Dis-ful Dis-ment Dis-tion Dis-ure Ex-able Ex-tion II-ity Im-able Im-ence Im-ity Im-ive Im-ly Im-ment Im-tion In-able In-cy In-ence Root Put Appear Appoint Grace Appoint Satisfact Compos Port Communicate Liberal Measure Pot Possible Press Mediate Prison Perfect Compare Efficient Dependent Word Disputable Disappearance Disappointed Disgraceful Disappointment Dissatisfaction Composure Exportable Excommunication Illiberality Immeasurable Impotence Impossible Impressive immediately Imprisonment Imperfection Incomparable Inefficiency Independence

21

In-ity

Ability

Inability

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22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

In-ive Inter-al Inter-tion In-tion Ir-able Mis-tion Over-ence Pre-tion Pro-tion Re-able Re-al Re-er Re-ing Re-ive Re-ment Re-tion Trans-able Trans-tion Un-al Un-ed Un-able

Effect Nation Sect Doctrine Remove Applicant Confident Concept Tract Move Creation Mind Visit Press Tire Collect Port Form Convention Expect Forget

Ineffective international Intersection Indoctrination Irremovable Misapplication Overconfidence Preconception Protraction Removable Recreational Reminder Revisiting Repressive Retirement Recollection Transportable Transformation Unconventional Unexpected Unforgettable

Some multi-affixes in English 1. Noun makers No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Root Appear Appoint Satisfact Compose Port Communicate Pot Possible Word Disappearance Disappointment Dissatisfaction Discomposure Exportable Excommunication Impotence Impossibility Part of speech Verb noun Verb noun Noun noun Verb noun Noun noun Verb noun Noun noun Adjective noun

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9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Prison Perfect Efficient Dependent Sect Doctrine Confident Concept Tract Move Mind Tire Collect

Imprisonment Imperfection Inefficiency Independence Intersection Indoctrination Overconfidence Preconception Protraction Removal Reminder Retirement Recollection Transformation Word Revisiting Word Illiberality Immeasurable Impressive Ineffective International Irremovable Misapplication Removable Repressive Unconventional Unexpected Unthinkable Word Disputable

Noun noun Adjective noun Adjective noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Adjective noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Noun noun Adjective noun Verb noun Noun noun Part of speech Verb verb Part of speech Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Noun adjective Verb adjective Verb adjective Part of speech Verb adverb

Form 2. Verb makers No Root 1 Visit 3. Adjective makers Root Liberal Measure Press Effect Nation Remove Applicant Move Press Convention Expect Think

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 No 1

4. Adverb makers Root Put

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Mediate

Immediately Transportable

Verb adverb Noun adverb

3 Port D. Affixes in Indonesian 1) No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2) No 1 2 3

Affixes in Indonesian are three prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefixes in Indonesian Prefix Kata Dasar Imbuhan MenBerPePer TerSediKuKeInfixes in Indonesian Infix -el-em-erCapai Sedia Serta Sidang Dakwa Jumlah Bantah Ingin Tiga Kata Dasar tunjuk tali gigi Mencapai Bersedia Peserta Persidang Terdakwa Sejumlah Dibantah Kuingin ketiga Imbuhan Telunjuk Temali Gerigi

3) Suffixes in Indonesian No Suffix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -i -kan -an -isme -is -iah -lah -ku -mu -nya

Kata Dasar yakin Dapat Putus profesional ideal badan sudah untuk surat Tuntutan

Imbuhan Yakini Dapatkan Putusan Profesionalisme Idealis Badaniah Sudahlah Untuku Suratmu tuntutanya

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4) Multi affixes in Indonesian No Affixes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ke-an di-kan Me-i Pe-an Per-an Se-nya Ber-an

Kata Dasar jaksa wakil tangan tunda Mohon Harus lebih

Imbuhan Kejaksaan diwakilkan Menangani Penundaan Permohonan Seharusnya Berlebihan

Syntax ( Sentences )
A. Definition of Syntax ( Sentences ) Syntax ( Sentences ) is an expression in natural language, often defined to indicate a grammatical and lexical unit consisting of one or more words that represent distinct concepts. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request or command. B. Types of sentences by structure 1. Simple sentences I like volleball. One independent clause (underlined). 2. Compound sentences I like volleyball and I like playing volleball. 3. Complex sentences I like volleyball because its fun. One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses (italicized). Note: according to Wikipedia, a sentence likes The dog chewed up the shoes that I just bought is a simple sentence, not a complex sentence, because the relative clause that I just bought simply modifies the noun without performing any other function. Im not sure how accurate this is, however. 4. Complex-Compound sentence I like volleyball because is interesting, and I like playing volleyball because its fun. There are two or more independent clauses. Those four categories apply to normal, grammatical sentences. However, some of our most common expressions are sentences that dont follow the rules see Major and Minor sentences. 71

C. Types of sentences by purposes 1. Declarative sentence I like volleyball. It is used to make a simple statement. Most sentences are declarative. 2. Declarative sentence Do you like playing volleyball? it is used to ask question. See also Rhetorical question. 3. Exclamatory sentence I want to play volleyball! it is used for emphasis and emotion. 4. Imperative sentence Please playing volleyball with me. It is used for commands, with the pronoun you always implied. 5. Conditional sentence If I had billion dollars, I would buy a castle made of chocolate. It is used to express what one would do if a condition were met. There are several types of conditional sentences: the present general (or zero condition), the future more-vivid (or first condition), the future lessvivid (or second condition), the present contra factual (also sometimes called the second condition), and past contra factual (or third condition).
D. Definition Kalimat in Indonesian

Kalimat berasal dari bahasa Arab, adalah satuan linguistik yang terkecil yang bisa berdiri sendiri. Gabungan dari beberapa kata yang mengungkapkan suatu maksud. Secara lisan, kalimat diiringi dengan nada bicara, jeda dan intonasi. Secara tertulis, kalimat ditandai dengan hurufkapital dan tanda baca yang sesuai. Dalam bahasa Latin disebut sintaks atau sintaksis. Dalam linguistik, kalimat adalah satuan bahasa atau arus ujaran yang berisikan kata atau kumpulan kata yang memiliki pesan atau tujuan dan diakhiri dengan intonasi final. E. Jenis-jenis kalimat 1. Kalimat aktif Kalimat yang subjeknya melakukan. Kalimat aktif biasanya memilki predikatnya berupa kata kerja suatu pekerjaan. Contoh: Andi bekerja dikantor. Berawalan me- atau ber-. 2. Kalimat pasif

