John Om Bio Honors Section 1 2-8-12 Chapter 12 Section 1 The ability to understand what controls heredity is the key

to understand life. After figuring out what controls heredity figuring out how it does it is important. DNA is the genetic information that produces proteins. Genotype: genetic makeup (DNA) Phenotype: physical characteristics (proteins) Nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine We can make 64 combinations (43) Nitrogen bases are read in triplets Amino acids make up proteins There are 20 different amino acids Different orders of DNA make different genes Fredrick Griffith: English scientist-1928 Studied pneumonia: One strain produced deadly smooth colonies and one produced harmless rough edged colonies. These were two specific phenotypes. 1. Injects mice with both strains a. The mice inject with the bacteria that caused disease die 2. Boils disease and puts it in a petri dish. The mice live. 3. Mixes heat killed disease causing bacteria with the harmless bacteria b. The pneumonia kills the mice 4. Found that the rough colonies had changed to smooth colonies 5. Cultures the mixed stains and finds the harmless rough strain had been transformed to smooth Concluded that Transformation: genetic material that can be taken from one organism and incorporated into another Griffith did not know what caused this so he called it a factor At this time scientists thought the macromolecule that carried genetic material would be proteins. They thought that because every living organism is made up of proteins it would make sense Avery: Avery eliminated 4 macromolecules form Griffiths experiment Treated the test tube with one thing at a time First was Proteases which break down proteins When he did this the bacteria and the mice died The hypothesis was it treated with proteases there would be no transformation He treated it a second time with Lipases He destroy lipids

When he did this the harmless bacteria still were transformed Third was Analylese example of enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates The harmless bacteria still transformed Nuclease breaks down nucleic acids When this was tested the mice lived The harmless bacteria was not transformed Nucleic was the transforming factors responsible for being able to pass down genetic information Scientific community was not convinced. Hersey and Chase: 1952 Experiment finally put the controversy to rest Used bacteriophages Bacteriophages: virus that invades bacteria and uses the bacteria as a factory to produce more viruses Virus: is technically not living because it cannot reproduce without assistance of a host cell Protein: s35 DNA: p32 Bacteriophage only contain DNA and protein Bacteriophage lands on bacteria 1. Injects genetic material into host cell 2. Material allows the virus to replicate itself Hersey and Chase the DNA and protein with isotopes DNA: labeled with phosperous-32 Protein: labeled with sulfur-35 Two different experiments 1. Bacteria is attacked by phages injected with P32 a. Left radioactivity within the cell 2. Bacteria is injected by phages with S35 b. No radioactivity in the cell

John Om Bio Honors Section 1 2-10-11 Continuation of Chapter 12 Section 1 Nucleotide: is composed of one nitrogen containing base, 5deoxyribose (sugar), and a phosphate group Purines: double ringed structures 1. Larger than pyrimidine Pyrimidines: single rings structures DNA is made up of strands of these monomers Chargaffs Rules: Chargaff wanted to figure out the composition of DNA The amount of adenine compared to the amount of thymine is relatively the same. The amount of guanine compared to the amount of cytosine is relatively the same. Concentration of Adenine is approximately equal to thymine 1. [A] approximately [T] Concentration of guanine is approximately equal to cytosine 1. [G] approximately [C] Rosalind Franklin: X-ray crystallography showed DNA was in a helical structure Watson and Crick Wanted to find out exactly what it look like Through various chemical equations we have the structure set up by Watson and Crick that it is double helix wound upon it The bond between the monomer is sugar phosphate groups The make up the backbone The hydrogen bonds connect these ATGC Base pairing rules: A goes with T G goes with C Distance between the backbones Chapter 2 Section 2 DNA: Prokaryotic Cells Prokaryotic chromosomes are using singular circular stand of DNA Eukaryotic Cells It is 1000 times less DNA than what you find in a Eukaryotic cell The structure of DNA is composed of a super coils that is a chromosomes One strand of DNA can have different sizes Each stand is compacted into a chromosome First the DNA molecule is wrapped around proteins called histones

