Onmyodo -The Architect of Japans Formative Years-

Introduction Religion in Japanwhat word does this evoke in the mind of the East Asian Studies scholar? The answer to this question will usually be Shinto and Buddhism, the light and darkness of Japanese religion. These two religions have had an effect on Japanese history since the times recorded in the Kojiki, one of the earliest written historical account of Japan. Many times Buddhism and Shinto are said to compensate for what the other religion lacks. Shinto is the religion of birth and purity, and concerns itself with the life in this world, whereas Buddhism is the religion of death and reincarnation, and concerns itself with the life to come. This harmonious symbiosis of religions in Japan signifies the attitude of the Japanese people-- the attitude of bringing the two opposites into a beneficent, mutual union. This state of complementary dualism between Shinto and Buddhism, however, should not be taken to indicate mutually exclusive beliefs and practices forming smaller or larger isolated religious traditions One can find Shinto elements in a Buddhist service or Confucian studies taking place in a Buddhist monastery.[1] Indeed, it is impossible to draw a line between religions in Japan because of this religious synchronicity. Robert S. Ellwood, a professor of religion at the University of Southern California states that, "Perhaps it is best to consider the various [religions] as strands within a larger rope called "Japanese religion or the Japanese waya rope that extends from prehistoric time up to this very day. The rope is not everywhere and always the same. The strands change and shift along its length, and the rope is flexible and changing. Nonetheless it is identifiable as the Japanese way. In fact, some have argued that this rope is itself the fundamental religion of Japan, and the strands that make it up are so many support systems to a larger religion called nihondo, the way of Japan.[2] Many scholars come to the same conclusion as Ellwood, for it is indeed impossible to separate Buddhism from Shinto or Confucianism from Buddhism and vice versa. There is, however, an explanation as to why this religious synchronization occurred. When one looks back into ancient Japanese history very carefully, one finds a religious system that acted as a cohesive agent between various religions, which were later brought into Japan. This religious system, Onmyodo, has had a tremendous effect on Japanese religion and a lasting effect on the formative years of Japanese history. Part 1 An Analysis of Onmyodo An Introduction to Onmyodo

Onmyodo is an unfamiliar word for the average person, or perhaps, even to scholars of Japanese studies. This is understandable, for the name Onmyodo has been lost in history. In a way it was inevitable that Onmyodo became forgotten, for Onmyodo laid the foundation for the development of Japanese religion into what it is nowa diverse, yet unified and integrated whole composed of Buddhism, Shinto, and Confucianism. In this process, however, Onmyodo gave away too much of its own rituals, ideas, and doctrine to the other religions, which dissipated Onmyodo into the darkness of Japanese history. Onmyodo itself, as its name suggests, is Japanese Daoism.[3] Daosim was brought into Japan very early in Japanese history over a period of possibly three centuries from the sixth to eighth century century c.e. and was the first foreign religion to be introduced into Japan.[4] The element of Onmyodo was astrological technology passed down from the ancient times as well as the theory of five elements. These theories were adopted first by the Tenno[5] lineage because of its far-advanced systematic interpretation of the works of nature-- a technology that did not exist in Japan previous to its exposure to Daosim. However, one peculiarity of Daoisms introduction into Japan was that only religious Daoism[6] was brought into Japan and philosophical Daosim[7] came in at a much later date. After Buddhism was introduced into Japan in the seventh century century c.e., Onmyodo strengthens its role as a mystic, magical system of rituals, forming the foundation for Japanese occultism as well as the religious ambiguity of Japan.[8] Throughout Japanese history, Onmyodo influenced the religious culture; however, before analyzing the impact of Onmyodo on Japanese history, Onmyodo itself must be explained. Without an understanding of the religious system of Onmyodo, one will not be able to see the significant impact it had on the formative years of Japanese history.

Chapter OneOnmyodo as Religion What is a religion? This is a puzzling question with no single answer. Many scholars of religion have struggled to answer it and there are two major theories: the theory of religious deep structure conceptualized by Ronald M. Green, professor of religion at Dartmouth College, and the theory of liminality and communitas conceptualized by Victor Turner, professor of anthropology at Cornell University. Greens theory of religious deep structure is a definition of religion based on logic and rational reasoning. He argues that all religions have a core deep structure which is founded upon moral reasoning.[9] Green argues that all religions deep structure has three essential elements: first, a method of moral reasoning involving the moral point of view; second, a set of beliefs affirming the reality of moral retribution and third, a series of transmoral beliefs that suspend moral judgement and retribution when this is needed to overcome moral paralysis and despair. Whatever their surface differences, religions contain these elements. They point their adherents to the method of moral reasoning. They try to assure them that governing ones life by this method is not ultimately selfdestructive, that the righteous are rewarded. And, in response to the kind of selfcondemnation that inevitably accompanies sensitive moral striving, they are prepared to