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Kalimat yang subjeknya dikenai. Kalimat pasif biasanya memilki predikat berupa kata kerja berawalan di-. Contoh: Ikan itu dimakan kucing. Cara mengubah kalimat aktif menjadi kalimat pasif. a. Subjek kalimat aktif dijadikan objek pada kalimat pasif b. Awalan me- diganti dengan dic. Tambahkan kata oleh di belakang predikat. Contoh: - Rima menggunting baju. (aktif) - Baju digunting Rima. (pasif)
d. Jika subjek kalimat aktif berupa kata ganti maka awalan me- pada predikat

dihapus, kemudian subjek dan predikay dirapatkan. Contoh: Rina harus memasak bayam. (aktif), bayam harus ku masak. (pasif) 3. Kalimat langsung Bagian kutipan dalam kalimat langsung dapat menirukan ucapan orang. Biasanya ditandai dengan tanda petik (..) berupa kalimat tanya atau kalimat perintah. Contoh: Ana berkata, Apakah kamu sudah makan? 4. Kalimat tidak langsung Bagian kutipan pada kalimat tidak langsung kembali menceritakan ucapan orang lain. Contoh: Ana berkata bahwa apakah saya sudah makan.

5. Kalimat berita Umumnya mendorong orong untuk memberikan dan memberitahukan sesuatu atau tanggapan. Macam-macam kalimat berita : a.Kalimat berita kepastian Contoh: Minggu depan kakakku akan menikah b. Kalimat berita pengingkaran Contoh: Dia tidak bisa hadir di pemakaman temanya c.Kalimat berita kesangsian Contoh: Saya mungkin akan kembali besok. d. Kalimat berita bentuk lainnya. Contoh: Mereka tidak tahu kapan acaranya akan dimulai 6. Kalimat Perintah

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Kalimat yang bertujuan memberikan perintah kepada orang lainuntuk melakukan sesuatu. Dalam bentuk lisan, kalimat perintah biasanya diakhiri dengan tanda seru (!). Kalimat perintah ditandai dengan intonasi yang tinggi. Macam macam kalimat perintah:
a.

Kalimat perintah biasa, ditandai dengan partikel lah.

Contoh: buka pintunya! b. Kalimat larangan, ditandai dengan penggunaan kata jangan Contoh: Dilarang merokok disini!
c.

Kalimat ajakan, ditandai dengan kata mohon, tolong dan silahkan. Contoh: Bisakah kau membantuku? 7. Kalimat Tanya Kalimat yang isinya menanyakan sesuatu atau seseorang sehingga diperoleh jawaban tentang suatu masalah. Secara lisan, kalimat tanya biasanya ditandai dengan intonasi yang rendah. Contoh: Apakah kamu sakit? Siapa yang membeli buku ini? a.Kalimat efektif memilki syarat: b. Secara tepat mewakili gagasan penulis atau pembicaranya. Menimbulkan gambaran yang sama antara penulis dengan pembaca atau Ciri-ciri: Memilki kesatuan gagasan atau ide pokok Menggunakan kata frase imbuhan yang memiliki kesamaan Tidak menggunakan kata-kata yang tidak perlu Memberikan penekanan pada bagian-bagian yang penting.

pembicara dengan pendengar.

8. Kalimat Tunggal Kalimat yang hanya hanya terdiri dari inti kalimat atau satu kalimat. Inti kalimat dibentuk oleh subjek dan predikat. Jenis jenis kalimat tunggal: a. b. Kalimat nominal adalah kalimat yang predikatnya berupa kata benda. Kalimat verbal adalah kalimat yang predikatnya berupa kata kerja. Contoh: Angga juara III melukis. Contoh: Bona berenang Perluasan kalimat tunggal dilakukan dengan menambah unsur baru yang disebut keterangan. Dapat pula berupa keterangan tempat, keterangan cara, maupun keterangan waktu. Contoh: Angga juara III melukis di Kecamatan. Bona berenang di kolam renang

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9. 10.

Kalimat Tunggal Kalimat majemuk adala kalimat yang hanya mempunyai satu pola kalimat Kalimat Majemuk Kalimat majemuk adalah kalimat yang mempunyai dua pola kalimat atau lebih. Setiap

kalimat majemuk memiliki kata penghubung yang berbeda, sehingga jenis kalimat tersebut dapat diketahui dengan cara melihat kata penghubung yang digunakannya. Jenis jenis kalimat majemuk adalah:

a.

Kalimat Majemuk Setara

Penggabungan dua kalimat atau lebih kalimat tunggal yang kedudukannya sejajr atau sederajat. Berdasarkan kata penghubungnya (konjungsi), kalimat majemuk setara terdiri dari lima macam, yakni: 1) Kalimat Majemuk Setara Penggabungan: Mengemukakan kata penghubung dan. 2) Kalimat Majemuk Setara Penguatan : Menggunakan kata penghubung bahkan. 3) Kalimat majemuk Setara Pemilihan: Menggunakan kata penghubung atau. 4) Kalimat Majemuk Berlawanan: Menggunakan kata penghubung tetapi, sedangkan, melainkan. 5) Kalimat Majemuk Setara Urutan Waktu: Menggunakan kata penghunbg kemudian, lalu, lantas. b. Kalimat Majemuk Bertingkat Penggabungan dua kalimat atau lebih kalimat tunggal yang kedudukannya berbeda. Di dalam kalimat majemuk bertingkat terdapat unsure induk kalimat dan anak kalimat. Anak kalimat timbul akibat perluasan pola yang terdapat pada induk kalimat. Contoh induk kalimat: Hari ini saya menyanyikan lagu daerah. Selanjutnyua kata kemarin yang menduduki pola keterangan, diperluas menjadi anak kalimat yang berbunyi: Ketika kontes menyanyi. Maka penggabungan induk kalimat dan anak kaliamat berdasarkan kalimat di atas menjadi: Ketika kontes menyanyi,, saya menyanyikan lagu daerah, atau saya menyanyikan lagu daerah ketika kontes menyanyi. c.Kalimat Majemuk Campuran

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Gabungan antara kalimat majemuk setara dan kalimat majemuk bertingkat. Sekurangkurangnya terdiri dari tiga kalimat. Contoh: Ayah menbaca Koran dan Ibu memasak di dapur ketika paman datang dari desa.

