The anatomy of the brain is complex due its intricate structure and function.

This amazing organ acts as a control center by receiving, interpreting, and directing sensory information throughout the body. There are three major divisions of the brain. They are the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

Anatomy of the Brain: Brain Divisions The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are two major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor function. The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalon andmyelencephalon. The metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assists in maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of the medulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
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Prosencephalon - Forebrain
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Diencephalon

Telencephalon Mesencephalon - Midbrain Rhombencephalon - Hindbrain

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Metencephalon Myelencephalon

Anatomy of the Brain: Structures The brain contains various structures that have a multitude of functions. Below is a list of major structures of the brain and some of their functions. Basal Ganglia Involved in cognition and voluntary movement Diseases related to damages of this area are Parkinson's and Huntington's Brainstem y Relays information between the peripheral nerves and spinal cord to the upper parts of the brain y Consists of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and the pons Broca's Area y Speech production y Understanding language Central Sulcus (Fissure of Rolando) y Deep grove that separates the parietal and frontal lobes Cerebellum y Controls movement coordination y Maintains balance and equilibrium Cerebral Cortex y Outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum y Receives and processes sensory information y Divided into cerebral cortex lobes Cerebral Cortex Lobes y Frontal Lobes -involved with decision-making, problem solving, and planning
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Occipital Lobes-involved with vision and color recognition Parietal Lobes - receives and processes sensory information

Temporal Lobes - involved with emotional responses, memory, and speech Cerebrum y Largest portion of the brain y Consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows Corpus Callosum y Thick band of fibers that connects the left and right brain hemispheres Cranial Nerves

Twelve pairs of nerves that originate in the brain, exit the skull, and lead to the head, neck and torso Fissure of Sylvius (Lateral Sulcus) y Deep grove that separates the parietal and temporal lobes Limbic System Structures y Amygdala - involved in emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory
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Cingulate Gyrus - a fold in the brain involved with sensory input concerning emotions and the regulation of aggressive behavior Fornix - an arching, fibrous band of nerve fibers that connect the hippocampus to the hypothalamus Hippocampus - sends memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrievs them when necessary Hypothalamus - directs a multitude of important functions such as body temperature, hunger, and homeostasis Olfactory Cortex - receives sensory information from the olfactory bulb and is involved in the identification of odors

Thalamus - mass of grey matter cells that relay sensory signals to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum Medulla Oblongata y Lower part of the brainstem that helps to control autonomic functions Meninges y Membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord Olfactory Bulb y Bulb-shaped end of the olfactory lobe y Involved in the sense of smell Pineal Gland y Endocrine gland involved in biological rhythms y Secretes the hormone melatonin Pituitary Gland y Endocrine gland involved in homeostasis y Regulates other endocrine glands Pons y Relays sensory information between the cerebrum and cerebellum Reticular Formation y Nerve fibers located inside the brainstem y Regulates awareness and sleep Substantia Nigra y Helps to control voluntary movement and regualtes mood Tectum y The dorsal region of the mesencephalon (mid brain) Tegmentum
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The ventral region of the mesencephalon (mid brain). Ventricular System - connecting system of internal brain cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid y Aqueduct of Sylvius - canal that is located between the third ventricle and the fourth ventricle
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Choroid Plexus - produces cerebrospinal fluid Fourth Ventricle - canal that runs between the pons, medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum Lateral Ventricle - largest of the ventricles and located in both brain hemispheres

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Third Ventricle - provides a pathway for cerebrospinal fluid to flow Wernicke's Area y Region of the brain where spoken language is understood

Basic anatomy of the spinal cord: Introduction:- The spine works as the main support for the spinal cord and the nerve pathways that carry information from the arms, legs, and rest of the body, and carries signals from the brain to the body. Your back is composed of 33 bones called vertebrae, 31 pairs of nerves, 40 muscles and numerous connecting tendons and ligaments running from the base of your skull to your tailbone. Between your vertebrae are fibrous, elastic cartilage called discs. These "shock absorbers" keep your spine flexible and cushion the hard vertebrae as you move.

Bony Anatomy

Cervical Spine There are seven cervical bones or vertebrae. The cervical bones are designed to allow flexion, extension, bending, and turning of the head. They are smaller than the other vertebrae, which allows a greater amount of movement. Each cervical vertebra consists of two parts, a body and a protective arch for the spinal cord called the neural arch. Fractures or injuries can occur to the body, lim pedicles, or processes. Each vertebra articulates with the one above it and the one below it. Thoracic Spine