ease their insistence on judgement and retribution by holding out the promise of a redemption not based entirely on ones deeds.[10] Thus, Greens argument is that all religions exist for the purpose of setting down moral codes, which, if followed, will bring positive gains--such as eternal lifeto the moral person. Greens theory poses a problem for Onmyodo because Onmyodo completely lacks any of the three deep structures which Green states all religions must have. Onmyodo lacks moral codes and has no conception of life after death, the primary concern of Onmyodo is to identify and avoid troubles in this world, which is perceived as filled with evil and chaos.[11] Due to the fact that death was the greatest impurity, according to Shinto, it was a taboo to deal with death. The only conception of life after death was that of a miserable existence in Yomi no Kuni, a netherworld where the dead are supposed to spend all eternity in the darknesshardly a reward for living a moral life (not to mention that there is no moral code!).[12] Thus, if Greens theory of religious deep structure is indeed the definition of what a religion ought to be, one could argue that Onmyodo is not a religion, for Onmyodo lacks a moral force as its guide. Turners theory of liminality and communitas also seems to exclude Onmyodo from being called a religion. Turner states that religious rituals exist to create liminal time and space. Liminal time and space could be characterized as a suspension of social mores and laws, as a manifestation of chaos opposed to the orderly cosmos of average life. He further states that liminal time is essential in the strengthening of the communitas, a feeling of belonging beyond social structure. Therefore, as with Turners theory, a religion exists as a method to achieve community awareness beyond socio-moral codes by sharing the religious experiencethe liminal time/space.[13] Turners theory fails to convince one that Onmyodo is a religion because his conception of religion is exactly the opposite of what Onmyodo is trying to achieve. The main objective of Onmyodo is to understand the laws of the universe through the application of the onmyogogyo[14] and bring order to the world, which was largely perceived as totally chaotic. The practice of Onmyodo was the empirical application of these theories in organizing Shinto, Buddhist, and Daoist deities as well as giving them appropriate temperaments, choosing an adequate place for the imperial capital, performing rituals, interpreting supernatural and catastrophic/rare natural phenomena[15], and most important, calculating ones own fate. The job of a practitioner of Onmyodo was simply to observe a phenomenon and interpret it by applying Onmyogogyo. Thus, Onmyodo, which most definitely is not a religion, is a science based on its own scientific method that could be applied to explain all phenomena in the universe. Chapter TwoOnmyodo Cosmology

Onmyodo is a sciencea method of understanding the phenomena of nature based on the methodological paradigms of theory, operationalization, and observation. When an onmyo practitioner observes natural phenomena, he applies the Onmyogogyo theory to categorize the observed phenomena. Then, he will operationalize his theory by using technological utensils and equipment to make it possible to repeat his theory. Then, through observation, he will measure and calculate the outcome of the experiements, which is repeated.[16] However, what exactly is Onmyodgogyo? When Carl Jung met Hu Shih in the mid 1930s, he asked Hu of his opinion of the I Ching, and received the reply: Oh, thats nothing but an old collection of magic spells, without significance.[17] However, Hu recalled that One day on a walk with a friend, the friend told him [Hu Shih] about his unhappy love affair. They were just passing by a Taoist temple. As a joke, he had said to his friend: Here you can consult the oracle! No sooner said than done. They went into the temple together and asked the priest for an I Ching oracle. But he had not the slightest faith in this nonsense. I [Jung] asked him whether the oracle had been correct. Whereupon he replied reluctantly, Oh yes, it was, of course . . . Remembering the well-known story of the good friend who does everything one does not wish to do oneself, I cautiously asked him whether he had not profited by this opportunity. Yes, he replied, as a joke I asked a question too. And did the oracle give you a sensible answer? I asked. He hesitated. Oh well, yes, if you wish to put it that way. The subject obviously made him uncomfortable.[18] Being the one who refuted everything old so China could be reborn into a modern country, Hu might have been expected to look upon Daoist practices as mere superstition. Yet, even Hu admits, albeit reluctantly, to the accuracy of I Ching. I Ching itself is a form of divination employing forty-nine stalks of yarrow. The oracle then divides the fortynine stalks into two bundles arbitrarily. Carl Jung, as a part of his research, learned to use the I Ching, and commented that the only subjective intervention in this experiment consists in the experimenters arbitrarilythat is, without countingdividing up the bundle of forty-nine stalks at a single swoop. He does not know how many stalks are contained in each bundle, and yet the result depends upon their numerical relationship. All other manipulations proceed mechanically and leave no room for interference by the will.[19] Thus, the practice of I Ching is based on a very arbitrary first step from where the structured numerical theories of interpretation are derived. Jung attests to the accuracy of the I Ching for time and again [Jung] encountered amazing coincidences which seemed to suggest the idea of an acausal parallelism.[20] Perhaps the accuracy of I Ching is further realized by the fact that I Ching oracles have been taken seriously since the