Here There are some explain about Syntax

NO. 1 SENTENCE I swim S V Saya berenang S P I can swim SM V Saya dapat berenang S M P Joe plays the guitar S V O Joe bermain gitar S P O Joe becomes a doctor S V C Joe menjadi seorang dokter S V Pel. Ms. Anna teaches us English S V IO DO Nn. Anna mengajari kami Bahasa Inggris S P OTL OL We elected him president S V O C Kita memilihnya sebagai presiden S P O Pel.

Notes S V O C IO DO = Subject/ S = Verb / P = Object/ O = Complement/ Pel = Indirect Object/ OTL = Direct Object/ OL = Subjek = Predikat = Objek = Pelengkap = Objek Tak Langsung = Objek Langsung

According to the table above, we can make some conclusions: 1. There are six main basic sentence patterns in English.

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1. The addition of adjective or adverb is just an extended from the main pattern. For example, we can add adverb of time in all sentences: I swim everyday. Joe plays the guitar everyday. Joe becomes a doctor this year. Ms. Anna teaches us English every Friday. We elected him president last year. 2. If the patterns are compared with Indonesian language, then there is a similarity of the patterns. Types of sentences based on clauses :

No.
1 Simple Sentence Willy reads well. S 2 P

English Sentence

Compound Sentence I like apple and he likes orange. IC conj IC

Complex Sentence
Juan and Maria went to the movie after they finished studying.

IC 4

DC

Compound-complex Sentence When my friend came, I was sleeping and my sister was DC IC

watching in her bedroom. IC

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No. 1 Kalimat tunggal Willy membaca dengan baik. S 2 P

Indonesian Sentence

Kalimat Majemuk Setara Saya suka apel dan dia suka jeruk. IC conj IC

Kalimat Majemuk Bertingkat

Juan dan Maria pergi ke bioskop setelah mereka selesai belajar.

IC 4

DC

Kalimat Majemuk Campuran Ketika teman saya datang, saya sedang tidur dan adik saya DC IC

Sedang menonton TV di kamarnya. IC IC DC Conj = Independent Clause = Dependent Clause = Conjunction

Types of sentences based on its function :

No 1

English Sentence

Indonesian Sentence

declarative sentence The car is green.

Kalimat Pernyataan Mobil itu berwarna hijau. Kalimat Tanya Apakah mobil itu punyamu? Kalimat Perintah Tolong cuci mobil itu. Kalimat Seru

2 3 4

interrogative sentence Is the car yours? imperative sentence Wash the car. exclamatory sentence

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Thats amazing!

Menakjubkan!

Types of sentences based on conveyor/third person speech:

No 1 2

English Direct Speech He said, I will go to Medan tomorrow.

Indonesian Direct Speech

Ayah berkata kepada ibu "Aku akan pergi ke Medan besok". Kapan kamu bertemu dia? Tanya Tio.

When did you meet him? asked Tio.

No 1 2

English Indirect Speech He said that he would go to Medan the day after.

Indonesian Indirect Speech

Ayah berkata kepada ibu bahwa dia akan pergi ke Medan besok. John bertanya padaku kapan aku bertemu dia.

John wanted to know where I had met him.

Types of sentences based on diathesis : Active and Passive Sentence in Indonesian and English (ACTIVE SENTENCE)

Ani

menulis

novel.

read

this novel

Novel

ditulis

oleh Ani

(PASSIVE SENTENCE)

This novel

is read

By me

be+V3

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses: Infinitive present past Simple future conditional It will be washed. It would be washed. to be washed It is washed. It was washed.

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present past Continuous future conditional present past perfect simple future conditional present perfect continuous past future conditional

It is being washed. It was being washed. It will be being washed. It would be being washed. It has been washed. It had been washed. It will have been washed. It would have been washed. It has been being washed. It had been being washed. It will have been being washed. It would have been being washed.

According to the table above, we can make some conclusions: 1.

2.

There are five main basic sentence patterns in English and eight main basic sentence The addition of adjective, adverb and noun is an extension from the main pattern.

patterns in Indonesian. For example: I sleep at 9 pm. (Adverb of time) I read a novel in the library. (Adverb of place) He called her angrily. (Adverb of manner) He always sends his mother a letter. (Adverb of frequency) She is my mom. (Noun) I read a red novel. (Adjective) 3. If both patterns are compared each other, there is a similarity of the patterns: Sentence types based on clauses, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures. (simple sentence=kalimat tunggal)

(compound sentence=kalimat majemuk setara) (complex sentence=kalimat majemuk bertingkat) (compound complex sentence=kalimat majemuk campuran) 71

b.

Sentence types based on its function, English and Indonesian have the same types

and structures. (declarative sentence = Kalimat Pernyataan)

(interrogative sentence = Kalimat Tanya) (imperative sentence = Kalimat Perintah) (exclamatory sentence = Kalimat Seru)

c. Sentence types based on conveyor/third person speech, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : In Direct Speech : Both of them uses quote and same punctuation rules In Indirect Speech : There are changes of pronoun Not using quote Both of them use reporting verb But in indonesian, there are no changes of time in Indirect speech. d. Sentence types based on diathesis, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : In active sentence, they use same pattern (S, P/V, O) They use by/oleh after the verb. The differences namely :
Active sentence in Indonesian preceded by (me-, ber-, me-i, me-kan) Passive sentence in Indonesian preceded by (di-, ter-, ke-an) In passive sentence in English, it has pattern be+V3. Besides, it has special patterns based on tenses.

Mixes
English has very few true infixes (as opposed to tmesis, see below), and those it does have are marginal. A few are heard in colloquial speech, and a couple more are found in technical terminology. 1. The infix iz or izn is characteristic of hip-hop slang, for example hizouse for house and shiznit for shit. Infixes also occur in some language games. 2. Interfix is a term in linguistics and more specifically, morphology (the study of morphemes, the most basic meaningful entities in word formation). It describes an affix which is placed in between two other morphemes and does not have a semantic meaning. Unlike other affixes, like prefixes (who precede morphemes they are attached to) or suffixes (who are placed after the

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morpheme they are attached to), an interfix is attached to two different morphemes and thus differs from seemingly similar infix, which is inserted in the middle of one morpheme. 3. A simulfix is a change or replacement of vowels or consonants (usually vowels) which changes the meaning of a word. Eat in past tense becomes ate. Tooth becomes teeth when plural . 4. A suprafix is a kind of affix in which a suprasegmental is superimposed on one or more syllables of the root or stem, signalling a particular morphosyntactic operation. The placement of stress in the following words signals the difference between a noun and a related verb: 'produce, n. pro'duce, v.

