BRITISH CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER 1 I. THE BRITISH CONTEXT

1. Historical milestones

4000 to 1500 BC Stone Age, the first farmers, Stonehenge and the Celts.

1500 BC to the Roman Invasion in 43 AD

For some unexplained reason, Iron Age man started to change his living habits. They stopped building burial mounds and stone circles, stopped using the ancient sites like Stonehenge. Instead the Iron Age peoples took to farming in permanent fields and to living in protected hill forts. The explanation might be that with the acquisition of the knowledge to make iron tools, then farming and tilling land became a viable proposition. Or perhaps iron weapons made man more aggressive and groups needed protection from maurauding bands of armed thugs.

Maiden Castle in Dorset as it is seen today, was typical of a large protected hill fort, with its various ramparts

By around 150 BC there was a substantial trade between Britain and the continent. Involved were raw materials such as tin, silver or gold: finished goods like wine pottery and coins: and even slaves. Julius Caesar made a landing in Britain in 55 BC, but only suceeded in establishing a tempory bridgehead. After another abortive attempt the

next year, he sailed away and the Romans left Britain alone for another century, until they landed in force in 43 AD By the eve of the Roman invasion, Britain was a series of small kingdoms, perhaps 20 of these large enough to have a regional influence, but with no one kingdom holding any real control over any large area of the country

1500 BC to 43 AD The Roman Conquest

A well planned invasion by 40,000 to 50,000 Roman soldiers took place in the summer of 43AD. A massive force for those days, and the British tribes were no match for them Within a year or so the Romans had pushed west to a line from Exeter to Lincoln (shown on the left), and by 60AD controlled most of Britain south of the Humber (shown on the right) A revolt with the Iceni tribe under Queen Boudica nearly managed to dislodge the Romans. But their superior military knowledge prevailed, and after that they had no major uprisings in England. Most of the country was under civil, rather than military rule They pushed north, and built the network of straight roads across the country, most of which can still be followed today. As they pushed north into Scotland, they decided to build a gigantic wall, Hadrian's Wall, to control the frontier. It was started in 122AD, and runs roughly from Newcastle to Carlisle

R B th ca th sa th co e

You can still see large sections of Hadrians Wall today as it snakes across the Northumberland moorland. Also can be seen in museums the mosaics that the Romans used to decorate their villas. Indeed some villas, like Fishboune, have been excavated The Romans did expand further into Scotland, building the Antonine Wall across the Lowlands (Glasgow to Edinburgh). However this was a turf, not stone wall, and little remains. It was started in 142 AD, but abandoned by 163 AD The country appears to have enjoyed a period of unprecedented peace "the golden age of the Villa". Around 300 AD the Roman Empire came under sustained attack by the barbarian hordes in central Europe and some troops were withdrawn to help in that area. Northern Britain started to suffer attacks from the Scots and Picts. But it was until 410 AD that the Roman Emperor Constantine finally removed the whole garrison of Britain to defend the Rhine frontier from attack. The cities of Britain were instructed to look to their own defence. The Romans never returned to Britain Britain was to slip into a 600 year period of wars and fragmentation.Of Angles and Saxons invading, the Celts being pushed West, and the country under almost continuous Viking attack

43 AD to 410 AD The Vikings

The breakdown of Roman law and civilisation was fairly swift after the Roman army departed in 410 AD. To counter the raids from continental pirates, Vikings, Picts and Scots towns would bring in mercenaries from Europe to defend them from attack. These mercenary soldiers were Angles and Saxons from northern Germany.

The deal was that the mercenaries brought their families with them, and got paid with land which they could farm. Eventually the Anglo Saxon mercenaries realised that they were stronger than their employers and appear to have taken over the running of areas themselves. There is of course the whole legend of King Arthur that is ascribed to this period. Arthur appears to have been a fictional, rather than historical figure, but that link gives you a complete guide to King Arthur, who he could have been and where he could have lived. The new Anglo Saxon invaders were not organised centrally, as the Romans had been, or as the Normans would be. They slowly colonised northwards and westwards, pushing the native Celts to the fringes of Britain. Roman Britain was replaced by Anglo Saxon Britain, with the Celtic peoples remaining in Cornwall, Wales and Scotland. The Anglo Saxon areas eventually combined into kingdoms, and by 850 AD the country had three competing kingdoms as shown on the map on the left The three kingdoms of Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex, not only were competing between themselves, but they were also under sustained attack from Viking raids. The Viking incursions culminated with a "Great Army" landing in East Anglia in 865 AD. It made wide territorial gains, and by 875 the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria had succumbed. Only Wessex remained as Anglo Saxon. The Vikings attack Wessex in 878, and the Saxon king, Alfred (of burning the cakes fame) had to flee to the Somerset marshes.. However he was able to regroup and counter attack. His efforts and those later of his son and grandsons, gradually 4