unwritten antiquity of Chinese history up until the present. The I Ching, or the Book of Changes, is one of Chinas classics and is also the source of the yin-yang school of Daoism, from which Onmyodo has borrowed its knowledge of interpreting the doings of the shinrabanshou.[21] However, not all of Onmyodo came from I Ching. I Ching was mainly influential in the formulation of the onmyo part of the onmyogogyo theory. The gogyo, or five-element school of Daoism formed separately from the yin-yang school and continued to develop on its own until the Han dynasty, when the two schools were merged and the five-element and yin-yang theories were systematized and merged into what we could call the onmyogogo theory.[22] First of all, the onmyo theory classifies kinetic, offensive, and extroverted shinrabanshou into myo (yang), and static, defensive, and introverted shinrabanshou into on (yin). For example, most creatures are divided into male and female. When one compares the male with the female, most males are offensive and extroverted whereas most females are defensive and introverted and therefore, males are myo while females are on. Similarly, light, hardness, fire, noon, the sun, and summer are all myo while darkness, softness, water, midnight, the moon, and winter are all on. However, onmyo is not merely a theory to dualistically categorize shinrabanshou, but it also forms the foundation from where the future tendencies of shinrabanshou movements can be detected. For example, shinrabanshou which are myo will move forward, towards the left, or/and upwards; whereas, shinrabanshou which are on move backwards, turn left, or go downwards. Furthermore, an important point to observe in the onmyo theory is that on and myo are both concepts to describe the relative state of shinrabanshou.[23] All things that are myo have on within them and all things that are on have myo manifested within them. All creation appears as on and myo depending on circumstance and even when they appear as on or myo, the distinction is not absolute and could change depending on the time and place. For example, a lighted candle under the sun will form a shadow and thus is on, but when the same candle is lighted at night, it is myo. The gogyo theory, on the other hand, originally had the same role as the onmyo theory: a method of categorizing the shinrabanshou into groups aligned with fire, water, earth, metal, or trees.[24] By interacting with onmyo philosophy, the gogyo theory transformed from the five category of shinrabanshou to the five states of the ki,[25] which forms the shinrabanshou. However, the most significant change the gogyo theory went through is its application as concepts to describe time and space; this made it possible to ascribe the five elements to space and time. Space in gogyo could be organized into the following relationships: trees with east, fire with south, metal with west, water with the north, and earth with the center. Similarly, time and gogyo are related in the following way: trees with spring and the morning, fire with summer and noon, metal with autumn and dusk, water with winter and the night, and earth is said to be distributed equally among all seasons and times. The onmyo and gogyo form the basics of Onmyodo, but these theories become practical only after they are employed together. Each of the five elements has varying degrees of on or myo present within it: trees and fire are myo while metal and water are on, and

earth has an equal amount of on and myo. Also, although trees and fire lean more towards myo, trees have less myo and more on compared to fire because trees signify renewal and dawnwhen light once again emerges from darkness; whereas, fire signifies vitality and mid-daywhen light is at its strongest and no shadow is cast. Therefore, trees are called the on within myo. Similarly, fire is myo within myo, metal is myo within on, and water is on within on.[26] The relationship between the on and myo of the gogyo form the foundation from which shinrabanshou could be interpreted and observed. However, the above explanation of Onmyodo cosmology is abstract and is unlikely to be grasped and understood in one reading. An example of its application should help in understanding the onmyogogyo theory. The sun rises from the eastern horizon in the morning, symbolizing the birth of the sun. This makes the east into the direction of life and spring, and thus, the ki of trees that signifies the east is also imbued with life. Also, because trees are an on within myoa state of being where on is gradually being replaced by myoit could easily be concluded that the sun will keep on rising until it reaches the point of being myo within myo, (noon). At this point the sun is southernmost in the sky, the direction of fire, signifying strength, vitality, and the summer. Although fire is a symbol of power and vitality, a lighted torch slowly consumes the torch until nothing is left. Thus, although fire is myo within myo, it is ironically the destroyer of myo. This explains why the sun gradually goes down, a movement characterized by on. Once on increases to the point of reaching the western horizon, the direction of metal, the sun falls under the horizon and night ensues. This makes the east into the direction of aging and autumn as well as making the ki of metal, a myo within on, into an entropic ki. After dusk, light is lost and the world loses its heatnight falls. This signifies the death of the sun; thus, the direction towards where the sun settles, the north, is the direction of death and winter. North is also the direction of water, an on within on, and because it signifies death, the ki of water is also associated with death.[27] Water is associated with death, but it is also from where life is born; thus, on stops accumulating and myo starts to gain its influence. When myo becomes strong enough, the sun will be reborn from the eastern horizon and the whole cycle will start once again. The above model sets the fundamentals of the onmyogogyo theory on the shinrabanshou. The cosmos, to the Onmyodo practitioner, has a definite order. Everything and every phenomena could be divided into on or myo and into one of the five elements. However, when Onmyodo is used as a form of divination, the onmyogogyo theory must be explained in greater depth. With the foundation of the above information, Onmyodo practitioners could finally start employing their mystical means to see the true nature of things and to see into the future. Chapter 3Onmyodo Mysticism