Eight histones are compacted together to form nucleosomes These nucleosomes from supercoils that compose chromosomes John Om Bio Honors Section 1 2-13-12 Chapter 12 section 2 continuation Replication Occurs in all cells prior to cell division S phase replication occurs Structure of the DNA molecule allows to be copied Steps of DNA replication: 1. Double helix structure unwinds (helicase) 2. Hydrogen bonds break in-between the base pairs and separate 3. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand a. DNA polymerase nucleotides are added to the template strands b. polymerase are free floaters from the nucleus 4. The base pairs attach to their rightful place A=T, C=G 5. The DNA winds back up after replication occurs John Om Bio Honors Section 1 2-17-12 Chapter 12 section 3 RNA Similar to DNA and is made up of a long chain of nucleotides Nucleotides are made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base RNA is different than DNA for three main reasons: 1. Sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose 2. RNA is single-stranded 3. RNA contains uracil in place of thymine RNA molecules is involved in one job in majority Protein Synthesis assembly of amino acids into proteins is controlled by RNA There are three types of RNA: 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Messenger RNA carry copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell Ribosomal RNA makes up the major part of ribosomes Transfer RNA transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary sequence in RNA transcription Transcription requires an enzyme known as RNA polymerase During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA. DNA Translation RNA transcription PROTEIN RNA polymerase binds to DNA in a specific place The region where enzyme will bind to DNA is called a promoter These promoters are signals in DNA that indicate to the enzyme where to bind to make RNA Signals in DNA cause transcription to stop when new RNA molecule is completed RNA molecules undergoes a process called editing in the mRNA Exons expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein that splices back together to form the final mRNA

Introns intervening sequence of DNA; does not code for a protein, that stays in the inside the cell nucleus Genetic Code Proteins are made by joining amino acids into long chains called polypeptides. Each polypeptide contains a combination of any or all of the 20 different amino acids. The properties of proteins are determined by the order in which different amino acids are joined together to produce polypeptides. The language of mRNA instructions is called the genetic code. RNA contains four different bases: A, U, C, and G. In effect, the code is written in a language that has only four letters. The genetic code is read three letters at a time, so that each word of the coded message is three bases long. Each three-letter word in mRNA is known as a codon, as shown below. A codon consists of three consecutive nucleotides that specify a single amino acid that is to be added to the polypeptide. Translation The sequence of nucleotide bases in an mRNA molecule serves as instructions for the order in which amino acids should be joined together to produce a polypeptide. The decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein) is called translation Translation always occurs on ribosomes During translation, the cell uses information from messenger RNA to produce proteins. Codon is a group of three nucleotides on messenger RNA that specify a particular amino acid. Steps of Translation: 1. Before translation can occur, messenger RNA must first be transcribed from DNA in the nucleus and released into the cytoplasm. 2. Translation begins when an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm attaches to a ribosome. As each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome and attached to the growing polypeptide chain. The three bases on the tRNA molecule, called the anticodon, are complementary to one of the mRNA codons. 3. The ribosome forms a peptide bond between the first and second amino acids. At the same time, the ribosome breaks the bond that had held the first tRNA molecule to its amino acid and releases the tRNA molecule. The ribosome then moves to the third codon, where a tRNA molecule brings it the amino acid specified by the third codon.

4. The polypeptide chain continues to grow until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA molecule. When the ribosome reaches a stop codon, it releases the newly formed polypeptide and the mRNA molecule, completing the process. John Om Biology Honors Section 1 2-28-12 Chapter 12 Section 4 Gene Mutation: (single strand) change in genetic material Mutations that affect one nucleotide are called point mutations because they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence Point mutation involves substitution Frameshift mutations: mutation that shifts the reading frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide Frameshift mutation involves insertion and deletion

John Om Biology Honors Section1 2-29-12 Chapter 12 Section 4 continuation Chromosomal Mutation: (many genes) involves changes in the number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations may change the locations of genes on chromosomes and even the number of copies of some genes.

Chapter 12 Section 5 Gene Regulation: how gene works A typical gene includes start and stop signals, with the nucleotides to be translated in between. The DNA sequence shown is only a very small part of an actual gene. Prokaryotic cells Operator: region of chromosome in an operon to which the repressor binds when the operon is turned off Operon: a group of genes that are regulating by one particular event Lac Operon: three different genes that codes for the enzymes that act sequentially in lactose utilization in many bacteria. The lac genes are turned off by repressors and turned on by the presence of lactose. Eucaryotic cells Lactase: an enzyme occurring in certain yeasts and in the intestinal juices of mammals and catalyzing the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose. Upstream Enhancers: sequences of DNA associated to the promoter TATA Box: stabilize RNA polymerase that are attaching to the promoter sequence Master regulator genes: also known as Hox genes, found in all eukaryotic cells, controls the genes in order, that develop the organs and tissues