CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0

Project Background

An antenna is a transducer that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical current or vice versa. Antennas generally deal in the transmission and reception of radio waves and are a necessary part of all radio equipment. Based on another source, antenna is defined as an electrical conductor or system of conductors. Antenna can be used in two ways communication, transmitting and receiving. An antenna is a circuit element that provides a transition form a guided wave on a transmission line to a free space wave and it provides for the collection of electromagnetic energy. The most basic antenna is called quarter wave vertical antenna, it is a quarter wavelengths long and is a vertical radiator. Typical examples of this type would be seen installed on motor vehicles for two way communications. Technically the most basic antenna is an isotropic radiator. This is a mythical antenna which radiates in all directions as does the light from a lamp bulb. It is the standard against which we sometimes compare other antennas. In transmitting systems the RF signal is generated, amplified, modulated and applied to the antenna. Meanwhile, in receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic waves that are cutting through the antenna and induce alternating

2 currents that are used by the receiver. An antenna ability to transfer energy from the atmosphere to its receiver with the same efficiency as it transfers energy from the transmitter into the atmosphere. Antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of whether an antenna is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy.

Figure 1.1 Quarter Wave Vertical Antenna [2].

Figure 1.2 Dipole Antenna [2].

1.1

Problem Statement

There are many aspects need to be considered in designing an antenna. The problems that usually found in existing antenna are referred to the size of the antenna. First of all, the size of normal antennas is very huge and increasing the cost expended. The larger antennas are difficult to be located and unable to shift from one place to another place. For example, the Yagi-Uda and parabolic-dish (ASTRO) antennas that

3 found on home rooftops are difficult to remove or relocate [3]. In order to overcome the problem, a meander line antenna could be a best solution to be designed. Meander line antenna is chosen because it is one of the best techniques used to reduce or miniaturize the size of antenna. It is smaller in size and very flexible to be shifted or relocated. The meander line technique is an effective size to be designed because it consumes smaller area and produced larger volume due to the meandered element. In terms of radiation, an ordinary antenna radiates its signal only in one direction of strongest emission called directivity. The current ordinary antennas have a small scope of directivity and not able to change its directivity itself. In order to obtain a uniform transmission of radiation through the strongest emission, the directivity should be increased. Therefore, designing parasitic element together with meander line antenna can contributes towards good parasitic effect [4]. It enables the changing of its directivity by itself and resulting in higher power gain of antenna.

1.2

Project Objectives

The objective of this project is to design, simulate and fabricate a parasitic meander line antenna at ISM band (2.4 2.5 GHz). It is designed to be smaller in size compared to existing antennas and consistently reducing the cost of design. The meander line antenna has been designed to operate at 2.4 GHz as it approaches the industrial, scientific and medical radio bands. Aside from size, the proposed design also emphasize in producing higher directivity as well as it can contributes towards higher gain. The characteristic of antenna with minimum return loss as possible is obtained and considered good and able to perform well.

4 1.3 Project Scope

The scope of the project is designing the basic meander line antenna then enhances the design by adding parasitic element at low cost of simple structure. The parasitic meander line antenna is designed to operate at ISM band. Then, both of the basic and parasitic meander line antennas are simulated using the Computer Simulation Technology (CST) software. The project continues by fabricating both of the designs on FR-4 printed circuit board by using chemical etching process. The parameters that simulated and measured through the project are the resonant frequency, return loss, directivity, gain, bandwidth and radiation pattern. The fabricated designs are measured with the aid of the equipments such as network analyzer, coaxial cables and signal generator. Then, the comparison between simulation and measurement results of basic meander line and parasitic meander line antenna are presented in the form of report.

1.4

Methodology

First of all, before the project was conducted, the literature review was done by gathering information about existing ordinary antennas. Information regarding the project taken from books, journals and internet resources for better understanding and to find solutions or options. As for next step, the design of parasitic meander line antenna was studied. The process of designing antenna using parasitic element was analyzed. Then, get used to the software and basic skills of it. The software or simulator that used is Microwave Studio CST of Microwave Office. The parameters that obtained from simulation are the frequency, return loss, directivity, gain, bandwidth, radiation pattern and polarization [5]. Besides, the fabrication process is carried out onto FR-4 printed circuit board by using chemical etching technique. The FR-4 board is used because of its material substrates. It is made of woven fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is flame resistant. It is versatile high pressure thermo set plastic laminate grade with good

5 strength to weight ratios. The FR-4 is commonly used as an electrical insulator of its near zero water absorption characteristics. The material is known to retain its high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both dry and humid conditions [6]. These attribute with good fabrication characteristics. The chemical etching technique is used because of its ability to dissolve unwanted materials such as metals, semiconductor materials or glass [7]. The parameters that measured after fabrication should be same as simulation parameters. The equipments used to measure the parameters are network analyzer, coaxial cables and signal generator. Beyond that, both simulation and measurement results are analyzed and compared. Report or thesis is prepared. Both of the results are compiled together in final thesis. Finally, the thesis is submitted to supervisor.