According to the table above, we can make some conclusions: The Similarities 3. If both patterns are compared each other, there is a similarity of the patterns: a. Sentence types based on clauses, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures. (simple sentence=kalimat tunggal) (compound sentence=kalimat majemuk setara) (complex sentence=kalimat majemuk bertingkat) (compound complex sentence=kalimat majemuk campuran) b. Sentence types based on its function, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures. (declarative sentence=Kalimat Pernyataan) (interrogative sentence=Kalimat Tanya) (imperative sentence=Kalimat Perintah) (exclamatory sentence=Kalimat Seru) c. Sentence types based on conveyor/third person speech, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : * In Direct Speech : Both of them uses quote and same punctuation rules * In Indirect Speech : There are changes of pronoun Not using quote Both of them use reporting verb But in indonesian, there are no changes of time in Indirect speech. d. Sentence types based on diathesis, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : In active sentence, they use same pattern (S, P/V, O) They use by/oleh after the verb. The differences namely : Active sentence in Indonesian preceded by (me-, ber-, me-i, me-kan) Passive sentence in Indonesian preceded by (di-, ter-, ke-an)

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 In passive sentence in English, it has pattern be+V3. Besides, it has special patterns

based on tenses.

Conclusion in general
The Similarities
1. If the English vowels are compared with the Indonesian vowels, then there are only 5

vowels fit in with, they are , e, , , and . In Indonesia they are a, I ,u, e, and o
2. If the English diphthongs are compared with the Indonesian diphthongs, then there are 3

diphthongs fit in with, they are a, a, and . 3. Both of English and Indonesian have similar part of speech in prefix; they are adverb, adjective, noun, and verb.
4. There are 3 same part of speeches which are; noun, adjective, verb.

5. There are same in 8 cross divisions which are; noun-noun, adjective-adjective, verb-verb, adjective-noun, noun-adjective, adjective-verb, noun-verb, verb-noun. 6. There are 4 suffixes which are same, noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. 7. There are 5 cross divisions which are same; noun-noun, adjective-adjective, noun-adjective, verb-noun, verb-adverb 8. If both patterns are compared each other, there is a similarity of the patterns: b. Sentence types based on clauses, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures. (simple sentence=kalimat tunggal) (compound sentence=kalimat majemuk setara) (complex sentence=kalimat majemuk bertingkat) (compound complex sentence=kalimat majemuk campuran) c. Sentence types based on its function, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures. (declarative sentence=Kalimat Pernyataan) (interrogative sentence=Kalimat Tanya) (imperative sentence=Kalimat Perintah) (exclamatory sentence=Kalimat Seru) d. Sentence types based on conveyor/third person speech, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : 71

* In Direct Speech : Both of them uses quote and same punctuation rules * In Indirect Speech : There are changes of pronoun Not using quote Both of them use reporting verb But in indonesian, there are no changes of time in Indirect speech. e. Sentence types based on diathesis, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : In active sentence, they use same pattern (S, P/V, O) They use by/oleh after the verb. The differences namely : Active sentence in Indonesian preceded by (me-, ber-, me-i, me-kan) Passive sentence in Indonesian preceded by (di-, ter-, ke-an) In passive sentence in English, it has pattern be+V3. Besides, it has special patterns based on tenses. The Differences No 1. English
The English consonants there are

Indonesian

2.

The Indonesian consonants there are 25 consonants. p b t d k g f v s z sy h 24 consonants. p b k t d g t d f m n l r y w c kh q ny j x vszhmnlrjw There are Indonesian consonants do There are 5 English consonants not exist in English consonants; c, kh, do not exist in Indonesian q, ny, j, and x distribution; d There are 12 vowels, 8 diphthongs, and 5 trip thongs: and u: do not exist in the initial There are 5vowels 3 diphthongs, and no triphthong. a I u e o exist in the initial distribution oi does not exist in the initial and middle distribution. a I u e o exist in the final distribution

3.

distribution.
a does not exist in the middle

distribution.
e : and do not exist in the

final distribution.
a and e do not exist in

the final distribution.

There are 100 prefixes : 4. There are 88 prefixes: There are 56 nouns There are 23 adjectives There are 9 verbs There are 2 adverbs are 17 words which do not have

There are 59 nouns There are 32 adjectives There are 8 verbs There is 1 preposition There are 10 words which do not There have root, root,

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There are 90 words which have There are 71 words which have roots, roots, Cross division: Cross division: There are 37 cross divisions of noun to noun There are 49 cross divisions There are 9 cross divisions of of noun to noun adjective to adjective There are 18 cross divisions There are 3 cross divisions of of adjective to adjective verb to verb There are 6 cross divisions There are 2 cross divisions of of verb to verb adjective to noun There are 3 cross divisions There are 6 cross divisions of of adjective to noun noun to adjective There are 5 cross divisions There are 2 cross divisions of of noun to adjective adjective to verb There is 1 cross division of There are 4 cross divisions of adjective to verb noun to verb There are 3 cross divisions There are 2 cross divisions of of verb to adjective verb to noun There is 1 cross division of There is 1 cross division of verb to noun adjective to adverb There is 1 cross division of noun to verb There is 1 cross division of noun to preposition 5. There are 118 suffixes : There are 76 nouns There are 33 adjectives There are 5 verbs There is 4 adverbs There are 22 words which do not have root,

There are 88 suffixes: There are 18 nouns There are 6 adjectives There are no verbs There is 1 adverb There is 1 possession are 88 words which have roots,

There are 96 words which have roots, There Cross division: There are 42 cross divisions of noun to noun There are 4 cross divisions of adjective to adjective There is 1 cross divisions of verb to verb There are 7 cross divisions of adjective to noun There are 18 cross divisions of noun to adjective There is cross division of adjective to verb There are 8 cross divisions of verb to adjective

Cross division: There are 16 cross divisions noun to noun There are 1 cross division adjective to adjective There are no cross divisions verb to verb There are no cross divisions adjective to noun There are 5 cross divisions noun to adjective There are cross divisions adjective to verb There are no cross divisions noun to verb of of of of of of of