pushed the Vikings (remember Eric Bloodaxe) northwards and eventually into the sea. By 955, Alfred the Great's grandson Eadred, ruled over a united England. Government became centralised, and the king had the infrastructure to rule the whole country Next came another wave of Viking attacks. The net effect was that the English kin, Ethelred the Unready, found his kingdom under attack on all coasts by Norsemen. On Ethelred's death in 1016, the Viking leader Cnut was effectively ruling England. But on Cnut's death, the country collapsed into a number of competing Earldoms (shown on the left) under a weak king, Edward the Confessor. The strongest of these earls was Harold, Earl of East Anglia. Through a series of battles and intermarriages, Harold controlled Wessex and was in a powerful position. So when Edward the Confessor died in 1066 without a male heir, Harold claimed the throne. His claim was disputed by William, Duke of Normandy, whose claim to the English throne was even more tenuous than Harold's There were two major influences on English life during this whole period of English history, at opposite ends of the aggression spectrum. One was the coming of Christianity to Britain, brought by Irish monks to places like Lindesfarne in 635, or Iona in Scotland in 563. The church had organised the whole country into diocese, each under a bishop, by about 850 The other was the Viking raider. And it was the Viking raider that paradoxically allowed William to conquer Britain 5

When Edward the Confessor died, the Vikings saw a chance to regain a foothold in Britain, and landed an army in Yorkshire in 1066. Harold marched north to take on the Vikings under Harald of Norway and Tostig (King Harold's brother).He defeated the Norsemen near York, but while celebrating his victory, learnt that William of Normandy had landed in southern England. Within 13 days he had marched his army some 240 miles from Yorkshire to Sussex, where the Normans were camped near Hastings. The ensuing Battle of Hastings was won by the Normans who were fresh, and had better archers and cavalry. Harold died with an arrow through his eye. William was crowned William I in London on Christmas Day 1066

1066 The Norman Conquest

The Bayeaux tapestry shows how the military might of the Normans defeated Harolds exhausted army. Once established as king, William I continued in the vein of might being right The Tower of London was built with the express aim of showing the inhabitants of London who was in charge now. William continued with a demonic round of castle building across the whole country. The uniqueness of the Norman conquest in British history is that not only did the ruler change, but also the whole of the ruling class changes, and there was even a new language. The English nobility lost their lands, and the new landowners built castles like Warwick and Windsor that survive to this day. By the time William died in 1087 around 100 major castles had been built The other major legacy of William's reign is the Domesday Book. William wished to know the existing and potential value of his new kingdom. Surveyors were sent out across the whole country and their report was the massive Domesday Book which noted land down to individual landholdings The other Norman Kings, William II, Stephen, Henry I and Henry II were no pussycats, but they had little efffect on posterity until Henry II ascended to the throne in 1154

Henry II is known for his ordering the murder of the Archbishop Of Cantabury, Thomas Becket, in Cantabury Cathedral - stabbed at the high alter in 1170. (shown in the medieval manuscript on the right. It did not do to cross the king

The Tudors - Henry VII, Henry VIII, Mary & Elizabeth

Henry VIII, who came to the throne in 1509, was a man who left his stamp on history. His six marriages in search of a male heir led to two daughters (Mary and Elizabeth) and a son Edward (who died young). Henry's need for a divorce led to a row with the pope who refused to grant Henry one. Henry countered by dissolving the Roman Catholic Church in Britain, and setting up the Church of England

A Church of England with Henry at the head could then allow Henry to divorce his wife. Of the Six the pneumonic goes - divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived. He divorced the two European wives, Anne of Cleeves and Catherine of Aragon. The English ladies were more easily dispensable Henry was a tyrant and a despot. Completely ruthless, and he let nothing and 7

nobody get in his way.Cardinal Wolsey was banished, Thomas Cromwell and Thomas More were executed One other bonus for Henry from his split with Rome was that he gained control of the monasteries - the monastic buildings and land were sold off after the dissolution of the monasteries in 1538. Many of the buildings fell into decay, and they lost their farmlands for ever.

Henry's elder daughter Mary was a Catholic - and a militant Catholic at that. her efforts as queen to restore Catholicism to England made her the most unpopular queen in British history> and the means that she used to pursue her aims earned her the nickname "bloody Mary". There were 283 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake in her reign. Among the martyrs were Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury), Ridley (Bishop of London) and Latimer ( a leading preacher) A loveless marriage to the King of Spain produced no children. So when Mary died she was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth. Elizabeth's reign brought But as with her sister, in one of the most plots against the queen glorious eras of British were mounted - Mary history. Exploration, Queen of Scots, was colonisation, victory in finally executed in 1587war, and growing world the Earl of Essex, a importance. The Arts former favourite, was flourished, this was the executed for leading a age of Shakespeare and revolt in 1601. And the Bacon. It was the age of wars against Spain and in the sea dog, Drake and Ireland were expensive Raleigh, Hawkins and she was 400,000 in debt Frobisher when she died