As explained in the previous chapters, Onmyodo is an early attempt to form a empirical

paradigm as a means to allow its practitioners to see the world as structured upon the principles of onmyogogyo. This knowledge of the cosmos is fundamental in all other forms of Onmyodo practices, including divination practices. Before describing divination practices, one must know the relationships between the five elements and two theories that explain how all elements affect and transform into one another. The two theories describing these relationships are the conflict pentagram and the complementary pentagram.[28] These two theories contrast each other in that the conflict pentagram emphasizes how each element has the property of devouring another, while the complimentary pentagram emphasizes how each element has the property of creating one another. The conflict pentagram could be explained by a simple analogy: The trees dominate over the earth because trees suck nutrients out of the earth. The earth dominates over water because the earth blocks the waterways and stops its flow. Water wins over fire because water could extinguish a fire. Fire wins over metal because fire could melt metal. Metal wins over trees because metal could chop down trees. The conflict pentagram is signified by a five pointed star, and remains till the present as the symbol of Onmyodo. The complementary pentagram explains that trees give birth to fire, fire gives birth to earth, earth gives birth to metal, metal gives birth to water, and water gives birth to trees. [29] This theory of complementary pentagram depicts the change of seasons from spring, summer, autumn, and winter, representing the gradual shift from on within myo to on within on. This phenomena is represented by the tai ji diagram which is commonly known as the ying-yang symbol. This symbol, without doubt, represent the cycle of life and death as well as the cyclical nature of the world; the tai ji describes the natural course of all creation and phenomena. When the five-element theory and the yin-yang theory are combined, each of the five elements could be divided into yin and yang, composing the ten core attributes of shinrabanshou. Combining this with the twelve zodiac[30] forms the sixty tendencies of all things, which could be used to look into the past, and more importantly, into the future. Furthermore, when the sixty tendencies are combined with the twenty-eight guest stars of the moon, with the five planets, sun, and the moon, with the twelve devas, and with the eight tri-grams (symbolizing the eight directions and their onmyo analogy), this divination system becomes incredibly sophisticated.[31] Added to that, there are various methods of interpreting these signs, which makes Onmyodo divination practices a maze of signs and numbers without which the knowledge of the interpretive theories, makes no sense. Therefore, it is important to know the various methods of interpreting these numbers and signs. One of the earliest Onmyo technologies brought into Japan was Tonko.[32]Tonko, as its characters suggest, is a method used to find out how to hide from potential trouble. Tonko was thus employed as a way to find the correct direction and time when the heavens and the gods will protect the practitioner. Due to this nature, Tonko was most often used as a way of forming military strategies during times of war. The theories guiding the Tonko discipline are quite complex, as it relies on the relationship of the sixty tendencies and the eight tri-grams (directions) combined with the position of stars and the

gods at that specific time. The practitioner of Tonko must be highly knowledgeable in onmyogogyo theories and must know how to use the chyokuban, a rotating diagram used to calculate the relationships between the tendencies, tri-grams, stars, and gods. One famous episode when Tonko was used is when Tenmu Tenno used Tonko to defeat Prince Otomo. In the Nihon Shoki, it is said: When Tenmu Tenno arrived at Yokokawa with his army, thick, dark clouds started to cover the heavens. Being suspicious of this phenomena, Tenmu Tenno used his chokuban and said This signifies that all under heaven will be divided into two factions, but I shall emerge victorious in the end and govern all under heaven.[33] Later on, Tenmu Tenno defeats Prince Otomo in a stunning victory by employing his Tonko predictions. This not only suggests that Tonko was used in actual military expeditions but also means that military leaders then had a good understanding of the onmyogogyo theories. Another Onmyo discipline is Jugondo.[34] The characters composing jugon symbolize a Daoist magician holding a sword while casting a spell, and thus Jugondo is highly magical and esoteric. Historically, Jugondo was the first Onmyo discipline to be brought into Japan[35] and concentrate on solving problems such as disease, possession by evil spirits, or destroying monsters/apparitions by employing Chinese medicine and the fiveelement theory, and thus preserve the traditional image of the Daoist magician. Thus, the Jugondo magicians acted as ancient pharmacists and psychiatrists, employing Chinese medicine and hypnosis. The name of Jugondo disappeared in the early Heian period but most of its practicies, including the practice of pouring boiling water on their body and walking through fire, was transferred into Shugendo and state Onmyodo. The fact that the greatest master of Jugondo, Karakuni no Muraji, is an apprentice of En no Ozuno, the creator of Shugendo, implies close ties between Jugondo and Shugendo.[36] Shugendo is another discipline that is thickly influenced by Onmyodo. Most scholars of Japanese religion understand Shugendo to be a combination of Shinto and Mantrayana esoteric mysticism. They are right in saying that, but most do not realize that Shinto mysticism and Japanese mantrayana esotericism have also been deeply influenced by Onmyo thought. Due to the fact that the Tenno of Japan heavily relied upon Onmyo principles to build shrines (such as Ise Shrine) and to conduct rituals (such as the daijosai),[37] and due to the fact that core Shinto purity rituals, such as the harai norito, [38] and the misogi, are in reality Onmyo practices, one could say that Shintos foundation is thickly influenced by Onmyodo.[39] This could be seen first hand by the fact that the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, which more or less served as Shinto doctrine, are riddled with Onmyo thought. The elements that were originally Shinto, such as the gods and the fertility rituals, were all absorbed into Onmyodo and categorized into the five-elements. One could also see that Onmyo elements are present in the Japanese creation myths, and the antiquity of Onmyo influence on Shinto is painfully obvious. To make matters more complicated, one of the greatest contributors to Shintos Onmyonization was Kukai, the founder of the Shingon school of Buddhist mysticism.