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There is 7 cross division verb to noun There is 2 cross division noun to verb There is no cross division noun to possession There is 1 cross division verb to adverb There is 1cross division noun to adverb

of of of of of

There are 2 cross divisions of verb to noun There is no cross division of adjective to adverb There is 1 cross division of noun to possession There is 1 cross division of verb to adverb There is no cross division of noun to adverb

Conclusion: Contrastive Analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. There are kinds of Contrastive Analysis, they are: Analysis of contrastive phonemes is compare between English and Indonesian words involves consonants, vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs in both languages. The similarities are the vowels there are 5 vowels fit in they are , e, , , and . In Indonesia they are a, I ,u, e, and o If the English diphthongs are compared with the Indonesian diphthongs, then there are 3 diphthongs fit in with, they are a, a, and . The differences in English consonants are there are 24 consonants. p b k t d g t
d f v s z h m n l r j w. There are 5 English consonants do not exist in Indonesian distribution; d . There are 12 vowels, 8 diphthongs, and 5 trip thongs. and u: do not exist in the initial distribution, a does not exist in the middle

distribution, e : and do not exist in the final distribution, a and e do not exist in the final distribution. The defferences in Indonesian consonants are there are 25 consonants p b t d k g f v s z sy h m n l r y w c kh q ny j x, there are Indonesian consonants do not exist in English consonants; c, kh, q, ny, j, and x, there are 5 vowels 3 diphthongs, and no triphthong, a I u e o exist in the initial distribution, oi does not exist in the initial and middle distribution, and a I u e o exist in the final distribution. Analysis of contrastive morphemes is compare between English and Indonesian in prefix, suffix, and mix (gabungan). Both of English and Indonesian have similar part of speech in prefix; they are adverb, adjective, noun, and verb. There are same in 8 cross divisions which are; nounnoun, adjective-adjective, verb-verb, adjective-noun, noun-adjective, adjective-verb, noun-verb, verb-noun. There are 4 suffixes which are same, noun, adjective, verb, and adverb. There are 5 cross divisions which are same; noun-noun, adjective-adjective, noun-adjective, verb-noun, verbadverb. The differences in morphemes between English and Indonesian words it is included prefixes in English There are 100 prefixes; there are 59 nouns, 32 adjectives, 8 verbs, and 1 preposition. There are 10 words which do not have root, and 90 words which have roots. The cross division; there are 49 cross divisions of noun to noun, 18 cross divisions of adjective to adjective, 6 cross divisions of verb to verb, 3 cross divisions of adjective to noun, 5 cross divisions of noun to adjective, 1 cross division of adjective to verb, 3 cross divisions of verb to adjective, 1 cross division of verb to noun, cross division of noun to verb, 1 cross division of noun to preposition. 71

English suffixes in words, there are 118 suffixes; 76 nouns, 33 adjectives, 5 verbs, and 4 adverbs. There are 22 words which do not have root, and 96 words which have roots. The cross division; there are 42 cross divisions of noun to noun, 4 cross divisions of adjective to adjective, 1 cross divisions of verb to verb, 7 cross divisions of adjective to noun, 18 cross divisions of noun to adjective, 1 cross division of adjective to verb, 8 cross divisions of verb to adjective, 7 cross division of verb to noun, 2 cross division of noun to verb, no cross division of noun to possession, 1 cross division of verb to adverb, and 1cross division of noun to adverb. Indonesian prefixes; there are 88 prefixes; there are 56 nouns, 23 adjectives, 9 verbs, and 2 adverbs. There are 17 words which do not have root, 71 words which have roots, and the cross division; there are 37 cross divisions of noun to noun, there are 9 cross divisions of adjective to adjective, 3 cross divisions of verb to verb, 2 cross divisions of adjective to noun, 6 cross divisions of noun to adjective, 2 cross divisions of adjective to verb, 4 cross divisions of noun to verb, 2 cross divisions of verb to noun, and 1 cross division of adjective to adverb. Indonesian suffixes; they are 88 suffixes; there are 18 nouns, 6 adjectives, no verbs, 1 adverb, 1 possession and there are 88 words which have roots. The cross division in suffixes are 16 cross divisions of noun to noun, 1 cross division of adjective to adjective, no cross divisions of verb to verb, no cross divisions of adjective to noun, 5 cross divisions of noun to adjective, cross divisions of adjective to verb, no cross divisions of noun to verb, 2 cross divisions of verb to noun, no cross division of adjective to adverb, 1 cross division of noun to possession, 1 cross division of verb to adverb, and no cross division of noun to adverb. English and Indonesian have the same types and structures they are simple sentence=kalimat tunggal, compound sentence=kalimat majemuk setara, complex sentence=kalimat majemuk bertingkat, and compound complex sentence=kalimat majemuk campuran. Sentence types based on its function, English and Indonesian have the same types and structures they are declarative sentence=Kalimat Pernyataan, interrogative sentence=Kalimat Tanya, imperative sentence=Kalimat Perintah, and exclamatory sentence=Kalimat Seru. Sentence types based on conveyor/third person speech, English and Indonesian have similarities namely : In Direct Speech : Both of them uses quote and same punctuation rules and In Indirect Speech : There are changes of pronoun. Both of them use reporting verb, but in indonesian, there are no changes of time in Indirect speech. Sentence types based on diathesis, English and Indonesian have similarities namely :In active sentence, they use same pattern (S, P/V, O), They use by/oleh after the verb. The differences namely : Active sentence in Indonesian preceded by (me-, ber-, me-i, me-kan), Passive sentence in Indonesian preceded by (di-, ter-, ke-an), In passive sentence in English, it has pattern be+V3. Besides, it has special patterns based on tenses.