Drake's voyage round the world in the Golden Hind started in 1577 and took 3 years. Though he did not find Australia or the north west passage, he brought back great wealth from raids on the Spanish possessions in the Pacific and from cargoes of spices. Drake was the first Briton to sail round the world Eventually there was all This forced the Spanish to out war with Spain. Philip cut anchor and scatter. of Spain assembled the The power of the Armada largest fleet the world had been in its tight had seen, and in 1588 it disciplined formation that set sail to invade the English could not England. The smaller, break. Now it was just a more maneuverable collection of individual English ships harried the ships. The Spanish ships Spanish armada all the made their way back way up the English home to Spain via the Channel. But the Armada north of Scotland and reached Calais and down the Irish coast. 50 anchored. The English ships and 20,000 men sent in fireships perished. Spain was (crammed with burning humiliated on the world tar and gunpowder). stage This was also the England of Shakespeare, Marlow and Bacon. Shakespeare left Stratford upon Avon in 1587, and by 1599 he was the part owner of the Globe playhouse in London. He wrote his plays while in London, and retired to Stratford in 1611, where he died in 1616 The Spanish wars had crippled the English exchequer, inflation soared, and in 1601 Elizabeth had to go to Parliament to get more money. Sensing hostility, 9

as Parliament was angry about the privileges she had granted her favourites, she gave way graciously, and gave a "Golden Speech" which became in later years a model for the relationship between monarch and the nation - with obligations on both sides. A few months later came news of the defeat of the long running battle against the rebels in Ireland. But by now Elizabeth's health had declined, and she was dying. The choice of successor was not straightforward, as she was the last of Henry VIII's children and none of them had any children themselves. Elizabeth delayed making her choice of successor until she was on her death bed. Her successor would be James Stuart, King of Scotland, and son of Mary Queen of Scots, whom Elizabeth had executed as a traitor.

James I, Charles I and the descent into Civil War, the King executed, Cromwell rules

James Stuart was a Scottish Catholic who believed in the "Divine Right" to rule as he pleased. This brought him into conflict with the English Parliament. The failed Catholic Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament in 1605 led to anti catholic riots. The failure of both James and his son Charles I to understand the English tradition of parliamentary liberty led eventually to civil war

James died unlamented in 1625. Charles I immediately came in to conflict with Parliament. He tried to rule without summoning parliament for 11 years, but eventually ran out of money,and summoned Parliament in 1640

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Parliament was naturally peeved about his neglect of their rights. They refused him money, and the country split between supporters of the king (blue on map left) and supporters of parliament (red on the map)

The first major Engagement of the Civil War was at Edgehill in the Cotswolds on 1642. Indecision among the Royalists and the moulding of the New Model army by the parliamentarians led to Parliament gaining the upper hand, and by 1645 Cromwell won the decisive Battle of Naseby. Charles was captured and put on trial for treason in 1649. He refused to recognise the court, but was regardless found guilty. 59 republicans signed the death warrant (above), and after the restoration Charles II prosecuted those that he could. Oliver Cromwell and the army emerged as the power in the land. Cromwell dissolved parliament with the words "Depart I say, and let us have done with you. In the name of God , go!" It was the start of England's only period of dictatorship Cromwell was unable to find anything to replace the monarchy. When he died 11

in 1658 his son Richard suceeded him, but "Tumbledown Dick" was not a man to rule Britain, and in 1660 Charles II was restored to the throne his father had died for.

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Power, Peace and Prosperity - 1815 to 1914

Nelson's victory at sea in 1805 and Wellington's (left) on land at Waterloo in 1815, marked the end of major wars for a century. Britain was the dominant power, and the defeat of Napoleon (right)

removed French aspirations to rule the world The death of George IV (right)was not regretted by the nation - the Times wrote "there was never an individual less regretted by his fellow creatures

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than this deceased king" It was an age of poets - Keats, Shelly and Byron. Of Science - Faraday and Davy in electricity, Stephenson with his steam train , artists like Constable and Turner. It was against this background that Victoria came to the throne in 1837, to commence a reign

that spanned 64 years Victoria (left) was 18 when she became queen. She became a symbol of her age. It was an age of steam and iron, men like Brunel came to prominence, He surveyed the Great Western railway to Bristol, he built bridges and tunnels that still exist

today, he built the Great Eastern, the largest ship afloat. The Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park was a showcase for British achievements. Authors like Dickens (below) and the Bronte sisters wrote novels. A new parliament building was constructed at Westminster after

the old building burnt down 1854 brought British involvement in the Crimean War in Russia, and one of those heroic defeats 13

when the Light brigade charged massed Russian guns. One outcome of this defeat was that in future the British army would be better officered, with

wealth no longer being the sole key to promotion. Charles Darwin (left) completed his voyage in the Beagle in 1837 and produced his theories of evolution. Africa was explored by men like David Livingstone

Slavery was abolished throughout the Empire, and Britain used her naval power to blockade the West African coast and

arrest slavers The British Empire, like all empires, was acquired by force of arms. By 1900 Britain had the largest navy in the world, and used it to control an Empire "on which the sun never set". The map (below left) shows the British Empire in 1900, with Canada, Australia, India, large chunks Africa, the Caribbean and the Far East

However by Victoria's death in 1901, Britain was being challenged militarily by Germany. European countries rushed to arm themselves and protect themselves with a series of alliances. The result of these warlike happenings was that , when an Austrian Archduke was assassinated in Bosnia in 1914, the alliances led to virtually every nation in Europe becoming involved, with the Central Powers (coloured green above left) 14

fighting the Allies (coloured red) - 10 million men were to die before peace was declared in 1918.

