ON PREDICTING ROLLER MILLING PERFORMANCE VI Effect of Kernel Hardness and Shape on the Particle Size Distribution from First

Break Milling of Wheat

G. M. Campbell , C. Fang and I. I. Muhamad
Satake Centre for Grain Process Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, UK.

Abstract: Models based on the breakage equation for roller milling have been developed to predict the output particle size distribution delivered by First Break roller milling of wheat from distributions of single kernel characteristics. These models allow prediction of the breakage of mixtures of kernels of unknown origin or varieties and varying in size and hardness, based solely on Perten Single Kernel Characterisation System (SKCS) characteristics. Predictions have been developed for both Sharp-to-Sharp and Dull-to-Dull roll dispositions, and show good agreement with independent data. Milling under a Dull-to-Dull disposition is more sensitive to kernel hardness and gives a more pronounced U-shaped distribution of output particle sizes (i.e., large proportions of both small and large particles, with few in the mid-size range) than Sharp-to-Sharp milling. Similarly, softer wheats break to give a more U-shaped distribution than harder wheats. These ndings also demonstrate that kernel hardness as reported by the SKCS is meaningful in relation to wheat breakage during roller milling. Previous work has shown that single kernel moisture measurements can be included in predictive equations; further work reported here demonstrates the potential to add the fourth SKCS parameter, kernel mass, to predictions in order to allow for the effect of kernel shape on breakage.
Correspondence to: Dr G.M. Campbell, Satake Centre for Grain Process Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, PO BOX 88, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK. E-mail: grant.campbell@ manchester.ac.uk

Keywords: wheat; our; hardness; roller milling; breakage equation; single kernel characterization.

INTRODUCTION
Flour millers produce mainly for bakers, whose principal requirement is for a our of consistent quality; maintaining uniformity of our quality was described by Scott (1951, p. 22) at the millers golden rule. The major tool employed by millers to deliver consistent our quality is gristing (Scott, 1951, pp. 21 25; Morris, 1992; Jones, 2001, pp. 58 59). Pyler (1973, p. 299) highlights this emphasis on consistency and the contribution that gristing makes: This is a vital operation . . . since correct blending of wheats constitutes the basis for the uniformity of our performance in the bakery. Lockwood (1945, p. 110) adds It is . . . essential that the characteristics of a given our should be consistent in spite of any changes in the grist that may have to be made from time to time owing to local or seasonal market conditions . . .. Catterall (1998) and Webb and Owens (2003) similarly echo

DOI: 10.1205/fbp06005 09603085/07/ $30.00 0.00 Food and Bioproducts Processing Trans IChemE, Part C, March 2007 # 2007 Institution of Chemical Engineers

the consistency theme, the latter adding The challenge for millers is to achieve this while maintaining acceptable performance from the mill. Current surveys of bakers to identify their top priorities for technological developments show that constant raw material (i.e., our) quality is still the number one priority (Sharp, 2004, personal communication). At the other end of the supply chain, breeders aspire to develop wheat varieties of consistently uniform quality (Wrigley, 2002), thereby to add their contribution to the bakers most pressing requirement. The problem for millers is that, despite the best efforts of breeders and growers, wheat entering the mill is inherently variable (Pyler, 1958, pp. 32 33; Whitworth, 1999). Kernels from the same wheat stalk vary as a result of their position on the spike during growth, and there will be variation even across a single eld. More signicantly, a given variety will be grown in different locations, under

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CAMPBELL et al.
particles, facilitating the separation of endosperm from bran by sifting. Reduction rolls are smooth and operate under pressure, which causes damage to starch granules and thereby affects the water absorption properties of the our; managing the degree of starch damage in the composite our is therefore one of tasks of the miller.) In this example, our is produced at 21 different points in the mill, with each our stream having different characteristics and properties. The relative proportions of these streams, and therefore the properties of the nal bulk our, depend on the breakage characteristics of the grist and on the mill operation. From Figure 1 it can be seen that the particle size distribution produced from First Break, the rst roller milling operation that the wheat encounters, determines the balance of stream ows through the rest of the milling process. First Break is therefore a critical control point in milling, the importance [of which] cannot be overemphasised (Hsieh et al., 1980). Yuan et al. (2003) add: There is a need for more understanding of the milling system from a unit operations approach by determining the effect of the input stock characteristics on the resulting particle size distribution of the stock leaving a break subsystem. If the miller could achieve a constant particle size distribution from First Break, in the face of a variable feed, then to a rst approximation, the rest of the mill would run under constant conditions of owrate to each milling/sifting stage. The performance of each of these stages would then be (relatively) constant, giving more constant properties and proportions of the various our fractions, and more consistent quality of the combined our. Delivering a constant output particle size distribution from First Break requires (1) the facility to characterize the distribution of kernel properties in the grist; and (2) the ability to predict the breakage of the mixture during First Break milling as a function of these distributions of properties. The Single Kernel Characterisation System (SKCS), developed by the USDA Agricultural Research Service and commercialized by Perten Instruments, Sweden, addresses the rst of these prerequisites. The SKCS crushes usually 300 individual kernels within 5 min and reports the distributions of their weight, diameter, hardness and moisture content (Martin et al., 1993; Martin and Steel, 1996; Gaines et al., 1996; Osborne et al., 1997; Ohm et al., 1998; Sissons et al., 2000; Osborne and Anderssen, 2003). The second challenge remains, to relate these distributions to breakage during First Break roller milling. Of the various quality characteristics of wheat, including those measured by the SKCS, hardness is the most important. Pomeranz and Williams (1990), in a comprehensive survey of wheat hardness research up until that time, note Kernel texture is the most important single characteristic that affects the functionality of a common wheat . . . a parameter of great signicance in both the wheat and our industry and in domestic and world trade, concluding wheat kernel texture affects every aspect of wheat functionality except gluten strength and its associated factors. As hardness increases, so do the energy consumed in milling, the our granularity, damaged starch, water absorption, and both the total and incremental gassing power. Ohm et al. (1998) suggested that uniformity of single kernel hardness is desirable for good milling performance. Wheat hardness is a genetic trait with its biochemical basis in the adhesion between starch granules and protein in the endosperm mediated by friabilin or puroindoline proteins (Simmonds et al., 1973;