Kukai, in Nakatomi no Harae Kunkai[40] explains Shinto mythology in Onmyo terms. For example, Kukai states that takamagahara[41] is in reality the sun, the moon, and Venus. Kukai further states that the happiness of all people depends on the movement of the sun, moon, and the five planets as well as the twelve daeva kings and the twenty eight host stars. Kukai also explains the relationship between Shinto gods and the five-elements. [42] Kukai was also the one who brought the Vajrapana Sutra (It is believed that the Vajrapana Sutra is a fabrication by Chinese mystics because such a document does not exsit in India), the core document Shyukuyodo, an Onmyo discipline, into Japan following his studies in Tang China in 810 century c.e..[43] One may wonder why Kukai was versed in Onmyo thought, but this is due to the fact that he learned Mantrayana Buddhism in China, where Mantrayana Buddhism has been deeply influenced by Daoist five-element thought.[44] His knowledge of Onmyo technology is apparent from the various construction work he had completed during his lifetime which all fit within the gogyo principles. Once during the Taisho era, the Japanese government decided to build a dam where Kukai reinforced lake Manno[45] into a reservoir for irrigation. When the government technicians investigated the lake, they found out that the technology used by Kukai to reinforce the lake was far more advanced than what one would expect from a Buddhist monk in 812 century c.e.[46] Kukai was also a practitioner of a Daoist alchemical practice called Rentanjutsu, which was the most advanced discipline in Onmyo technology. Rentanjutsu aims at creating the Shintan, the medicine of immortality, through extracting and processing tan or mercury. The Myoyoji Sankei Mandala preserved in Tanjo shrine depicts Shingon priests extracting mercury on Mt. Koyathe headquarters of Shingon Buddhism.[47] It is possible that Kukai chose Mt. Koya as the headquarters of Shingon Buddhism because Mt. Koya lies on a huge mercury deposit. Combining the above account with the fact that Shingon astrology is derived from Shukuyodo, which is an astrological branch of the five-element school, is enough to prove that Onmyodo has had substantial, if not a fundamental influence in the formulation of Shingon mysticism. Part 2- The Effect of Onmyod in Japanese History Introduction As written above, the technology of Onmyodo was, to the people in Japan in Japans formative years, capable of explaining all phenomena and all creation while calculating their future tendencies. However, Onmyodo itself was not named Onmyodo until the early Heian period. Rather, it was called by its various component theories and schools, such as Jugondo, Shukuyodo, Tonko, Shingon mysticism (Mikkyo), Shinto mysticism, and the like, which all were influenced by the onmyogogyo theory. It was through these various religions and schools that the onmyogogyo theory was expressed and applied to the early history of Japan. Thus, tracing the history of Onmyodo is analogous to tracing the history and transformations of onmyogogyo thought.