In the chest region the thoracic spine attaches to the ribs. There are 12 vertebrae in the thoracic region. The spinal canal in the thoracic region is relatively smaller than the cervical or lumbar areas. This makes the thoracic spinal cord at greater risk if there is a fracture. The motion that occurs in the thoracic spine is mostly rotation. The ribs prevent bending to the side. A small amount of movement occurs in bending forward and backward. Lumbosacral Spine The lumbar vertebrae are large, wide, and thick. There are five vertebrae in the lumbar spine. The lowest lumbar vertebra, L5, articulates with the sacrum. The sacrum attaches to the pelvis. The main motions of the lumbar area are bending forward and extending backwards. Bending to the side also occurs. Neuroanatomy: Just like the spinal column is divided into cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions, so is the spinal cord. Each portion of the spinal cord is divided into specific neurological segments.The cervical spinal cord is divided into eight levels. Each level contributes to different functions in the neck and the arms (see diagram). Sensations from the body are similarly transported from the skin and other areas of the body from the neck, shoulders, and arms up to the brain.In the thoracic region the nerves of the spinal cord supply muscles of the chest that help in breathing and coughing. This region also contains nerves in the sympathetic nervous system. The lumbosacral spinal cord and nerve supply legs, pelvis, and bowel and bladder. Sensations from the feet, legs, pelvis, and lower abdomen are transmitted through the lumbosacral nerves and spinal cord to higher segments and eventually the brain Nerve Pathways- There are many nerve pathways that transmit signals up and down the spinal cord. Some supply sensation from the skin and outer portions of the body. Others supply sensation from deeper structures such as the organs in the belly, the pelvis, or other areas. Other nerves transmit signals from the brain to the body. Still others work at the level of the spinal cord and act as "go betweens" in the signal transmission process. The Motor Neuron- The upper motor neuron refers to injuries that are above the level of the anterior horn cell. This results in a spastic type of paralysis. Conversely, the lower motor neuron injury refers to an injury at or below the anterior horn cell that results in the flaccid type paralysis. This is usually seen in nerve root injuries or in the cauda equina syndrome that was mentioned previously. The terms neurogenic bowel and

neurogenic bladder are used to describe abnormal bowel and bladder function and can be classified as either an upper motor neuron or lower motor neuron type of problem. In general, those patients with an upper motor neuron paralysis will have an upper motor neuron bowel and bladder, and those with lower motor neuron injuries will have a lower motor neuron picture of the bowel and bladder. Adequate bowel and bladder managementis critical for adequate reintegration of the patient/client into the community and hopefully into the work place. Sensory Pathways: Feelings from the body such as hot, cold, pain, and touch, are transmitted to the skin and other parts of the body to the brain where sensations are "felt." These pathways are called the sensory pathways. Once signals enter the spinal cord, they are sent up to the brain. Different types of sensation are sent in different pathways, called "tracts." The tracts that carry sensations of pain and temperature to the brain are in the middle part of the spinal cord. These tracts are called the "spinothalamic." Other tracts carry sensation of position and light touch. These nerve impulses are carried along the back part of the spinal cord in what are called "dorsal columns" of the spinal cord. Autonomic Nerve Pathways: Another type of special nerves are the autonomic nerves. In spinal cord injuries, they are very important. The autonomic nerves are divided into two types: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The autonomic nervous system influences the activities of involuntary (also known as smooth) muscles, the heart muscle, and glands that release certain hormones. It controls cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems. These systems work in a generally "involuntary" fashion. The primary role of the autonomic nervous system is to maintain a stable internal environment within the body. The heart and blood vessels are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nerves help to control blood pressure based on the physical demands placed on the body. It also helps to control heart rate. The sympathetic nerves, when stimulated, cause the heart to beat faster. Sympathetic Nerves: The sympathetic nerves also cause constriction of the blood vessels throughout the body. When this happens, the amount of blood that is returned to the heart increases. These effects will increase blood pressure. Other effects include an increase in sweating and increased irritability or a sensation of anxiety. When spinal cord injury is at or above the T6 level the sympathetic nerves below the injury become disconnected from the nerves above. They continue to operate automatically once the period of spinal shock is over. Anything that simulates the sympathetic nerves can cause them to become overactive. This overactivity of the sympathetic nerves is what is called autonomic dysreflexia. Parasympathetic Nerves: The parasympathetic nerves act in an opposite manner to the sympathetic nerves. These nerves tend to dilate blood vessels and slow down the heart.

The most important nerve that carries sympathetic fibers is the vagus nerve. This nerve carries parasympathetic signals to the heart to decrease heart rate. Other nerves supply the blood vessels to the organs of the abdomen and skin. The parasympathetic nerves arise from two areas. The fibers that supply the organs of the abdomen, heart, lungs, and skin above the waist begin at the level of the brain and very high spinal cord. The nerves that supply the reproductive organs, pelvis, and leg begin at the sacral level, or lowest part of the spinal cord. After a spinal cord injury, the parasympathetic nerves that begin at the brain continue to work, even during the phase of spinal shock. When dysreflexia occurs, the parasympathetic nerves attempt to control rapidly increasing blood pressure by slowing down the heart.