II.

THE COUNTRY 15

1. Geographical identities 2. Physical features and climate Generalities The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign statethe Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea. The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved national administrations, each with varying powers, situated in Belfast, Cardiff and Edinburgh; the capitals of Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland respectively. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies and fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories. The UK is a developed country and has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and seventh-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It was the world's first industrialised country and the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The UK remains a great power with leading economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence. It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks third or fourth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946; it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the European Union, the G7, the G8, the G20, NATO, the OECD and the World Trade Organization.

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United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1. General Presentation The British Isles are composed geographically of Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) and Northern Ireland. Its full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and it is a member of the European Community. The largest of the British Isles is called Great Britain. The second one comprises Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. Western Scotland is separated from the main land by the Hebrides archipelago and Orkney and Shetland are placed on the North East. The Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Isles are self-governing and they do not belong to the United Kingdom. The Isle of Wight (off the Southern coast of England), Scilly Islands (South cost of England, Lundy Island (off the South-West coast of England) and the Channel Islands (two islands off the Southern coat of England close to the French Normandy) and the many other off shore island belong to the same geographical term of British Isles. Britain has an area of 242,500 sq. km and its climate is a mild temperate one. The daily weather is mainly influenced by depressions moving fast across the Atlantic being subject to frequent changes but to few temperature extremes. The average annual rainfall is fairly well distributed between 1,600 mm in the mountainous areas and less than 800 mm over central and eastern regions. The driest months are from March to June and the wettest ones from September to January. The population of United Kingdom was, at mid 1990 of around 57,411 million people with a density of 245 persons per sq km. The full name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Up until the XVII centuries there had been four countries in the British Isles: England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Each one had its own sense of identity, its own history, even its own language. There was no such word as British. The peoples were English, Scottish, Welsh or Irish. By the end of the XVII century the word British was used for the first time in Rule Britania song was composed and Union Flag created. The Union flag or the Union Jack symbolizes the administrative union of the countries of the United Kingdom. It is made of the individual flags of the kingdom's countries all united under the Sovereign - the countries of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. St. George is the patron saint of England. His emblem, a red cross on a white background is the flag England and a part of the British flag. St. George's 17

emblem was adopted by Richard the Lion Heart in the 12th century. Saint George was a brave soldier who protested against the torture of the Christians and died for his belief. In times of great peril he is called upon to help save the country from its enemies. Union Jack is an alternative name for the Union Flag acknowledged by the Admiralty and Parliament in the early 20th century. The term "jack" refers to the flag that is flown from the bowspit of a ship denoting nationality. The exact origin of the name is still unclear. It may get the name from the "jack" of naval vessels from which the original Flag is flown. The motto of England is "Dieu et mon droit" (God and my right) that was first used by Richard I in 1198 and adopted as a royal motto of England by Henry VI. The Coat of Arms of UK is a shield supported by the English Lion on the left, and on the right by a unicorn of Scotland. (the unicorn is chained because in medieval times a free unicorn was considered a very dangerous beast (only a virgin could tame it). The coat features both the motto of the British Monarchs (Dieu et mon Droit) and the motto of the Order of the Garter "Honi soit qui mal y pense" on a representation of the Garter behind the shield. The Royal Coat of Arms is used only by the Queen in her capacity as a sovereign. In its version used by the government, the crown is shown resting directly on the shield, with the helm, crest and mantling not displayed. The Shield has four quadrants. The first and the fourth represent England and contain three gold lion passant, with their right forepaws raised and their chard facing the viewer on a red field, the second quadrant represents Scotland and contains a red lion rampant on gold field. The third quadrant represents Ireland and contains the gold harp of Ireland on a blue field. Wales was recognized as a principality by the creation of the Prince of Wales long before the incorporation of the quartering for Scotland and Ireland in the Royal Arms. The British National Anthem is God Save the Queen which originates in a patriotic song first performed in 1745. It became the National Anthem from the beginning of the 19th century: God Save the Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God Save the Queen Send her victorious Happy and glorious Long to reign over us God save the Queen! 18

The national flower of UK is the rose since the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) between the Royal House of Lancaster and the Royal House of York.