different agronomic practices and experiencing different weather conditions, and many varieties are grown each year. Wheat is also traded internationally, with millers regularly blending home grown and imported wheats, particularly in the UK (Storck and Teague, 1952, pp. 232, 266, 275; Jones, 2001, pp. 23, 52, 58 59), less so in the US (Pomeranz and Williams, 1990). The grist entering the our milling process is therefore likely to comprise a mixture of at least half a dozen wheat varieties with widely varying origins and histories, each inherently variable and the mixture even more so. The daily challenge for the miller is to cope at a practical level with the inherent variability of wheat to deliver a consistent product. Their degree of technical success in this endeavour is directly related to their commercial success in satisfying and retaining their baker customers. Catterall (1998) notes that each wheat in a grist will have its own peculiar characteristics, depending on variety or source . . . [which will] affect the way the grain behaves through the mill, so that if the grains are blended before milling, the mill settings will have to be a compromise between the various milling characteristics. (He goes on to note, therefore, the advantages of milling varieties separately and blending the ours after milling; however this is expensive, so gristing wheat prior to milling is still the mainstream practice.) Catteralls observation underlines the point that gristing to achieve constant composition is not the whole storythe resulting our composition may be constant, but the routes that our takes through the mill affect other parameters of our quality and mill performance, including extraction rate and starch damage. The nal our is produced by blending together the our produced at each milling and sifting stage, but those daughter ours have different histories and therefore different properties. So in addition to the bulk composition of the grist, the various itineraries of the our stocks as they move through the mill also affect nal our quality. And these routes through the mill depend on the initial breakage characteristics of the grist. Knowing these breakage patterns, in addition to the overall chemical composition of the grist, is therefore a key factor contributing to the production of our of consistent quality. The purpose of our milling is to separate bran and germ from endosperm so as to extract as much our as possible, at minimum operating cost, while maintaining high and consistent our quality. The wheat kernel contains typically 85% endosperm, so a perfectly efcient mill could in theory extract 85% pure white our. However, in practice, as the maximum theoretical extraction rate is approached, bran contamination increases rapidly, so commercial mills tend to operate to extraction rates in the range 7080%. Figure 1 shows a simplied diagram of a typical our milling process employing the gradual reduction system to achieve the goal of high recovery of our with minimal bran contamination. The break system comprises, in this example, four pairs of rolls with their accompanying sifters, and serves to separate bran from endosperm, with some our produced at each stage. The endosperm material that is still too large to be considered our is then sent to the reduction system, which serves to reduce the size of these endosperm particles, again producing some our at each stage. (Break rolls are uted with an asymmetric saw tooth prole and operate with a gap between the rolls. The uting breaks open the wheat kernel such that the bran tends to stay relatively intact in large particles, while the endosperm shatters into small

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EFFECT OF KERNEL HARDNESS AND SHAPE ON SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Figure 1. Typical our milling owsheet with four break rolls. Reprinted with permission from Campbell et al. (2001b).

Greenwell and Schoeld, 1986; Pomeranz and Williams, 1990). Understanding the origins of wheat kernel hardness and its relation to milling and baking performance has been a major driver of wheat research and a theme that pervades the vast majority of the wheat literature. Previous work from our group introduced the breakage equation that describes roller milling of wheat grains (Campbell and Webb, 2001) and derived the form of the breakage function that describes the particle size distribution resulting from breakage of an individual wheat kernel as a function of kernel size and roll gap (Campbell et al., 2001a), from which the breakage of a mixture containing a distribution of kernel sizes could be predicted. Bunn et al. (2001) demonstrated that this form of the breakage function was adequate for a wide range of wheat varieties. Fang and Campbell (2003a) investigated the effect of roll disposition on the breakage function, and Fang and Campbell (2003b) added a term to account for kernel moisture content as well as size, thereby accounting for two of the four SKCS parameters. The current paper completes this work by investigating the effects on breakage of the two remaining SKCS parameters, hardness and mass (which relates to kernel shape). The potential to construct a universal breakage equation that allows prediction of the breakage of an unknown mixture of wheat kernels directly from SKCS data is thereby demonstrated.

THEORY
The breakage equation for roller milling of wheat in terms of kernel diameter is given in its cumulative form by: D1 P2 (x)
D0

B(x, D)r1 (D)dD

(1)

where r1(D) is the particle size distribution of the feed entering the roller mill, P2(x) is the cumulative particle size distribution of the output, and B(x,D) is the cumulative breakage function describing the proportion of material smaller than size x in the output, originating from an input particle initially of size D. (See Appendix I for a discussion of the lower limit of integration in this equation.) In the case of wheat kernels, breakage is determined by the ratio of kernel thickness (the third longest dimension, which equates to the diameter reported by the Perten SKCS) and roll gap, called the milling ratio, G/D. Fang and Campbell (2003a) concluded that a cumulative breakage function that was quadratic in both x and G/D was adequate to describe breakage under a Sharp-to-Sharp (S-S) milling disposition, while under Sharpto-Dull (S-D), Dull-to-Sharp (D-S) and Dull-to-Dull (D-D) dispositions, a cumulative breakage function cubic in x and quadratic in G/D was necessary. For S-S, the cumulative

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breakage function took the form:

CAMPBELL et al.
breakage function. The effect of moisture content has been established previously (Fang and Campbell, 2003b) and was not included in the current study; all wheat samples were conditioned to 16% moisture (wet basis) and tempered overnight prior to milling. Each wheat sample was tested in the Perten SKCS (Perten Instruments AB, Sweden) before conditioning, in order to determine the initial moisture content and hence the amount of moisture to be added, and again after conditioning. The conditioned samples were milled in 100 g batches using the Satake STR-100 test roller mill (Satake Corporation, Hiroshima, Japan) under both S-S and D-D dispositions, using First Break uted rolls with 4.13 utes cm21 (10.5 utes per inch), and using six roll gaps: 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 mm. Roll gaps were set using feeler gauges. Rolls were operated with fast and slow roll speeds of 600 and 222 rpm, respectively, giving a differential of 2.7. The mill was operated at a feed rate of approximately 375500 kg h 21, corresponding to 37505000 kg m21 h21 on a full-length commercial mill. The entire milled stocks from each trial were collected for sieve analysis using a Simon plansifter operating at 190 rpm with a throw of 7.5 cm, and using 200 mm diameter wire mesh sieves of size 2000, 1700, 1400, 1180, 850, 500 and 212 mm, along with a bottom collecting pan. A curvi-triangular sieve cleaner was placed in each sieve to facilitate particle separation. Samples were sieved for 5 min, and the amount remaining on each sieve measured to 0.01 g using an Ohaus Precision Standard balance (Ohaus Corporation, USA).