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CHAPTER II THEORY ANALYSIS

A. Writing
1. The understanding of writing

Writing is a way of recording language by means of visible marks. It uses a limited number of conventional symbols.1 The statement is in harmony with what Robertson explained that writing is a record of language. It substitutes visual characters for sounds.2 In addition, Lado states that: To write is to put down the graphic symbols that represent a language one understand, so that others can read these graphic symbols if they know the language and the graphic presentation. Writing is a partial representation of units of language expressions.3 From the theories above, the writer can conclude that writing is production of conventional symbols as an act of recording a language. However, as one of the acts of communication, in
1 2

Leonard Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 21, 283 Stuart Robertson, The Development of Modern English, (USA: Prentice Hall, Inc, 1954) 3 Robert Lado, Language Teaching, (USA: McGraw Hill, Inc, 1964)

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writing there is a massage wants to be conveyed by the writer to the reader. Therefore, when someone writes, s/he does not only want to put some symbols on her/his paper, but s/he also has some intentions; a writer may want to inform something to the reader, or s/he may want to share his/her ideas, opinions, or experiences. In order that the intention of the writer can be comprehended by the readers, a piece of writing should not only good in appearance neat, clear, right spelling but it also should contain ideas that well developed. If the writer puts the sentences in order and link together, they will form a coherent and an organized content. But then, when we write in foreign language, there is one more requirement must be fulfilled, the grammar. The writing with well organized sentences would not be meaningful and comprehensible if it is grammatically incorrect.

2. Kinds of writing

A writer uses a central idea to focus his/her writing on a main point and to keep it unified. Then, the central idea will be developed by supplying it with all the details that will prove, support, or illustrate it. The way the writer develops her/his central idea depends on the purpose the point s/he wishes to make and the effect s/he wants her/his writing to have on her/his readers.4 The methods that a writer chooses to develop her/his central idea yield some kinds of writing based on their characteristics, such as:
a. Description

: it tells how something appears to a writers sense. It introduces the reader to

a person, place, or thing, the writer might describe the subject in concrete detail.5
b. Exposition

: It is primarily concerned with the why or how things. It might define a

word, explain a process, report an incident, analyze an idea, evaluate or judge an experience.6

4 5

Santi. V Buscemi, A Reader for Developing Writers, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002), p. 95-96. John E Warrimer, Richard M Ludwig, Francis X Connoly, Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing, (USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc, 1977), p. 8 6 Ibid. p. 158

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c. Argument or Persuasion: it communicates opinions with the desire to convince the reader to

accept them as just and true. The difference is argument is the kind of writing which seeks to win assent to a belief or opinion; persuasion goes one step further and enlists arguments in order to accomplish some proposed action.7
d. Narration

: it is concerned with action, with events in motion. A series of events moves

through time, and what connects these events is a plot or sequence: a beginning, a middle, and an end. There are four important aspects of narration: time, place, point of view, and point of emphasis.8 3. The Writing Task Before giving the writing task to the students, the writer needed some information as a basis in order to get the right form of writing task so that she will get good result. The first information she got was from the English teacher of the school where she had the observation. From her, the writer knows that the teaching of writing in the class is done in an integrated way. It means that the teaching of the writing skill is taught along with the other three skills in each topic of the lesson. The teacher teaches the writing skill through practice, so she never explains verbally what the writing is how to make a paragraph, the technique in writing, etc but she just asks her students to write and then after checking their writings, she can give some comments or reviews about their writings. In giving a writing task to her students, she lets them to consult dictionary, textbook, or their notebook. She also encourages her students to explore their idea, opinions, or imagination in writing. Because she said that when they have no idea, they will not know what to write, and when they do not know what to write, they will write nothing at all. That is why she always creates good atmosphere before giving the writing task, for example she tells her students to read related materials before they write, or she gives interesting topics to write (love, friendship), or she gives topics which are related with their everyday life (family, daily activities).
7 8

Ibid. p. 438 Ibid. p. 526, 529

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The second information the writer needed is about what text which is suitable to be given to the students. Based on the handbook of KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan), the competency should be achieved in writing field is: Mengungkapkan makna secara tertulis dalam wacana interpersonal dan transaksional, secara formla maupun informal dalam bentuk recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, news item, report, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion, dan review, dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari.9 When the writer confirmed this to the teacher, she suggested her to choose narrative as the kind of the text which will be tested. She said that this kind of text is easier to be developed by the students because it only relies on students ability to explore their imagination. So, they do not have to get any preparation before. The last information is about in what form the writer should give the writing task. Heaton explains that in giving the students a writing task, they should be presented with a clearly defined problem which motivates them to write. The writing task should be such that it ensures they have something to say and a purpose for saying it. Meaningful situations should be given. For example, a brief description of a real-life situation might be given when requiring the students to write a letter.10 He also served some examples of situational compositions can be used in tests of writing, for example by giving the students table, diagram, or pictures, then tell them to write a composition based on it. In conclusion, based on that information, the writer applied a test in the form of narrative writing as the research instrument. The writer provided five different pictures and gave them to the students one student one picture, then asked them to write a composition based on the pictures. While writing, they might consult dictionary, textbook, or their notebook. A. Grammar 1. The Understanding of Grammar
9

10

Panduan Lengkap KTSP, (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Yustisia, 2007), p. 103-104 J. B Heaton, Writing English Language Tests, (New York: Longman Inc, 1975), p. 37

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The grammar of a language is a description of the way in which that language behaves.11 Grammar is also considered as the part of a language which can be described in terms of generalizations or rules.12 It means that, the rules in grammar will describe the way how the language behaves; how the words combined become sentences, so we can communicate using the language. Similarly, Thornburry explains that grammar is partly the study of what forms (or structures) are possible in a language. Traditionally, grammar has been concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence. Thus a grammar is a description of the rules that govern how a languages sentences are formed. Grammar attempts to explain why the following sentences are acceptable: We are not at home right now Right now, we are not at home But why this one is not: Not we at right home now are Grammar is conventionally seen as the study of the syntax and morphology of sentences. Syntax is the system of rules that cover the order of words in a sentence. Syntax rules disallow: Not we at right home now are Morphology is the system of rules that cover the formation of words. Morphology rules disallow: We is not at home right now13 It seems impossible to learn a language without learning the grammar because it tells us how to use the language. Knowledge of grammar is a handy tool. It is a process for making a speakers or writers meaning clear when contextual information is lacking. An understanding of grammar can speed up our language learning. Penny Ur even said, There is no doubt that knowledge implicit or explicit of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language.14

11 12

S. H Burton, Mastering English Language, (UK: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1982), p.128 Carl James, op. cit. 13 Scott Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar, (UK: Bluestone Press, 1999), p. 1,2 14 Ibid., p. 14

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As it is explained in the previous sub section of writing, grammar plays a great role in producing a meaningful and comprehensible writing. A piece of writing with mistakes and halffinished sentences, etc would be judged by many native speakers as illiterate since it is expected that writing should be correct.15