The British society is considered to be divided into three main groups of social classes: the Upper class which consists of people with inherited wealth and includes some of the oldest families, most of them entitled aristocrats. They are defined by their education, and their pastimes including traditional sporting life including hunting, shooting and fishing. The Middle class includes industrialists, professionals, business people, tradesmen, etc., while the working class people include mostly agricultural, mine and factory workers. The class status is defined by the way people speak, their clothes, interests, education, and even the food they eat. The British Constitution The British Constitution, unlike the constitutions of most other countries, is not a single document, being the result of the historical development of political events. It is made up of Statute law, common law and conventions. The last ones represent rules and practices which are not legally enforceable but they are considered indispensable to the working of government. The constitution is adaptable to the changing political environment, as it can be altered by Act of Parliament or by general agreement. The Parliament is the legislative and the supreme authority, while the executive consists of: The Government the Cabinet and other ministers responsible for national policies; Government departments, responsible for national administration; Local authorities, responsible for many local services; Public corporations, responsible for operating particular nationalized industries or other bodies, subject to ministerial control. The judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes and is independent of both legislature and executive. The Monarchy United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. Its system of government (often known as the Westminster system) has been adopted by other countries, such as Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and Jamaica. The constitution is unmodified, being made up of constitutional conventions, statutes and other elements. The monarchy is the oldest institution to govern

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the country, going back to at least the ninth century four centuries before the parliament. The present queen, Elisabeth II is herself descendant directly from King Egbert, who united England under his rule in 1829. In the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man a Lieutenant - Governor, represents the Queen. Today, the British Monarch is not only head of the state, but also an important symbol of national unity. The full royal title in Britain is Elisabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and ob Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. The title to the throne is derived partly from statute and partly from common law rules of descent. The hereditary principle upon which it was founded has always been preserved. Sons of the Sovereign have precedence over daughters in succeeding to the throne. When a daughter succeeds, she becomes Queen Regnant and has the same powers as a king. The consort of a king takes her husbands rank and style, becoming Queen. The constitution does not give any special rank or privileges to the husband of a Queen Regnant, although in practice he fills an important role in the life of the nation, as does the Duke of Edinburgh. Under the Act of Settlement of 1700, which formed part of the Revolution Settlement, following the events of 1688, only Protestant descendants of a grand daughter of James I of England and XI of Scotland (Princess Sophia, the Electress of Hanover) are eligible to succeed. The order of succession can be altered only by common consent of the countries of the Commonwealth. The Sovereign succeeds to the throne as soon as his or her predecessor dies: there is no interregnum. He or she is proclaimed at Accession Council, to which all members of the Priory Council are summoned. The Lords Spiritual and Temporal, the Lord Major and Alderman and other leading citizens of the City of London are also invited. The Coronation ceremony takes place after a convenient interval at West minister Abbey in London. Representatives of the House of Parliament and of all the great public organizations in Britain are invited. The Prime Minister, representatives of the Commonwealth nations and other countries are also invited. The Sovereign is, according to the law, the head of the executive, an integral part of legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander - inchief of all the armed forces of the Crown and the supreme governor of the established Church of England. The Sovereign acts on the advice of her ministers. The Majestys Government in the name of the Queen governs Britain. In spite of the trend of giving powers directly to ministers, the present Queen still takes part in the government acts. These include summoning, proroguing (discontinuing until the next session without dissolution) and dissolving Parliament, giving the Royal Assent to Bills passed by Parliament 20

(promulgate). The Sovereign also formally appoints many important office holders, including government ministers, judges, and officials in armed forces, governors, diplomats, bishops and some other senior clergy, of the Church of England. She is also involved in pardoning people convicted of crimes and in conferring peerages, knighthoods and other honours, such as: The Order of Garter The Order of Thistle The Order of Merit The Royal Victorian Order. As a head of the State, the Sovereign has also power to declare war and make peace, to recognize foreign states and governments to conclude treaties and to annex or cede territories. She still plays an important role in the working of government as she holds meetings of the Priory Council, gives audiences to her ministers and officials in Britain and overseas, receives account of Cabinet decisions, reads dispatches and signs state papers. She is also consulted on every aspect of national life and she must show complete impartiality. The royal functions can be performed by a regent if the Queen is totally or partially incapacitated. The regent would be the Queens eldest son, the Prince of Wales, and then those, in order of succession to the throne, who are of age. The Queen may also delegate certain royal functions to the Counselor of State but he may not, for instance, dissolve Parliament (except on the Queens instructions), nor create peers. Until 1760 the Sovereign had to provide for payment of all government expenses, including the salaries of officials and the expenses of the royal palaces and households. These were met from hereditary revenues, mainly income from Crown lands and some other sources granted to the monarch by Parliament. When the income from these sources eventually proved inadequate, King George III turned over to the Government most of the hereditary revenue in 1760. In return he received an annual grant from which he continued to pay the royal expenditure of a personal character and also the salaries of government officials and certain pensions. Today the Sovereign has an essentially ceremonial role restricted in exercise of power by convention and public opinion. Royal Pomp Changing of the Guard London is a royal city and tourists from all over the world come here to attend the royal ceremonies Every day a New Guard of 30 guardsmen marches down The Mall to Whitehall where it replaces the Old Guard with due ceremony in the Front Yard. The responsibility of guarding the Sovereign by the Household Troops (as they were known at that time) dates back to the time of Henry VII (1485-1509). The Buckingham Palace became the official Royal residence when Queen Victoria acceded to the throne in 1837. The soldiers of the Buckingham Palace Guard are some of the best soldiers in the British Army, and they have fought in 21