  G B(x, D) a0 b0 x c0 x 2 (a1 b1 x c1 x 2 ) D  2 G (a2 b2 x c2 x 2 ) D leading to D1  P2 (x)

D0

(2)

a0 b0 x c0 x 2 (a1 b1 x c1 x 2 )

   2  G G r1 (D)dD (a2 b2 x c2 x 2 ) D D !     1 1 a0 a1 G a2 G2 2 D D    ! 1 2 1 b2 G b0 b1 G x D D2    ! 1 1 (3) c2 G2 2 x 2 c0 c1 G D D where   D1 N X 1 1 1 r1 (D)dD % pi n n Dn Di D0 D i1 (4)

N is the number of discrete size fractions into which kernels are separated, and pi is the proportion of kernels in size fraction i. Thus, knowing (1=D) and (1=D2 ) and the nine coefcients of equation (2) for the particular wheat sample, the particle size distribution of the output from First Break can be predicted for any roll gap. For S-D, D-S or D-D milling, the coefcients include d0 d2, increasing the total number of coefcients to 12. Extension of the breakage equation to include SKCS hardness, H, gives: H1 D1 P2 (x)
H0 D0

Fitting and Validation of the Extended Breakage Equation

For each of the test samples, the coefcients of equation (2) or its cubic equivalent were determined by least squares regression using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, USA). For this purpose, (1=D) and (1=D2 ) were calculated using equation (4) and dividing the SKCS diameter data into 20 divisions of 0.25 mm intervals covering the range 1 6 mm. The variation of the individual coefcients with average SKCS hardness was then examined. From this, an extended breakage function using a single set of coefcients for all the wheat samples was deduced, and its adequacy evaluated by comparing the resulting predictions against the independent data from the validation samples.

B(x,D,H)r1 (D)r1 (H)dD dH

(5)

where B(x,D,H) is the extended breakage function describing the proportion of material smaller than size x produced by breakage of an inlet particle originally of size D and hardness H. Equation (5) assumes that there is no interaction between kernel size and hardness with respect to their effects on breakage. The objectives of the current work were to establish the appropriate form of the extended breakage function to include H and to conrm its predictive ability, and then to investigate the contribution of the fourth SKCS parameter, kernel mass.

Residual Analysis of Remaining Variation in Relation to Kernel Shape

The departure of the actual particle size distribution for each of the test samples from that yielded by the general extended breakage function determined above was calculated using a residual analysis. The results were considered in view of kernel shape, to determine whether there was evidence that kernel shape was the origin of further variations in particle size distribution on breakage, and whether there was merit in attempting to add the fourth SKCS parameter, mass, to the extended breakage equation (as the ratio of kernel mass to diameter-cubed is indicative of kernel shape).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Milling of Wheat Samples Varying in Hardness

Nineteen wheat samples sourced from around the UK (with one, CWRS, originating from Canada) covering a range of SKCS hardness values were milled at different roll gaps in the Satake STR-100 test roller mill, in order to generate data from which to determine the form of the extended breakage function, B(x, D, H). Four additional wheat samples, along with two 50 : 50 mixtures of these, were also milled to provide independent data against which to validate predictions based on the extended

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SKCS Characteristics of Wheat Samples

Table 1 lists, in order of increasing average hardness, the SKCS data averaged from 300 kernels for each of the 19 test

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Table 1. SKCS characteristics of wheat samples used to develop the breakage function, and of validation samples. Mass (mg) SKCS parameter Wheat Test samples Consort Claire Riband Drake Crofter Soissons Raleigh Charger Abbot Buster Avalon Malacca Hereward Rialto Brigadier CWRS Mercia Cadenza Spanish Validation samples Consort Spark Consort/Spark Malacca Soissons Malacca/Soissons Mean 44.51 40.81 50.95 46.36 51.06 44.12 48.57 45.90 45.32 52.01 53.51 44.02 43.54 50.64 51.03 31.13 44.28 56.32 45.09 48.87 42.74 44.92 46.00 44.72 44.27 SD 13.08 10.81 14.86 14.92 16.09 12.82 14.57 11.90 13.52 11.56 14.71 12.03 10.02 12.80 13.89 9.10 10.87 12.92 14.85 14.54 11.01 12.75 12.09 13.02 13.03 Diameter (mm) Mean 2.85 2.66 3.08 2.83 2.98 2.76 2.99 2.89 2.95 3.33 3.05 2.93 2.92 3.03 3.02 2.39 2.90 3.35 2.84 3.06 2.94 2.98 3.05 2.83 2.90 SD 0.61 0.59 0.68 0.67 0.70 0.58 0.69 0.54 0.72 0.55 0.69 0.65 0.50 0.64 0.65 0.56 0.66 0.60 0.67 0.65 0.53 0.55 0.66 0.61 0.67 Moisture content (%) Mean 16.02 16.25 15.57 15.72 15.89 15.95 15.65 15.66 15.65 15.65 15.86 16.17 15.56 15.65 15.51 15.91 15.54 15.80 16.34 15.79 16.32 15.99 15.97 15.67 15.66 SD 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.26 0.24 0.26 0.31 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.25 0.29 0.40 0.23 0.32 0.58 0.27 0.26 0.36 0.38 0.32 0.35 Hardness Mean 11.16 24.59 27.62 29.18 41.97 52.18 58.48 59.33 61.09 62.74 62.76 63.21 65.29 65.32 67.14 71.48 73.63 76.86 80.40 23.85 69.19 47.99 61.49 54.16 58.69 SD 13.85 13.25 19.16 15.30 15.51 15.74 15.45 16.21 14.38 17.81 14.16 16.05 16.36 12.81 13.87 13.73 16.49 14.45 21.60 15.83 17.36 26.80 13.76 14.12 15.28

11

M/D 3 (mg mm23) 1.923 2.168 1.744 2.045 1.929 2.098 1.817 1.902 1.765 1.408 1.886 1.750 1.749 1.820 1.853 2.280 1.816 1.498 1.968 1.706 1.682 1.697 1.621 1.973 1.815

samples after conditioning to 16% moisture. The results for the four validation samples, along with the two 50 : 50 blends, are also presented. (Note that although three of the validation samples are of the same variety as some of the test samples, they were from different origins, as reected in their different SKCS data.) The average SKCS hardness values range from 11.2 to 80.4, so are representative of the range of wheats likely to be encountered routinely in commercial milling. Moisture contents were in all cases within 0.5% of the target of 16%. The smallest kernels were from the Canadian CWRS sample, with an average diameter of 2.39 mm and average weight of 31.13 mg, while Cadenza had the largest kernels, averaging 3.35 mm in diameter and 56.32 mg in weight. Figure 2 illustrates the SKCS data for the 50 : 50 mix of Consort (a soft wheat) and Spark (a hard wheat), showing the wide range of kernel sizes and the bimodal distribution of SKCS hardness.