2. English grammar There are three aspects of English grammar16: a. The jobs words do the parts of speech; b. Changes in word forms according to the jobs they are doing inflexions c. Words in cluster, as parts of sentences syntax Those three aspects of grammar affect our use of words. Together, they constitute grammatical usage. We have to use words according to the practices of good usage. a. The parts of speech There are eight parts of speech:
1) Noun; a word used to name something e.g. table, Kate, honesty, team. 2) Pronoun; a word used to stand for (stand in place of) a noun e.g. you, him, myself. 3) Adjective 4) Verb

; a word used to qualify (describe) a noun e.g. new table, pretty Kate. ; a word (or a cluster of words) used to denote actions, states or happenings

e.g. He entered politics. He became a candidate. He was elected with a large majority.
5) Adverb

; a word used to modify (tell us more about) verbs, adjectives, or

other adverbs e.g. He entered politics reluctantly. He became a truly popular candidate.
6) Preposition

; a word used to express a relationship between one thing and another - e.g.

The letter from the tax inspector puzzled me. They were selling lettuce at 10p each.

15 16

Jeremy Harmer, op. cit., p. 10 S. H Burton, op. cit., p. 129

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7) Conjunction

; a word used to connect one part of a sentence to another e.g. I am fond of

reading but I have not been to the library lately. The customer paid by cheque because he had not enough cash.
8) Interjection

; a word (or words) throw in, often to express a mood, and having no

grammatical connection with or function in the rest of the sentence e.g. Well, Ill take it. Hello! Oh dear, its raining again.

b. Inflexions 1) 2) 3) 4) Personal pronoun: I me my mine myself, he him his his himself. Plurals of noun: egg eggs, watch watches, mouse mice Verb forms: to bring bring brings bringing brought Comparatives: sad sadder saddest, good better best

c. Words in cluster 1) Phrase It is a group of words that makes sense, but not completes sense on its own. It is not an independent utterance. It has to become part of be built into a larger word structure. For example: At half past eight. 2) Sentence It is a group of words that makes complete sense on its own. It is an independent utterance. For example: The newspaper arrived at half-past eight.

B. Error 1. The understanding of error Learning a second or foreign language which has different language system with the mother tongue is not easy. It is inevitable for the L2 learners to have the flawed side when they produce the

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language. The conversations or compositions they have sometimes deviate from some selected norm of mature language performance. This flawed side or deviation is called an error.17 Researches have found that most of the errors L2 learners make indicate they are gradually building an L2 rule system. The errors can become an indication because they happen consistently this is also the reason why Brown calls them as noticeable deviation. The errors will only happen in the parts of language system that have been inadequately learned by the L 2 learners. Therefore, the errors will reflect the inter language competence of the learners. More errors they commit, less competence they have in the target language.18 Because errors happen in the parts of language system that have not been understood well by the learners, it makes them could not correct their wrong forms even if their wrongness were pointed out.19 Thus, a teacher must have a follow up after knowing the errors made by her/his students. The writer concludes that error is noticeable deviation in learner speech or writing resulting from incomplete knowledge which reveals a portion of learners competence in the target language. However, learners errors may not be considered as a failure in learning or teaching the target language, instead they vividly reflect evidence that the language learning and acquisition are taking place. The followings are other advantages of learners errors: To the teacher, in that they tell him, if he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and, consequently, what remains for him to learn. They provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learnt or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in his discovery of the language.
-

They are indispensable to the learner himself because we can regard the making of errors as a device the learner uses in order to learn.20

2. The differences between error and mistake

17 18 19 20

Heidi Dulay, et. al., Language Two, (San Fransisco: The Griffin Press, 1981), p.138 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993), p.205 Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use, (New York: Addison Wesley Inc, 1998), p. 80 S. P Corder, Error Analysis an Inter Language, (Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 10-11

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In order to analyze learners errors, the writer needs to comprehend the differences between error and mistake. Here are some explanations from the experts:
-

The definition of error as being an instance of language that is unintentionally deviant and is not self-corrigible by its author. A mistake is both intentionally or unintentionally deviant and self-corrigible.21

Corder associates errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performances. It referred to Radfords (1988) claim that competence determines grammaticality, while performance determines acceptability.22

James tends to see both as a deviance but the difference is that mistakes can only be corrected by their agent if their deviance is pointed out to him or her, while errors cannot be self-corrected until further relevant (to that error) input (implicit or explicit) has been provided and converted into intake by the learner.23

According to Brown, error refers to the competence and mistake refers to the performance. It means that error is systematic and consistent, while mistake is unsystematic, for example because of disappointed, emotion, or slip of the tongue.24 From the theories above, the writer can conclude the differences in a form of table. Table 1. The Differences between Error and Mistake No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ERROR MISTAKE Competence Performance Not self correctable (by teacher or Self correctable native speaker) Unintentionally Grammaticality Consistent Systematic Have significance to the process of language learning Intentionally or unintentionally Acceptability Inconsistent Unsystematic Have no significance to the process of language learning

21 22

Carl James, op. cit., p. 78 Ibid., p.79 23 Ibid., p. 83 24 H. Douglas Brown, op. cit., p. 205

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3. Sources of error

When the essence of error has been comprehended, it is also important to determine the source of error. Because by trying to identify the sources, we can understand how the learners cognitive and affective self relates to the linguistic system and to formulate an integrated understanding of the process of second language acquisition.25 George states, quote by James, that The three principal causes of learners foreign language errors are: redundancy of the code, unsuitable presentation in class, and several sorts of interference.26 The followings are more explanation about the source of errors:
a. Inter-lingual error: error caused by the interference of the learners mother tongue to the

target language. Interference can cover every language aspect, such as utterance, morphosyntaxis, semantic, and also culture. For example if an Indonesian who speaks English said He yesterday went to Bogor, which is similar with Ia kemarin pergi ke Bogor, because actually in Indonesian language there is a permutation among the components of ia, kemarin, dan pergi ke Bogor, it means those three components can be sandwiched, while it cannot be done in English.27 b. Intra-lingual error: error reflecting general linguistic formulas being learned such as:
-

Over-generalization; process that occurs as the second language learners act within

the target language, generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language irrespective of the native language beyond legitimate bounds.28 For example, He can sings where English allows He can sing and He sings.
-

Ignorance of the rule restrictions; it involves the application of rules to contexts

where they do not apply. An example is He made me to rest through extension of the pattern found with the majority of verbs that take infinitival complements (for example, He asked /wanted/invited me to go).29
25 26