Chapter 4Onmyo thought in Asuka era Japan

The oldest account of Onmyo thought being brought into Japan is found in the Nihon Shoki. According to this source, a professor of the five-element school was brought to Japan from Kudara (Southwest Korea) in 513 century c.e.[48] This means that this was the first time the I Ching was brought into Japan as well because the I Ching is based on the five-element theory. As the Asuka era (early sixth to late seventh century) progressed, more scholars of Onmyo thought arrived from Kudara, including professors of astrology and professors of calendar making, and texts on astrology, on geography, on Daoist magic, and on Tonko. The Yamato court at that time made their vassals study these texts and learn from the Kudara professors. The Otomo family was one of the vassal families that served the court then and was assigned to study texts on Tonko.[49] The fact that the Otomo family later became a founder of the Koga ninja clan suggests that Koga ninjutsu may have had its roots in Tonko, a study of how to hide ones self according to the balance of yin and yang around them.[50] There is no question that Onmyo thought spread rapidly through the aristocracy of Japan. In the instance where Kudara asked for help when Shiragi (Southeast Korea) and Koukuri (Northern Korea) attacked them, Kinmei Tenno told his men to send whatever reinforcement Kudara needs and not to forget sending them professors of medicine, astronomy, and divination.[51] After Japan entered the seventh century c.e, Buddhist monks from Korea or China brought most Onmyo texts into Japan. Due to the fact that Buddhist monks, who are religious officials, were bringing Onmyo thought into Japan, the religious aspect of Onmyo thought became emphasized. Combined with this, the attraction of the Japanese people towards ritual-oriented religions made Onmyodo widely accepted. This wide acceptance of Onmyo principles could be seen by the fact that the onmyogogyo theories were not even mentioned during the controversy over whether Japan should adopt Buddhism or not. When Mononobe-no-Moriya and Soga-no-Iname were clashing with each other over whether Japan should get rid of all Buddhist influences, the two sides used Onmyo thought as a way of legitimizing their claims that Buddhism was needed/not needed.[52] For example, The Mononobe family stole one of the Soga statues of the Buddha, threw it into Yodo, river and burned the temple from where they stole the statue. After this, a mysterious fire burned down the Mononobe mansion. The Soga clan publicized loudly that the fires were caused because the Mononobe clan upset the balance of nature and angered the Heavenly Sovereign.[53] Following this example, Japanese politicians of the early days employed Onmyo principles as a way to legitimize their arguments and get what they wanted. The first person to use Onmyo thought in political reform was Prince Shotoku. Although commonly known as an advocate of Buddhism as seen by his support of the Soga family, Prince Shotoku was also very well educated in Onmyo thought[54]. The most important contribution to Japanese history by Prince Shotoku is unquestionably the 17 article constitution. This constitution is deeply influenced by Onmyo thought for three reasons. First of all, the number of the constitution is the sum of nine and eight, which are the

maximum numerals of yang and yin respectively. The second reason is that the first nine constitutions are in thou shalt format while the remaining eight are in thou shalt not format which suggests the division of the constitution into a yang half and a yin half.[55] The third reason is that the constitution was implemented in 604 c.e, which is the year of the rat meets the tree of light according to the sixty tendencies, which symbolizes a new beginning, a revolution. Prince Shotoku also created a twelve level ranking system for imperial court officials. Most contemporary scholars agree that Prince Shotoku employed Confucian principles to name each rank. When employing the Confucian principle the ranking of the six virtues will be te, jen, yi, li, zhi, and xin.[56] However, Prince Shotokus ranking system was in the order of te, jen, li, xin, yi, and zhi, which reflects the ranking system as written in the five element school texts by Guan Xi. Thus, contrary to popular belief, the ranking system of Yamato imperial court officials was based on Onmyo thought.[57] To further support this argument, one could point out the fact that the clothing worn by the officials was colored in according Onmyo colorsblue, red, yellow, white, and black. The twelve ranks reflect the worship of the North Star and its twelve guardian stars. The North Star obviously represents the Tenno. All these practices correspond to daoist principles described in Guan Xi and the Spring and Autumn Annals.[58] Thus, Prince Shotoku was a pioneer in introducing Onmyo principles into the bureaucratic structure of ancient Japan. Chapter 4- Tenmu Tenno and the Emergence of the Onmyoji

When Tenchi Tenno died in 671 c.e, his incompetent son, Prince Otomo, became Tenno. However, Prince Ooamano, who had the support of powerful nobles, led his troops against Prince Otomo in 672 century c.e., in the Jinshin Rebellion.[59] Prince Ooamano (who later became Tenmu Tenno) employed Tonko to defeat Prince Otomo as explained in chapter three. Tenmu Tenno was well versed in Onmyo principles, for in Nihon Shokiit is mentioned that Tenmu Tenno often practiced astronomy and Tonko.[60] Also, Tenmu was the first sovereign of Japan to use the title Tenno (previous to that, sovereigns were called Ookimi, which translates into Great King), a title used to refer to the supreme deity of Daoism, Shang Ti, a manifestation of the North Star, which is the cardinal star of Onmyo astrology. However, the greatest accomplishment of Tenmu Tenno is the creation of the Onmyoryo (Office of Onmyo) within the Nakatsukasasho (Ministry of Imperial Affairs).[61] The Onmyoryo was established as a means to research Onmyodo (Tenmu Tenno was the first person to use the word Onmyodo to refer to the principles influenced by onmyogogyo thought) and as a means to predict future events and record the passage of time accurately. A total of eighty nine[62] Onmyo technicians worked at the Onmyoryo. These Onmyodo technicians were called Onmyoji. Due to the fact that the Onmyoji predicted the future, cured disease, and protected the aristocracy from trouble, they collected considerable power in little time. When nobles had any problems, the first person to consult with was an onmyoji, a simple reason such