of coefcients. The same pattern emerged from the results for S-S milling. However, inspection of this larger data set than was available in our previous work (Fang and Campbell, 2003a) led to the conclusion that, as for D-D milling, a cumulative breakage function that was cubic in x was more appropriate for the S-S data than a function quadratic in x as used previously. While S-S milling does give noticeably less curvature to the breakage function than D-D milling, there seems little merit in removing the extra degrees of freedom for describing the curvature of the S-S data for the sake of reducing the number of coefcients, when the larger number is required for D-D milling anyway. Using the same form of the breakage function also facilitates comparing S-S and D-D milling. Having established this linear trend, and having come to the decision to use cubic functions in x for both roll dispositions, extended breakage functions of the form: B(x, D, H) (a01 b01 x c01 x 2 d01 x 3 )

Fitting the Extended Breakage Function

The coefcients of the breakage function (a0, b0, . . . , c2, d2) were tted to the data for each wheat variety milled under each disposition. Figure 3 shows the variation of each coefcient with SKCS hardness following milling under the Dull-to-Dull disposition. In each case there is a clear linear trend, implying that each coefcient can be described by, for example: a0 a01 a02 H (6)

(a02 b02 x c02 x 2 d02 x 3 )H   G (a11 b11 x c11 x 2 d11 x 3 ) D   G (a12 b12 x c12 x 2 d12 x 3 ) H D  2 G (a21 b21 x c21 x 2 d21 x 3 ) D  2 G (a22 b22 x c22 x 2 d22 x 3 ) H D

(7)

and so on for the other coefcients. Thus SKCS hardness, H, has a linear effect on breakage and can be incorporated into the breakage function at the cost of a doubling of the number

were tted to all the data by linear regression, in each case to a total of six roll gaps 19 wheat varieties seven size fractions

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CAMPBELL et al.

Figure 2. SKCS data for a 50 : 50 mixture of Consort (a soft wheat) and Spark (a hard wheat).

from the sieve analysis 798 data points. Table 2 lists the 24 coefcients necessary to describe breakage of wheat of any hardness under S-S milling, and the different 24 coefcients needed to describe D-D milling (presented in the same order that they appear in equation (7), to facilitate interpretation). (Note that these coefcients are dimensional, requiring x to be measured in micrometres, and giving results as percentages.) From these coefcients, in principle the particle size distribution resulting from First Break milling of any wheat, or any mixture of wheats, at any roll gap in the range 0.30.8 mm can be predicted directly from the distributions of kernel size and diameter measured by the SKCS. Table 2 also shows the ratio of the coefcients, indicating the effect on the breakage function of changing from S-S to D-D milling. Many of the ratios are close to unity, indicating little effect of roll disposition on the particle size/hardness/ roll gap interaction indicated by those coefcients. One of the most striking changes is in the d02 coefcient, which

changes sign from negative to positive and increases in magnitude by a factor of 8.8. The large positive coefcient at this point indicates that the cumulative distribution tends to change to one that begins to curve more, rather than less, steeply at the extreme particle sizes, indicating a tendency towards greater quantities of both large and small particles under D-D milling compared with S-S. This is borne out by the results discussed below. The location of this coefcient also implies that the extent of this effect is dependent on hardness; the difference between S-S and D-D milling is more dramatic for hard wheats than for soft. By contrast, most of the other an2 coefcient ratios are positive and close to unity, indicating little change in the (G/D) 2 H or (G/D)2 2 H interactions between S-S and D-D milling. Beyond this, the coefcients interact and compensate so extensively that it is difcult to disentangle specic effects. It is interesting to note, however, that the a11 coefcient ratios are all changed substantially, with a11 increasing by a

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13

Figure 3. Variation with SKCS hardness of the coefcients in the D-D breakage function for individual wheat samples.

factor of 6.71 and b11, c11 and d11 decreasing by factors of around 40, 12 and 9, respectively, the latter two also changing sign. This implies a signicant difference in the effect of G/D between S-S and D-D milling.

It ought to be possible, with further investigation, to reduce the number of coefcients required to describe the effects of kernel size, hardness, roll gap and roll disposition on breakage. Fewer coefcients would reduce the quantity of

Table 2. Coefcients in the breakage functions for S-S and D-D milling, and ratios between corresponding coefcients. n an1 bn1 cn1 dn1 an2 bn2 cn2 dn2

S-S disposition 2.431 1028 25.310 1021 1.271 1023 24.768 1027 23.735 10211 0 23.176 1.613 1021 21.049 1024 1 23.342 101 24.750 1021 5.559 1024 21.518 1027 7.463 23.152 1022 2.761 1025 26.474 1029 2 1.479 102 3.274 1021 29.198 1024 3.204 1027 21.899 101 8.692 1022 28.619 1025 2.282 1028 D-D disposition 1.722 1021 21.265 1024 3.217 1028 27.471 1021 2.210 1023 21.623 1026 3.287 10210 0 1.612 101 1 22.241 102 21.202 1022 24.756 1025 1.612 1028 7.119 23.247 1022 3.230 1025 28.413 1029 2 5.216 102 21.028 1.003 1023 22.719 1027 21.467 101 7.581 1022 28.388 1025 2.365 1028 Ratio D-D : S-S 0 25.076 1 6.706 2 3.527 1.068 0.025 23.140 1.206 20.086 21.090 1.323 20.106 20.849 1.407 0.954 0.773 1.739 1.030 0.872 3.404 1.170 0.973 28.801 1.300 1.036