virtually every major area of conflict with great distinction since the 17th century. They also take an active role in protecting their Sovereign and at night, the patrol the guards of both Buckingham Palace and St. James's Palace. The State Opening of the Parliament Each year, usually in October or November, The Queen accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh and travelling in the State Coach formally opens the new session of the Parliament. Before the Royal procession leaves, the yeoman of the Guard (the oldest of the royal bodyguards) would search the cellars of the Houses of Parliament. The State Opening of Parliament is the main event of the parliamentary year and occurs when Parliament reassembles after a general election. It marks the start of the parliamentary session and large crowds are expected to watch and hear the Queen's Speech given in the presence of the members of Houses, the House of Commons and the Hose of Lords. Other Royal Occasions The present-day Maundy Ceremony bears little relationship to the original rites from which it originates. The original Maundy service was the washing of the feet of the poor, and its origins are to be found in Jesus' washing of the feet of his Disciples at the Last Supper. This ceremony is known as the Eucharist dating back to the 5th century and referred to as "pedilavium" (the feet washing". It followed the Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday. The night of Maundy Thursday is the Night on which Judas in the Garden of Gethsemane betrayed Jesus. The word Maundy is derived from the Latin word: "mandatum" meaning the "command" which Christ gave to his disciples to love one another. The opening words of the Maundy ceremony are part of the anthem "mandatum novum do vobis" sung in the Roman Catholic Churches. The Queen gives the Maundy money in Canterbury Cathedral every year, on the Maundy Thursday. For 700 years, the Chief Yeoman Warder has secured the Tower of London each night. Accompanied by the Escort he performs the traditional ceremony of her Majesty's Keys. The ceremony consists of locking the gates of the Tower of London when the clock strikes 10. Then the Chief Yeoman Warder hands the keys to the care of the Resident Governor at The Queen's House. The Beefeaters are the soldiers whose real name is Yeoman Warders of the Tower. Their clothes are those of the royal guards of the year 1500. Their duty is to guard the Tower of London and the Crown Jewels, and to help the visitors, as well. The Order of the Garter Ceremony has a long history. King Edward III started the Order in the 14th century. At that time the order included 24 knights, but 22

nowadays the knights of the Order are no longer soldiers. The Queen is the Sovereign of the Order of the Garter, but she is not the only one royal person. There are also other members of the family. The new appointments to the Order of the Garter are usually announced on St. George's Day, April 23rd, but the ceremony takes place in June, on the Monday of Royal Ascot week. The knights of the Garter gather in the Throne Room at Windsor Castle, where the new knights, after taking the oath, are invested with the Order insignia. They wear the blue velvet robes of the Order (with the badge of the Order)- St. George Cross) and black velvet hats with white feathers that are an important part of Britain's oldest traditions. The Constable and the Governor of Windsor Castle (considered the home place of the Order) and the military Knights of Windsor lead the procession. The Lord Major's Show is an old ceremony also. As every year the Londoners choose a Lord Major, they come to see him in his coach, which takes him to the Mansion House during costumes and acting stories from London's history. The British Parliament In medieval times the King was expected to cover the royal private or public expenses from his own revenue. But in case of war, the king needed extra resources that could be covered from an aid. The members of the Great Council, meeting several times a year, had to find extra sources to grant the necessary aid. But these extra sources being not sufficient, several kings summoned to their Great Council, not only the great feudal magnates, but also representatives of counties, cities and towns in order to get their assent to extraordinary taxation. The Great Council came to include those who were summoned by name (those who, broadly speaking, were to form the House of Lords, and those who were representatives of communities - the commons. Together with the Sovereign, the gathering became shown as Parliamentthe term originally meant a meeting for parley or discussion). By the middle of the fourteenth century, as they realised the strength of their position, the House of Commons pledged that all money granted were approved by the House of Commons. Later, in the fifteenth century, they gained the right to participate in giving their request - their Bills the form of law. The subsequent development led to Parliament securing its position as the supreme legislative authority. The three powers that represent the British Parliament are the Queen, the House of Lords, and the elected House of Commons. All of them are normally required for legislation but they usually meet together only for symbolic occasions. The Parliament can legislate for Britain as a whole or for only one part of the country, or even for territories that are Crown dependency only such as the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man. It can pass or change any law or overturn established conventions or turn them into law. In carrying out these functions 23