as a dog barking in front of their house was enough for the nobles to be wary of potential assassins. With this increasing paranoia in the aristocracy, anyone with any knowledge of Onmyo technology had an advantage. One example is the political battles between Dokyo and Fujiwara no Nakamaro which took place between 761 and 764 c.e.[63] Fujiwara no Nakamaro, a prominent political leader in the Nara era, controlled the Tenno as a puppeteer does a puppet. However, the monk Dokyo started to emerge as an influential politcal adversary to Nakamaro. Both Nakamaro and Dokyo were versed in Onmyodo, and many stories remain depicting how these two employed Onmyodo magic to disrupt or kill each other.[64] However, because Dokyo was a monk who has just returned from China and had learned the latest advanced Daoism, he always had an upper hand. One day however, Nakamaro visted Kibi no Masabi, an Onmyodo master who has just returned from China, to learn the lastest advance in Onmyodo technology. Kibi no Masabi detected by divination that Nakamaro was planning a rebellion to get rid of Dokyo. As a result, Dokyo was able to prepare for Nakamaros rebellion, quell it quickly when it started, and execute Nakamaro. Thus, Dokyo eradicated his political adversary by employing Onmyodo, and became the Pope of the Nara court.[65] Furthermore, Shotoku Tenno decided that she wanted Dokyo to be the next Tenno; however, Wake no Kiyomaro, who was an Onmyodo practitioner himself, forged a prophesy from the Kami of Usahachiman , stating that a person without imperial blood could not be Tenno. This stalled made it impossible for Dokyo to advance further in establishing a firm hold of his power and after the death of Shotoku Tenno, Dokyo was reduced in rank and sent to the east, where he died shortly thereafter. This political drama shows how much Onmyodo influenced politics, to the point of drastically changing history. The influence of Onmyodo only keeps on increasing after the Nara era. In fact, the Heian era was the height of Onmyodo influence in Japanese history. All actions of the aristocracy became closely influenced by the divinations performed by the Onmyoji, and the Onmyoji took full advantage of this to create great paranoia in the Japanese ruling class.[66] Conclusion Onmyodo does not exist by name in Japan anymore. However, it is only the name which does not existits practices still remain. As seen in the previous pages, Onmyodo had a profound influence in the formative years of Japan and in early Japanese politics. It is virtually impossible to separate Onmyodo from Japanese history without denying the existence of Japan itself. As Robert Ellwood stated, there seems to be a nihondo which binds all aspect of Japanese culture, an unseen entity which is present in every movement, every action of the Japanese people. As seen in the above pages, Onmyodo has penetrated into all aspects of Japanese religious and political life. One could easily assume the profound impact it has had in the social level and proof exists even in the presentthe fact that the days of the week are named after the five elements and the sun

and the moon which are the yang and yin. Directional taboos are still in effect and calendars list days of good luck and bad luck, all a product of Onmyodo astronomy. Thus, it is not a far fetched assumption to say that Onmyodo is in actuality nihondo.

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Footnotes: [1] Robert S. Ellwood & Richard Pilgrim, Japanese Religion (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1992), 3 [2] ibid, 3 [3] The characters composing Onmyodo ( ) are on, ( ) the character for hidden or dark, myo ( ), the character for light, and do ( ), the character for a path. Thus, Onmyodo could be translated into the way of darkness and light, or into the way of yin and yang. [4] Sasahara Kazuo, Nihonshi Kenkyuu (Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha), 50 [5] In this paper, the Emperor of Japan will be referred to as Tennobecause Emperor is not the correct translation etymologically. The characters composing Tenno ( ), Ten ( ) (Heaven) and no ( )(King) should not be interpreted literally, for its true meaning is The link between Heaven and Earth. [6] In this paper, religious Daoism refers to astrological/fortune telling practices as well as magical, alchemical, and ritualistic components of Daoism. [7] In this paper, philosophical Daiosm refers to the philosophical and medicinal components of Daoism. 8 Sasaki Masaru, Onmyodo no Hon: Nihon no Yami o Tsukasadoru Higi, Senjutsu no Keifu (Tokyo: Dainihon Insatsu), 9.