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CAMPBELL et al. Effects of Hardness on Breakage During First Break Roller Milling
Figure 4 conrms the linear effect of hardness by plotting the percentage smaller than x versus average kernel hardness, for each aperture size used in the sieve analysis, and for each roll gap. The tted extended breakage functions are also shown as solid lines (although note that the t would be slightly different for each wheat sample at a given roll gap, as the average kernel size differs between samples; the ts shown are therefore based on a typical average kernel size). Close inspection of this gure claries the effects of hardness and roll gap on wheat breakage and the differences between S-S and D-D milling. Increasing roll gap results in fewer small particles and more large particles, as expected, with D-D more sensitive to roll gap changes than S-S (which also implies greater sensitivity to kernel size, as size and roll gap have equivalent effects on breakage). In all cases there is a divergent pattern, such that the percentage smaller than 2000 mm increases with hardness (implying the percentage of large particles decreases), while the percentage smaller than 212 mm decreases with increasing hardness. This demonstrates that soft wheats tend to break to produce relatively larger proportions of both larger and smaller particles, with fewer in the mid-size range, compared with hard wheats which produce fewer particles at the extremes and more in the middle. Figure 5 illustrates this with the particle size distributions resulting from different roll gaps under both roll dispositions for Claire, a soft wheat, and Mercia, a hard wheat. Under S-S, Claire gives a relatively straight line distribution across the range, with the slope (i.e., the relative proportions of small and large particles) depending on the roll gap, while Mercia gives a pronounced peak in the distribution, with increasing roll gap increasing the proportion of larger particles and moving the peak to the right. Under D-D the peak has disappeared for Mercia, while Claire has moved to a pronounced U shape with large proportions of both large and small particles, and few in the mid-size range. In general, D-D milling gives a more U-shaped distribution for a given wheat hardness, in agreement with our previous ndings (Fang and Campbell, 2002a, b, 2003a), while softness also contributes to a more U-shaped distribution. This indicates that soft wheats tend to shatter easily into numerous small endosperm particles, while leaving the bran material relatively intact as large particles. Hard wheats, by contrast, transmit the stresses throughout the kernel, such that the bran breaks along with the endosperm, the latter resisting shattering into numerous small particles (Pomeranz and Williams, 1990). Dull-to-Dull milling gives more of a crushing action, which encourages shattering of the brittle endosperm but leaves the bran layers relatively intact, while the shearing action of Sharp-to-Sharp milling cuts through both the bran and the endosperm material, slicing the kernel into smaller particles but not shattering it to the same extent as Dull-toDull. Thus wheat hardness and roll disposition have similar effects, such that a soft wheat such as Claire under D-D gives a pronounced U-shape, while at the other extreme, a hard wheat under S-S gives quite a peak or an inverted U. It is also clear that the divergent patterns of Figure 4 are more pronounced under a Dull-to-Dull disposition than under Sharp-to-Sharp. This indicates that D-D milling is more sensitive to wheat hardness than S-S. As millers tend

experimental data needed to t the equation and would simplify the industrial application of the breakage equation for on-line control of First Break milling. Yuan et al. (2003) described the particle size distribution from the ve break systems of a pilot our mill using the logistic equation (adapted to be consistent with the current nomenclature): P2 (x) eabx 100 1 eabxc
c

(8)

For First Break, they related the three parameters of this equation to wheat characteristics including test weight, thousand kernel weight, ash content, protein content and SKCS hardness, mass, diameter and moisture content, and to subsets of these characteristics, based on milling of nine commercial blends of hard red winter wheat from the 19971998 Kansas harvests. These yielded empirical equations with 12 18 tted coefcients. For subsequent breaks, the mean diameter and standard deviation of the input stocks to each break were also included in the equations, requiring 1115 tted coefcients. Predictions against independent data from a tenth batch were reasonable for First Break but poor for the subsequent breaks. A limitation of equation (8) is that it is only able to describe cumulative particle size distributions that conform to a sigmoidal prole. While this is generally appropriate for hard wheats milled under a S-S disposition (see later), it does not have the exibility of equation (7) to describe other typical psds resulting from milling. In particular, soft wheats and D-D milling tend to give cumulative psds after First Break milling that are inversely sigmoidal, indicative of greater proportions of particles at the extremes and fewer particles in the mid-size ranges. Equation (8) also makes the relationship between a particular wheat characteristic and its effect on breakage very indirect and difcult to interpret. For example, for First Break milling, SKCS hardness features in the equations for both the a and b parameters in equation (8). This makes it difcult to conclude, for example, that kernel hardness has a linear effect on breakage, as we are able to do in the current work. Al-Mogahwi and Baker (2005) investigated breakage in both break and reduction roll systems in a commercial mill, and suggested some alternative approaches for characterizing the particle size distributions of our stocks from these operations. Their approaches might allow simpler forms of the breakage function to be developed, as well as facilitating extension of the breakage equation approach developed here for First Break to the rest of the milling process. Their equation     x=G P2 (x) 1 1 exp((x=G)=(k)) 100 k (9)

allows the effects of particle size x and roll gap G on the particle size distribution to be described by a single parameter k, which could dramatically reduce the number of coefcients required to describe effects of hardness and other parameters on breakage. However, equation (9) suffers even more than equation (8) in terms of limited exibility to describe the range of psds encountered in wheat our milling. The effects of roll disposition and of kernel size, moisture and hardness on k have not been investigated.

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Figure 4. Percentage smaller than x versus average SKCS hardness for different wheats milled under S-S (left) and D-D (right) roll dispositions, at roll gaps of 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.7 mm and 0.8 mm. Trans IChemE, Part C, Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2007, 85(C1): 7 23

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Figure 4. Continued Trans IChemE, Part C, Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2007, 85(C1): 7 23

EFFECT OF KERNEL HARDNESS AND SHAPE ON SIZE DISTRIBUTION

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Figure 5. Particle size distributions from Claire (a soft wheat, SKCS hardness 24.6) and Mercia (a hard wheat, SKCS hardness 73.6) at different roll gaps under S-S (left) and D-D (right) roll dispositions.

to operate under D-D (because the U-shaped distribution is readily separated into larger branny particle and smaller endosperm particles), the greater sensitivity of D-D milling to kernel hardness and size is commercially signicant, as variations in the feedstock will have greater inuence on downstream operations. The consistent linear trends in Figure 4 imply that the effect of hardness on breakage is qualitatively similar for wheats of varying hardness; there are no sudden discontinuities that would indicate that hard and soft wheats are different in their essential nature or exhibit fundamentally different mechanisms of breakage. This agrees with Osborne and coworkers conclusions based on SKCS crush response proles, that wheat breakage patterns have a common generic structure, in contrast with those of barley (Osborne and Anderssen, 2003; Osborne et al., 2004). The linear effect also implies that the average SKCS hardness, rather than the full hardness distribution, is sufcient to predict breakage

at First Break, even for mixtures of wheats of very different hardnesses. This is in contrast to the effect of kernel diameter, for which the inverse quadratic relationship with breakage requires measurement of the entire diameter distribution. The results also indicate that SKCS hardness is meaningful with respect to breakage during roller milling. This is a surprising nding, as the breakage mechanism in the SKCS, involving a single rotor with a relatively ne sawtooth prole crushing kernels against a smooth stationary crescent with a large gap between (Martin and Steele, 1996), is very different from the breakage action during First Break roller milling. Muhamad and Campbell (2004) showed that the SKCS gives very similar particle size distributions for wheats of different hardness, implying that the SKCS hardness index primarily reects the energy to grind to a consistent degree of breakage, and is therefore indicates a fundamental property of the wheat kernel, rather than an artefact of the particular breakage system. This is probably the reason that SKCS

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for this variety. Whether the systematic error appeared to be related to kernel mass could then be investigated. Full details of this study are given by Muhamad (2004). (Note that Muhamad performed the study using a breakage function for S-S milling that was quadratic in x, not cubic as used here. The following results are as reported by Muhamad, but would not be substantially different or lead to different conclusions had a cubic in x function been used for the S-S analysis.) The basis of the analysis was that, for a given roll gap, the predictive model would tend to either underpredict or overpredict the cumulative particle size distribution over the entire range, such that the residuals at each point would tend to be of the same sign. Therefore the residuals at each point were summed in order to establish an overall residual for each roll gap:
8 X i1

hardness relates so well to breakage during First Break roller milling.