Ibid., p. 213 Carl James, op. cit., p. 13 27 Samsuri, Analisis Bahasa, (Jakarta: Erlangga, 1991), p. 46 28 H. Douglas Brown, op. cit. 29 A paper written by Toni Haryanto, Grammatical Error Analysis In Students Recount Texts (The Case of the Twelfth Year Students of SMA N 1 Slawi, Tegal in the Academic Year of 2006/2007)

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False concepts hypothesized; it happens from the wrong comprehension to the

distinction in the target language. For example the use of is in He is speaks Dutch. to show present.30
-

Incomplete rule application; It is typically related to analogy. It involves a failure to

fully develop a structure. Thus learners of L2 English have been observed to use declarative word order in questions ,for example, You like to sing?, in place of interrogative word order ,for example, Do you like to sing?.31 c. Context of learning Context refers, for example, to the classroom with its teacher and its material in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the learners to make faulty hypotheses about the language, what Richards (1971) called false concepts and what Stenson (1974) termed induced errors. Students often make errors because of misleading presentation from the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was memorized in a drill but not properly contextualized.32 d. Communication strategies Communication strategies are defined and related to learning styles. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their messages across, but at times these techniques can themselves become a source of error. For example an English learner said, Let us work for the well done of our country. While it exhibited a nice little twist of humor, the sentence had an incorrect approximation of the word welfare. Likewise, word coinage, circumlocution, false cognates (from Tarone 1981), and prefabricated patterns can all be sources of error.33 C. Error Analysis

30 31

Henry Guntur Tarigan, et. al. Pengajaran Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1990), p.85 Ibid., p.87 32 H. Douglas Brown, op. cit., p. 215 33 Ibid., p. 217

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1. The Understanding of Error Analysis Knowing the advantages of second language learners errors, researchers and teachers of second language soon came to realize that the errors needed to be analyzed carefully, for they possibly held in them some of the keys to the understanding of the process of second language acquisition.34 In analyzing the errors, the researchers or the teachers - in this case the writer - will use a technique or procedure called error analysis.35 The technique is the process which consists of determining the incidence, nature, causes, and consequences of unsuccessful language.36 Because error analysis is a procedure, it has some steps which comprises collecting sample, identifying the errors in the sample, explaining the errors, classifying the errors based on their cause, and evaluating or assessing the crucial stage of the error.37 From the explanation above, the writer can say error analysis is the procedure of analyzing the errors made by the second language learners. 2. The procedures of error analysis To do an error analysis, there are steps to be done as a guide to make the research successful. Tarigan collected the steps from some sources and modified it as follow: a. Collecting data; the data is errors made by learners in their test paper, composition or conversation. b. Identifying and classifying the errors; recognizing and selecting the errors according to language category such as pronunciation, word formation, word order or sentence construction. c. Grading the errors; organizing the errors according to their frequency. d. Defining the errors; drawing the error position, giving causal factor and giving correction. e. Predicting sensitive language items; predicting language level to be taught potentially causes error.
34 35 36 37

H. Douglas Brown, op. cit., p. 205 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_analysis Carl James, op. cit., p. 1 Henry Guntur Tarigan, et. al., op. cit., p.68

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f. Correcting the errors; improving or even eliminating errors through appropriate materials

arrangement, good textbook and proper teaching techniques.38 3. The role of error analysis According to Corder, error analysis has two functions: Theoretical aspect of error analysis is part of methodology of investigating the language learning process.
-

The practical aspect of error analysis is its function in guiding the remedial action we must take to correct an unsatisfactory state of affairs for learner or teacher.39

Sridhar adds the points and quoted by Tarigan that the other roles of error analysis are: To determine the organization of items to be taught in class or textbook, from easy to difficult lessons. To determine degrees of emphasis, explanation and exercise of teaching materials. To arrange and improve remedial teaching and exercise. To construct learners proficiency test items.40

4. Sources of Error The followings are more explanation about the source of errors: a. Inter-lingual error: error caused by the interference of the learners mother tongue to the target language. Interference can cover every language aspect, such as utterance, morphosyntaxis, semantic, and also culture. For example if an Indonesian who speaks English said He yesterday went to Bogor, which is similar with Ia kemarin pergi ke
38 39

Ibid., p.71 Corder, op. cit., p. 45 40 Henry Guntur Tarigan, et. al., op. cit., p.69

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Bogor, because actually in Indonesian language there is a permutation among the components of ia, kemarin, dan pergi ke Bogor, it means those three components can be sandwiched, while it cannot be done in English. (Samsuri, Analisis Bahasa, (Jakarta:
Erlangga, 1991), p. 46)

b. Intra-lingual error: error reflecting general linguistic formulas being learned such as:
- Over-generalization; process that occurs as the second language learners act within the

target language, generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language irrespective of the native language beyond legitimate bounds. For example, He can sings where English allows He can sing and He sings.
- Ignorance of the rule restrictions; it involves the application of rules to contexts where

they do not apply. An example is He made me to rest through extension of the pattern found with the majority of verbs that take infinitival complements (for example, He asked /wanted/invited me to go). (A paper written by Toni Haryanto, Grammatical Error
Analysis In Students Recount Texts (The Case of the Twelfth Year Students of SMA N 1 Slawi, Tegal in the Academic Year of 2006/2007)) - False concepts hypothesized; it happens from the wrong comprehension to the

distinction in the target language. For example the use of is in He is speaks Dutch. to show present.
- Incomplete rule application; It is typically related to analogy. It involves a failure to

fully develop a structure. Thus learners of L2 English have been observed to use declarative word order in questions ,for example, You like to sing?, in place of interrogative word order ,for example, Do you like to sing?. (Henry Guntur Tarigan, et.
al. Pengajaran Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1990), p.85-87)

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BIBLIOGHRAPHY

Henry Guntur Tarigan, et. al. Pengajaran Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa, Bandung: Angkasa, 1990

KOMPAS NEWSPAPER, NOVEMBER 2010 JAKARTA POST, NOVEMBER 2010

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/contents.htm

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http://www.thefreedictionary. Com. Phoneme. htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/phoneme/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/language transfer/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/morpheme/ http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/contents.htm http://www.thefreedictionary. Com. Phoneme. htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/phoneme/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/language transfer/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/morpheme/

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