[9] Ronald M. Green, Religion and Moral Reasoning (New York: Oxford University Press), 3 [10] ibid, 3 [11] Takahira Meikai, Shoukanshi (Tokyo: Shinkigensha), 96 [12] The Shinto belief that death is profane stems from the Yomi no Kudari story within the Kojiki, where Izanagi tries to bring Izanami, his dead wife, back from Yomi no Kuni. However, Izanagi runs away from Yomi no Kuni after seeing her loved one rotting and infested with maggots; he is further pursued by demons and lightening spirits as well as by his decrepit ex-wife. After escaping from this mayhem, Izanagi comments that I have gone to a profane place and beheld the profane, I must perform a misogi (ritual purification using water). This is the first mention of the profanity of death within Shinto. (Itasaka Toshikazu, Hajimete no Kojiki (Tokyo: Nihon Bungeisha), 30 [13] Green, Religion and Moral Reasoning, 135-6 [14] Onmyogogyo is the core theory of Onmyodo. The word Onmyogogyo could be separated into the Onmyo (yin-yang) and Gogyo (five elements) theories postulated by the respective schools of Daoism (the yin-yang school and the five-element school) which will be explained later on in this paper. [15] Sasaki Masaru, Onmyodo no Hon, 36 [16] Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co.), 27 [17] Carl G. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (New York: Random House), 374 [18] ibid, 374 [19] It is to be noted that Jung is speaking as an individual practitioner of I-Ching rather than as a professor of psychology, ibid, 373 [20] By acausal paralellism, Jung is implying that the unconscious psyche interfered with the dividing of the yarrow stalks, which is the only arbitrary step in I Ching divination. Jung asserts that this arbitrary step exists in order to make present the will of the collective unconscious in a way that the conscious part of the psyche could understand and recognize. (ibid, 374) [21] Shinrabanshou is a Japanese word that refers to All Creation and All Phenomena in the world. The word itself is composed of the character shin (forest), ra (silk), ban (ten thousand), and shou (phenomena). (Sasaki, 66) [22] Murayama Shuichi Nihon Onmyodo Shiwa (Osaka: Osakashyoseki

Kabushikigaisha), 14 [23] Sasaki, 66 [24] Uryu Naka & Shibuya Nobuhiro, Nihonshyuukyou no Subete (Tokyo: Nihon Bungeisha), 274 [25] From the Chinese chi, which refers to the pneuma from which all things are formed. (Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 219 [26] Sasaki, 67 [27] It is beyond question that the synchronicity of water and death influenced the naming if the mizuko, the aborted fetuses which were said to have been returned to the spiritual realm with the guidance of the Jizo boddhisatva. [28] The conflict pentagram is called the gogyo soukoku and the complimentary diagram is called the gogyo soujou; these could be translated as the five elements of victory, and as the five elements of co-existence, respectively. (Sasaki, 6 [29] Asuka Koushou, Jumon, Jumon, Jumon (Tokyo: OS Shyuppan Kabushikigaisha), 80 [30] The twelve zodiacs are rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, rooster, dog, and pig. [31] Sasaki, 89 [32] ( ) Djn ji| [33] Translated from Japanese to English by the author of this thesis from an excerpt of the Nihon Shoki found in Sasaki, 48. [34] ( ) [35] Jugondo was brought to Japan for the first time in 577 c.e when a Jugondo magician came from Kudara. [36] Sasaki, 105 [37] The daijosai is a ritual performed when a Tenno dies. After a new Tenno performs the ritual, the spirit of the dead Tenno will manifest itself in the new Tenno. This way, the Tenno spirit will never die and be passed on to the next generation.

[38] Motoda Fujio, Shinto no Hon: Yaoyorozu no Kamigami ga tsudou Hikyouteki Saishi no Sekai, (Tokyo: Dainihon Insatsu), 49 [39] Sasaki, 138 [40] This document was written by Kukai as an explanation of the Nakatomi harai method. The Nakatomi harai method was based on Jugondo principles. [41] The High Plain of Heaven where the highest kami (Amatsukami), preside. [42] Sasaki, 139 [43] Nakamura Yukio, Shingon Mikkyo no Hon: Kukai Densetsu no Nazo to SokushinJoubutsu no Himitsu (Tokyo: Dainihon Insatsu), 132 [44] Nakamura, 31-32 [45] Lake Manno has a circumference of 20 kilometers and provides irrigation to 46 square kilimeters of farmland, it still is the largest reservoir in Japan. [46] Hoshino Sei, Mikkyou no Hon: Odorukubeki Higi, Shuuhou no Sekai (Tokyo: Dainihon Insatsu), 27 [47] Nakamura, 37 [48] Murayama, 14 [49] The characters composing the word tonko could be translated as Hiding under the shell. [50] Murayama, 15 [51] Sasaki, 44 [52] Murayama, 15 [53] Ibid [54] Sasahara, 52 [55] ibid, 53 [56] te (Benevolence), jen (Lovingkindness), yi (humility), li (ritual behavior), zhi (wisdom), xin (truth)

[57] Murayama, 16 [58] ibid, 17 [59] Sasahara, 62 [60] Sasaki, 48 [61] Murayama, 29 [62] eighty nine is obviously the combination of eight and nine, which are the maximum numerals of yin and yang, respectively [63] Sasahara, 86 [64] Sasaki, 47 [65] This historical account was compiled by combining the accounts from Sasahara, Sasaki, and Murayama. (Sasahara, 86; Sasaki, 51-54, Murayama, 33) [66] Murayama, 36