Validation of the Extended Breakage Function

Figures 6 and 7 show the predictions of the particle size distributions resulting from breakage of the six validation samples (four pure varieties and two mixtures) at different roll gaps and under S-S and D-D dispositions. (For clarity, the data for only three roll gaps is presented.) Clearly, the agreement is excellent in most cases, particularly for Consort and Spark and their mixture, with poorest agreement for Soissons, and generally poorer agreement at the larger roll gap. Overall the good agreement indicates that including SKCS hardness in the breakage function has taken it well on the way to being more universal; from equations (5) and (7), and using the coefcients in Table 2, the entire particle size distribution resulting from breakage of any mixture of wheat kernels of any distribution of size and hardness, at any roll gap and under either S-S or D-D disposition, can be predicted with good accuracy. This is a powerful development that allows information from the SKCS to be used directly to predict breakage during roller milling, thereby allowing the miller to know how todays particular grist is likely to behave on the mill, and to adjust the mill settings accordingly. One can readily envisage a control system (based, for example, on the approaches of Wang et al., 2005) that would take off-line or, with some adjustment, online SKCS data and feed it forward to control First Break automatically to deliver a consistent output particle size distribution, or to alter the downstream processing in response to a predicted change to the output from First Break.

Total residual

(measured P2 (xi ) fitted P2 (xi )) (10)

Effect of Kernel Shape on Breakage

Despite the clear success of adding hardness to the breakage function and the opportunities this presents, it is evident from Figures 6 and 7 as well as from Figure 4 that there are some varieties that exhibit anomalous breakage patterns and for which the prediction is not so accurate. This may be due to additional factors such as kernel shape. Kernel shape is related to mass; a long thin kernel will have a greater mass than a short kernel of the same thickness (assuming shape differences to be more signicant than density differences). However, mass increases with D 3 for the same shape and density. Thus the ratio of SKCS mass to D 3 is an indication of kernel shape; a larger ratio corresponds to relatively more elongated kernels. The extended breakage function of equation (7) includes kernel hardness and diameter as measured by the SKCS, while kernel moisture can be added as described previously (Fang and Campbell, 2003b). Adding mass would introduce the fourth SKCS parameter into the breakage function and would allow kernel shape effects to be accounted for. In order to determine whether mass and shape effects did indeed account for some of the remaining variation in breakage patterns, a residual analysis on the data from the 19 test varieties was performed. Each variety was milled at six different roll gaps, giving six independent results for the agreement between the predicted and experimental particle size distributions. If all (or a statistically signicant majority) of the differences were of the same sign (positive or negative), this would indicate a systematic error in the prediction

Figure 8 shows the total residual for the six roll gaps for each variety, plotted against average kernel mass for that variety, for both roll dispositions. Clearly (and conrmed by Analysis of Variance) in some cases the deviation of the average residual for a variety was signicantly different from zero, compared with the within-variety variation, in other words, the deviation was systematic for particular varieties rather than a result of random experimental error. Figure 8 shows that for kernels that were neither exceptionally heavy nor exceptionally light, mass had no discernible effect on deviations of predictions from experimental breakage. However, where the systematic difference was substantial, the reason clearly relates to the kernel mass. The two extreme points under both roll dispositions correspond to CWRS with the lowest kernel mass and large positive residuals, and Cadenza with its large kernels and large negative residuals. Kernel size has already been taken into consideration in the breakage function, so the very large and very small masses of Cadenza and CWRS, respectively, indicate that shape effects are likely to be contributors to the relatively poorer predictions obtained for these two varieties. [Differences in kernel density rather than shape could be the reason for the different breakage patterns. Density is slightly correlated with kernel hardness (Pomeranz and Mattern, 1988; Fang and Campbell, 2000; Dobraszczyk et al., 2002), and these two wheats have similar hardness values but very different shapes, so it is likely that the observed deviations are related to kernel shape rather than density.] Long thin kernels would be heavier relative to their thickness than short fat kernels (assuming negligible density effects), such that the ratio of SKCS mass : diameter3 (M/D 3) ought to reect kernel shape differences. Table 1 lists the SKCS M/D 3 ratios for the different varieties. CWRS had an M/D 3 value of 2.280 mg mm23, the highest value found in the sample set, suggesting a relatively long kernel for its size, while Cadenzas value of 1.498 mg mm23 was the third lowest, suggesting that shape was indeed a major contributory factor in the dissimilar breakage of these samples compared with others. Figure 9 illustrates the differences between the kernels of Cadenza and CWRS used in the study. While acknowledging that the data set is dominated

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Figure 6. Comparison of predicted (lines) and experimental (symbols) cumulative particle size distributions for Consort, Spark and a 50 : 50 mixture of Consort and Spark milled under S-S (left) and D-D (right) roll dispositions. Trans IChemE, Part C, Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2007, 85(C1): 7 23

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Figure 7. Comparison of predicted (lines) and experimental (symbols) cumulative particle size distributions for Mallacca, Soissons and a 50 : 50 mixture of Mallacca and Soissons milled under S-S (left) and D-D (right) roll dispositions. Trans IChemE, Part C, Food and Bioproducts Processing, 2007, 85(C1): 7 23

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Figure 8. Total residual for each of six roll gaps versus kernel mass for 19 wheat varieties milled under S-S (left) and D-D (right) dispositions.

by these two extreme points, it is noteworthy that of the validation samples, predictions were poorest for Soissons which, like CWRS, tended to be underpredicted and which also exhibited a relatively high M/D 3 ratio of 1.973 mg mm23. The shape of wheat kernels is complex, and the sample set used here small and of limited diversity of origin, so it is perhaps not surprising that clear shape correlations were elusive. The additional complexity of including kernel mass in the breakage function is probably not merited for most wheats; however, the results here show that it could be done and may be worthwhile for kernels of unusual size or shape.