the Parliament brings relevant facts and issues before the electorate. Although the international treaties and agreements are a royal prerogative, exercised on the advice of the Government, and they are not a subject to parliamentary approval, by custom, Parliament is informed about them. The activity of the Parliament is divided into sessions that last for one year. There are adjournments at night, at weekends, at Christmas, Easter and the late Spring Bank Holiday and a summer break starting in late July or Early August. At the start of each session the Queen delivers her speech and outlines the Governments policy and proposes programme. The Parliamentary sessions end by prorogation that brings to an end nearly all parliamentary business: public Bills that have not been passed by the end of the session are lost. The Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The participants in the House of Lords are: the Lords Spiritual (the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester and the 21 next most senior diocesan bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal (all hereditary peers and peeresses of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, life peers created to assist the House in its judicial duties - Lords of Appeal or law lords and other life peers). Hereditary peerages carry a right to sit in the House, provided that holders establish their claim and are aged 21 years or over. However, anyone succeeding to a peerage may, within 12 month of succession, disclaim that peerage for his or her lifetime. Disclaimants lose their right to sit in the House, but gain the right to vote and stand as candidates at parliamentary elections. The Sovereign creates peerages on the advice of the Prime Minister. They are usually granted in recognition of service in politics or other walks of life because one of the political parties wishes to have the recipient in the House of Lords. The House also provides a place in Parliament for people who offer useful advice, but do not wish to be involved in party politics. Peers attending the House have no salary for their parliamentary work, but can claim for travelling expenses for attending the House. Lord Chancellor is the one who chairs the House his place being on a woolsack (a large cushion stuffed with wool from several Commonwealth countries, as a tradition originating in the medieval times, when the wealth source of the country was mainly the wool). The Chairman and the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees are Lords, but receive salaries as officers of the House. The Clerk of the Parliaments is a permanent officer responsible for the records of proceedings and for making known to the public the Acts of Parliament. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, who is also Serjeant at Arms in 24

attendance upon the Lord Chancellor, is responsible for security, accommodation and services in the House of Lords, part of the Palace of Westminster. The Yeoman Usher is Deputy Serjeant at Arms and assists Black Rod in his duties. The House of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 members of Parliament. The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, elected by MPs to preside over the House. Other officers include the Chairman of Ways and Means and two deputy chairmen, who act as Deputy Speakers. They are elected by the House on the nomination of the Government but are drawn from the opposition as well as from the government party. People that are over 18, citizens of Commonwealth countries, and Irish Republic resident in Britain are entitled to vote. They can be subject of disqualification when they are mentally disordered or sentenced to prison convicted within the previous five years of corrupt or illegal election practices. The main responsibilities of the Parliament and the Government are the changes needed of the normal legislative process. Draft laws take the form of Parliamentary Bills. The public ones were related to the public policy and people or organizations outside Parliament usually promote the Private ones and they are undergone certain procedures. Before any government Bill is drafted, there is considerable consultation with professional bodies, voluntary organizations and other agencies interested in the subject. Both Houses, through a similar process, normally pass bills. Thus, it is given a first reading and a second reading committee is settled. The Bill is then referred to a standing committee for detailed examination. A bill starting in the Lords is then sent to the Commons for all its stages there, then it follows the guillotine, that is the Government is the one to pass it as a timetable motion. The Bill is then sent to the Queen for loyal Assent, after which it is part of the law of the land and known as an Act of Parliament. Her Majestys Government is the body of Ministers responsible for the administration of national affairs. The Queen appoints the Prime Minister, and the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister appoints all other ministers. They represent both Houses, but the Lord Chancellor is always a member of the House of Lord. He holds a special position, as both a minister with departmental function and the head of judiciary. The composition of governments can vary both in member and in titles of some affairs. New ministerial offices may be created, others can be abolished, and functions can be transferred from one minister to another.

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The position of the Prime Minister became known during the eighteenth century and it derives from the power of the House of Commons to appoint and dismiss ministers. He presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business of the Government. The official residence of the Prime Minister is on 10, Downing Street, central London. The members of the Cabinet exercise its functions as a group of party representatives, depending upon majority support in the House of Commons. Its members meet in private and its proceedings are confidential. They are bound by their oath as Privy Counselors not to disease information about its proceedings, although after 30 years Cabinet papers may be made available for inspection in the Public Record Office, at Kew, Surrey. A great deal of work is carried on through the committee system. The local authority system can be traced back to Saxon times, but the first comprehensive system of local councils was established in the late nineteenth century. Local authorities powers and duties are conferred on them by Parliament, or by measures taken under its authority. England and Wales (outside Greater London) are divided into 53 counties, sub-divided into 36 districts. County councils provide large-scale services, while district councils are responsible for the more local ones. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs, each of which has a council responsible for local government in its area; in addition, there is the Corporation of the City of London. Some services require a statutory authority over areas wider than the individual boroughs and districts: waste regulation and disposal, police and fire services, including civil defense and public transport. Joint authorities composed of elected councillors nominated by the borough or district councils run all of them. In addition to the two tier local authority system in England, there are over 8,000 parish councils or meetings. The may provide and manage local facilities such as allotments and village halls and may act as agents for other district council functions. The also provide a forum for discussion of local issues. Institutions and political life in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland England is predominantly a lowland country but the Pennine Chain, the Cambrian Mountains and the Yorkshire moor lands. Cornwall, Devon and Somerset in the South-west are considered uplands. The central southern England is characterised by the downs-low chalk hill ranges.