Single Kernel Characteristics in Relation to Milling and Baking Performance

The results presented in the current work demonstrate a practical basis for exploiting SKCS measurements to enhance and control mill performance. First Break is a critical control point in our milling, with the particle size distribution

created at that point determining the ows through the rest of the mill and the combination of processing histories within the nal our. The breakage equation approach developed here could be extended to second and subsequent breaks and to reduction roller milling. The results also give a sound basis for beginning to interpret other aspects of milling and baking performance in terms of mechanistic connections (as opposed to the statistical correlations that rather dominate the literature). For example, the particle size distribution at First Break, and indeed at subsequent break and reduction rolls, can be related to energy consumption (Pujol et al., 2000), which is a major cost in our milling. The relation between wheat hardness and our yield, so often noted (e.g., Pomeranz and Williams, 1990; Ohm et al., 1998), depends on the initial and subsequent breakage characteristics of the grist, for which the breakage equation allows quantitative description. In addition to particle size, other aspects of our functionality such as particle composition or starch damage could be incorporated into breakage equation models (Fistes and Tanovic, 2006). This would facilitate in making the entire series of linkages between wheat hardness, milling performance and baking consistency.

CONCLUSIONS
The breakage function for roller milling has been extended to include kernel hardness as well as size, such that the entire particle size distribution resulting from First Break milling of a mixture of wheat varieties, of unknown origin and differing in size and hardness, milled at any roll gap and under either D-D or S-S milling, can be predicted to a good rst approximation directly from SKCS data. Harder wheats break to give a more even distribution of particles than softer wheats, which tend to break to give large proportions of large and small particles, with fewer in the mid-size range. Dull-to-Dull milling similarly gives a more Ushaped distribution than Sharp-to-Sharp milling, and is more sensitive to wheat hardness and to roll gap changes. Wheat varieties of differing hardness break in qualitatively the same way, such that breakage patterns vary smoothly

Figure 9. Representative kernels of Cadenza and CWRS, showing ventral (left), lateral (middle) and dorsal (right) views, illustrating size and shape differences (bar 5 mm).

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Campbell, G.M., Bunn, P.J., Webb, C. and Hook, S.C.W., 2001a, On predicting roller milling performance. II. The Breakage Function, Powder Technol, 115: 243 255. Campbell, G.M., Fang, C., Bunn, P.J., Gibson, A.A., Thompson, F. and Haigh, A., 2001b, Wheat our milling: A case study in processing of particulate foods, in Hoyle, W. (ed.). Powders and Solids Developments in Handling and Processing Technologies, 95111 (Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK). Caterall, P., 1998, Flour milling, in Cauvain, S.P. and Young, L.S. (eds). Technology of Breadmaking, 296 329 (Blackie Academic and Professional, London, UK). Dobraszczyk, B.J., Whitworth, M.B., Vincent, J.F.V. and Khan A.A., 2002, Single kernel wheat hardness and fracture properties in relation to density and the modelling of fracture in wheat endosperm, J Cereal Sci, 35: 245263. Fang, C. and Campbell, G.M., 2000, Effect of measurement method and moisture content on wheat kernel density measurement, Trans IChemE, Part C, Food Bioprod Proc, 78: 179186. Fang, C. and Campbell, G.M., 2002a, Stress-strain analysis and visual observation of wheat kernel breakage during rst break roller milling, Cereal Chem, 79: 511 517. Fang, C. and Campbell, G.M., 2002b, Effect of roll uting disposition and roll gap on the breakage of wheat kernels during rst break roller milling, Cereal Chem, 79: 518 522. Fang, C. and Campbell, G.M., 2003a, On predicting roller milling performance IV: Effect of roll disposition on the particle size distribution from rst break milling of wheat, J Cereal Sci, 37: 21 29. Fang, C. and Campbell, G.M., 2003b, On predicting roller milling performance V: Effect of moisture content on the particle size distribution from rst break milling of wheat, J Cereal Sci, 37: 31 41. Fistes, A. and Tanovic, G., 2006, Predicting the size and compositional distributions of wheat our stocks following rst break roller milling using the breakage matrix approach, J Food Eng, 75: 527534. Gaines, C.S., Finney, P.F., Fleege, L.M. and Andrews, L.C., 1996, Predicting a hardness measurement using the Single-Kernel Characterisation System, Cereal Chem, 73: 278 283. Greenwell, P. and Schoeld, J.D., 1986, A starch-granule protein associated with endosperm softness in wheat, Cereal Chem, 63: 379 380. Hsieh, F.H., Martin, D.G., Black, H.C. and Tipples, K.H., 1980, Some factors affecting First Break grinding of Canadian wheat, Cereal Chem, 57: 217 223. Jones, G., 2001, The Millers A Story of Technological Endeavour and Industrial Success, 18702001 (Carnegie Publishing Ltd, Lancaster, UK). Lockwood, J.F., 1945, Flour Milling (The Northern Publishing Co. Ltd, London, UK). Martin, C.R., Rousser, R. and Brabec, D.L., 1993, Development of a single kernel wheat characterisation system, Trans American Soc of Agric Eng, 36(5): 13991404. Martin, C.R. and Steele, J.L., 1996, Evaluation of rotor-crescent design for sensing wheat kernels hardness, Trans American Soc Agric Eng, 39(6): 22232227. Morris, C.F., 1992, Impact of blending hard and soft white wheats on milling and baking quality, Cereal Foods World, 37: 643 648. Muhamad, I.I., 2004, Single kernel effects on breakage during wheat milling, PhD thesis, UMIST, Manchester, UK. Muhamad, I.I. and Campbell, G.M., 2004, Effects of kernel hardness and moisture content on wheat breakage in the Single Kernel Characterisation System, Innovative Food Sci Emerging Technol, 5: 119 125. Ohm, J.B., Chung, O.K. and Deyoe, C.W., 1998, Single-kernel characteristics of hard winter wheats in relation to milling and baking quality, Cereal Chem, 75: 156 161. Osborne, B.G., Kotwal, Z., Blakeney, A.B., OBrien, L., Shah, S. and Fearn, T., 1997, Application of the Single-Kernel Characterisation System to wheat receiving testing and quality prediction, Cereal Chem, 74: 467 470. Osborne, B.G. and Anderssen, R.S., 2003, Review: Single kernel characterization principles and applications, Cereal Chem, 80: 613 622. Osborne, B.G., Anderssen, R.S. and Huynh, H.-N., 2004, In-situ measurement of the rheological properties of wheat and barley using the SKCS 4100, in Cauvain, S.P., Salmon, S,E. and Young, L.S. (eds). Proceedings of the 12th ICC Cereal and Bread Congress, 207211 (Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK).

with hardness. Wheat hardness has a linear effect on breakage, indicating that the SKCS hardness index is inherently meaningful in relation to commercial milling of wheat on uted roller mills. Previous work has established that effects of kernel moisture on breakage can also be predicted. The current work has shown that the fourth SKCS parameter, kernel mass, can also be included in the breakage function, but that the additional complexity yields little additional benet for most wheat varieties. The work has shown that distributions of single kernel data, as measured by the SKCS, can be used directly to predict breakage during First Break roller milling, either off-line or as part of an automatic control system. This would aid millers in delivering consistent quality our to bakers in the face of a constantly varying feedstock. The quantitative nature of the breakage equation approach could also facilitate understanding the mechanistic relationships between wheat kernel characteristics and the various facets of milling and baking performance.

NOMENCLATURE
a2c an2dn ann2dnn B(x, D) coefcients in equation (8) coefcients in the breakage function coefcients in the extended breakage function cumulative breakage function describing the proportion of material smaller than size x in the output, originating from an input particle initially of size D extended cumulative breakage function describing the proportion of material smaller than size x in the output, originating from an input particle initially of size D and hardness H size of input particle, SKCS diameter Dull-to-Dull roll disposition roll gap SKCS kernel hardness tting parameter in equation (9) SKCS kernel mass an integer taking values of 0, 1 or 2 number of discrete size fractions into which kernels are separated for the purpose of calculating average values proportion of kernels in size fraction i cumulative particle size distribution of the output Sharp-to-Sharp roll disposition size of output particle

B(x, D, H)

D D-D G H k M n N pi P2(x) S-S x

Greek symbols ann coefcients in the extended breakage function r1(D) particle size distribution of the feed r1(H) hardness distribution of kernels in the feed r2(x) particle size distribution of the output

REFERENCES
Al-Mogahwi, H.W.H. and Baker, C.G.J., 2005, Performance evaluation of mills and separators in a commercial our mill, Trans IChemE, Part C, Food Bioprod Proc, 83: 2535. Austin, L.G., 1972, A review: Introduction to the mathematical description of grinding as a rate process, Powder Technol, 5: 1 17. Bunn, P.J., Campbell, G.M., Fang, C. and Hook, S.C.W., 2001, On predicting roller milling performance. Part III. The particle size distribution from roller milling of various wheats using uted rolls, Proc 6th World Chemical Engineering Congress, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. Campbell, G.M. and Webb, C., 2001, On predicting roller milling performance. I. The Breakage Equation, Powder Technol, 115: 234 242.

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Pomeranz, Y. and Mattern, P.J., 1988, Genotype and genotype environmental interaction effects on hardness estimates in winter wheat, Cereal Foods World, 33: 371 374. Pomeranz, Y. and Williams, P.C., 1990, Wheat hardness: its genetic, structural and biochemical background, measurement and signicance, in Pomeranz, Y. (ed.). Advances in Cereal Science and Technology, 471 544 (American Association of Cereal Chemists, St Paul, Minnesota). Pujol, R., Letang, C., Lempereur, I., Chaurand, M., Mabille, F. and Abecassis, J., 2000, Description of a micromill with instrumentation for measuring grinding characteristics of wheat grain, Cereal Chem, 77: 421 427. Pyler, E.J., 1958, Our Daily Bread (Siebel Publishing Company, Chicago, USA). Pyler, E.J., 1973, Baking Science and Technology Volume I (Siebel Publishing Company, Chicago, USA). Scott, J.H., 1951, Flour Milling Processes (Chapman and Hall Ltd, London, UK). Simmonds, D.H., Barlow, K.K. and Wrigley, C.W., 1973, The biochemical basis of grain hardness in wheat, Cereal Chem, 50: 553563. Sissons, M.J., Osborne, B.G., Hare, R.A., Sissons, S.A. and Jackson, R., 2000, Application of the single-kernel characterization system to durum wheat testing and quality prediction, Cereal Chem, 77: 4 10. Storck, J. and Teague, W.D., 1952, Flour for Mans Bread (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, USA). Wang, H., Zhang, J.F. and Yue, H., 2005, Periodic learning of Bspline models for output PDF control: application to MWD control, Proceedings of the American Control Conference 2, 955960. Webb, C. and Owens, G.W., 2003, Milling and our quality, in Cauvain, S. (ed.). Bread Making: Improving Quality, 200 219 (Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, UK). Wrigley, C.W., 2002, Walter Bushuk: Cereal chemist and mentor, in Ng, P.K.W. and Wrigley, C.W. (eds). The Bushuk Legacy, 1 47 (American Association of Cereal Chemists, Minnesota, USA). Whitworth, M.B., 1999, Heterogeneity in structure and grain composition, Proceedings of Process Engineering of Cereal Products Workshop, Montpellier, France, 8th October 1999 (published by ICC, Austria). Yuan, J., Flores, R.A., Eustace, D. and Milliken, G.A., 2003, A systematic analysis of the break subsystems of a wheat our pilot mill, Trans IChemE, Part C, Food Bioprod Proc, 81: 170 179.

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The manuscript was received 5 January 2006 and accepted for publication after revision 25 July 2006.

APPENDIX I: THE LOWER LIMIT OF INTEGRATION IN THE BREAKAGE EQUATION

Campbell and co-workers original papers (Campbell and Webb, 2001; Campbell et al., 2001a) gave the lower limits of the integration as D x, in common with previous workers such as Austin (1972), but Fang and Campbell (2003a, b) altered this, without explanation, to D 0. The explanation is that D and x are measuring different things and are not directly comparable. D is kernel thickness (measured by the SKCS, by image analysis or using slotted sieves), while x is the smallest square aperture through which a particle will pass, as measured by sieve analysis. It is therefore meaningless in this context to write D x. Previous workers studying breakage have performed the integration from D x on the basis that they were measuring the size distributions of their input and output material in the same way, e.g., using the same sieve analysis procedure, and arguing that the breakage process implied that output particles of size x could only have arisen from inlet particles originally larger than x. This is a reasonable argument that simplies the mathematics. However, it renders the breakage equation less general and less exible, by excluding the possibility that inlet and outlet particles might be measured differently, and that the particular dimension chosen to characterize an outlet particle size might be larger in magnitude than the dimension used to characterize the size of the inlet particle from which that outlet particle originated. In the case of wheat, the roller milling process tends to open up the initially compact wheat kernel to create large bran akes along with ner endosperm material. Thus it is quite possible for a kernel, initially of 2 mm diameter for example, to yield a bran ake measuring 3 mm across when measured by sieve analysis. Hence the appropriate range for the integration in equation (1) is from zero to innity. This approach also leads naturally to extensions of the breakage equation to include factors affecting breakage in addition to inlet particle size distribution, such as hardness distribution, as in the current paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded in part by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC, Grant No. GR/M49939). The support of the Satake Corporation of Japan is gratefully acknowledged, along with ADAS and Marriages Mills for assistance with sourcing wheat samples. IIM gratefully acknowledges the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for funding to pursue PhD studies. Prasan Choomjaihan is gratefully acknowledged for producing Figure 9.

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