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The domestic affairs of England are not centrally administrated by any government minister or department in contrast to Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. But a number of government departments in England cover some aspects of affairs in Wales and Scotland. England has 524 members of Parliament in the House of Commons belonging to Conservative Labour and Liberal parties. The Conservatives supported by the suburban and rural areas have a large majority of the parliamentary seats in the southern half of England and in East Anglia. The industrialized areas usually support the Labour Party. Local government is administered through a two-tier system of counties subdivided into districts. There are 32 single-tier borough authorities in London and six metropolitan counties in other regions of England. The legal system comprises a historic body of conventions known as common low since the Norman Conquest that places a great reliance on precedent, and the equity lows that derives from the practice of petitioning the Kings Chancellor in cases not covered by common low. Two-tier local government involves county and district councils working together to deliver services. County councils tend to deliver all-encompassing services, such as education. Districts tend to deliver the smaller, localised services, such as tourism. England is also governed by European Community legislation.

Education in Great Britain In England education aims to develop and raise fully the abilities of individuals, both young and old for their own benefit and that of the society. The Government aim to make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy and to achieve the best possible return from the resources invested in education service, by raising the standards at all levels of ability. The increase of the parental choice of schools and the improvement of partnership between parents and school is meant to meet the needs of the society from education and training point of view. Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged between 5 and 16. Students may then continue their secondary studies for a further two years (sixth form), leading most typically to A-level qualifications, although other qualifications and courses exist, including Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) qualifications, the International Baccalaureate (IB) and the 27

Cambridge Pre-U. The leaving age for compulsory education was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008. The change will take effect in 2013 for 16-year-olds and 2015 for 17-year-olds. State-provided schooling and sixth form education is free of charge to students. England also has a tradition of independent schooling, but parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. Higher education typically begins with a 3-year Bachelor's Degree. Postgraduate degrees include Master's Degrees, either taught or by research, and the Doctorate of Philosophy, a research degree that usually takes at least three years. Universities require a Royal Charter in order to issue degrees, and all but one are financed by the state via tuition fees, which are increasing in size for both home and European Union students.

Primary and secondary education

The school year begins on 1 September (or 1 August if a term starts in August). Education is compulsory for all children from their fifth birthday to the last Friday in June of the school year in which they turn 16. This will be raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to the year in which they turn 18.

The state-funded school system

State-run schools and colleges are financed through national taxation, and take pupils free of charge between the ages of 3 and 18. The schools may levy charges for activities such as swimming, theatre visits and field trips, provided the charges are voluntary, thus ensuring that those who cannot afford to pay are allowed to participate in such events. Approximately 93% of English schoolchildren attend such schools. A significant minority of state-funded schools are faith schools, which are attached to religious groups, most often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. There is also a small number of state-funded boarding schools, which typically charge for board but not tuition. However, the charges are often substantial. For example, Wymondham College charged 8,100 per annum in 2010. Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises.

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School years
The table below describes the most common patterns for schooling in the state sector in England. In most cases progression from one year group to another is based purely on chronological age, although it is possible in some circumstances for a student to repeat or skip a year. Repetition may be due to a lack of attendance, for example from a long illness, and especially in Years requiring standard tests. A child significantly more advanced than their classmates may be forwarded one or more years. Age on 31 Aug (before Year Curriculum stage Schools school year) 3 Nursery Nursery school Foundation Stage 4 Reception Infant 5 Year 1 school Key Stage 1 First 6 Year 2 school Primary 7 Year 3 school 8 Year 4 Key Stage 2 Junior school 9 Year 5 10 Year 6 Middle school 11 Year 7 12 Year 8 Key Stage 3 Secondary 13 Year 9 school 14 Year 10 Key Stage 4 / GCSE, Secondar etc. 15 Year 11 y school Upper Year 12 with sixth school or 16 (Lower Sixth form / A level, form High Sixth) International College/Sixt school Baccalaureate, h Form Year 13 17 (Upper Cambridge Pre-U, etc. Sixth) In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided. A few areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13. State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be fulltime or part-time. If registered with a state school, attendance is compulsory beginning with the term following the child's fifth birthday. Children can be enrolled in the reception year in September of that school year, thus 29

beginning school at age 4 or 4.5. Unless the student chooses to stay within the education system, compulsory school attendance ends on the last Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16.[11]

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