START

LITERATURE REVIEW

KOLEJ UNIVERSTI TEKNIKAL KEBANGS

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTR

CADANGAN PROJEK SARJANA MU UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PROPOS

DESIGN
CADANGAN PROJEK NO PROJECT PROPOSAL

NO

SIMULATION Tajuk Projek Project Title

DEVELOPING WIRELESS BASED CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL ROBO ELECTRONIC COMPONENT INSERTION TASK

FABRICATION

Nama Pelajar YE Name Students S THANISH RAO S/O RAMA RAO MEASUREMENT

REPORT WRITING No. Matrik Pelajar : Students Matrix No.

B 0 1 0 6 1 0 2 4 1

Kursus Course

Nama Penyelia END Supervisors Name

Figure 1.3 Flow Chart of Project

EN. AHMAD ZUBIR BIN JAMIL

KOLEJ UNIVERSTI TEKNIKAL KEBANGSA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN ELEKTR

CADANGAN PROJEK SARJANA MU UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PROPOS

CADANGAN PROJEK PROJECT PROPOSAL

Tajuk Projek ... Project Title (Tandatangan Pelajar)

(Students Signature)

DEVELOPING WIRELESS BASED CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL ROBO ELECTRONIC COMPONENT INSERTION TASK Nama Nama
Name : .... Name

(Tandatanga (Supervisors

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0

ANTENNA

Antenna can be classified into several types such as, wire antennas, microstrip antennas, reflector antennas, leaky-wave antennas and aperture antennas. Among these antennas, microstrip antennas are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture and design because of the simple 2-dimensional physical geometry. Microstrip antennas also known as printed antennas and most common is the microstrip patch antenna. Microstrip antenna shapes are square, rectangular, circular and elliptical and any continuous shape is possible. Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications due to their low-profile structure. Therefore they are extremely compatible for embedded antennas in handheld wireless devices. There are several important antenna characteristics that should be considered when choosing an antenna for our applications. Antenna radiation pattern, frequency, return loss, gain, directivity, polarization and bandwidth are the important characteristics.

8 2.0.1 Radiation Pattern

An antenna radiation pattern is a 3-Dimensional plot of its radiation far from the source. Antenna radiation patterns usually take two forms, the elevation pattern and the azimuth pattern. The elevation pattern is a graph of the energy radiated from the antenna looking at it from the side. The azimuth pattern is a graph of the energy radiated from the antenna looking at it from directly above the antenna [10].

Figure 2.1 Azimuth and elevation angle [2].

Figure 2.2 Radiation pattern in polar coordinates [2].

9 2.0.2 Resonant Frequency

The antenna frequency refers to the frequency range where the antenna operates. For an example, the monopole and dipole antenna operates below 3 GHz while horn antenna operates at 10 GHz and above.

2.0.3 Antenna Gain Gain is an antennas performance where the directivity and efficiency of antenna comes into one scope. The gain can be expressed in several different expressions such as power gain, absolute gain and partial gain. The maximum power gain is known as maximum directive gain. It refers to the ratio of radiated power in particular direction to the radiation of isotropic antenna. Power gains also known as a ratio of the power input to the antenna to the power output from the antenna. The absolute gain is known as power gain which includes reflection losses due to impedance mismatch between antenna and feedline. Meanwhile, the partial gain is known as power gain for a given polarization. It is defined in form of ratio of radiation intensity, U corresponding to polarization given to the total radiation intensity of isotropic antenna. Examples of partial gain [10]:

(2.1) (2.2) (2.3)

10 2.0.4 Antenna Directivity

The directivity of an antenna plays a vital role in radiating the signal. The directivity or directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average radiation intensity [10].

Figure 2.3 Directivity of Horn Antenna

2.0.5

Antenna Polarization

Polarization is the orientation of electromagnetic waves far from the source. Polarization is most important in trying to get the maximum performance from the antennas. For best performance we need to match up the polarization of the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna [10].

11

Figure 2.4 Polarization Coordinates [2].

2.0.6

Antenna Bandwidth

It is a range of frequencies that allows signal passing through without any poor performance due to a poor impedance match. In field of antenna, there are two different bandwidth are identified, narrowband and wideband. It differs in terms of input impedance, pattern and polarization [10].

2.1

MEANDER LINE ANTENNA

Meander line antenna is one type of the microstrip antennas. It is a combination of conventional wire and planar strip line. Meander line is a technique used for size reduction in designing an antenna. A meander line is a structure or design formed by folding a conductive pattern of a folded dipole antenna in the shape of meander. It is an extension of the basic folded antenna to include a large number of folded elements in various linear patterns as shown in Figure 2.5. Folding the elements in a meander produces resonances at frequencies much lower than resonances of a single-element antenna of equal length [12].

12

Figure 2.5 Prototype Antenna Electrical Configuration [12].

The Figure 2.6 below shows the meander line antenna designed by folding a dipole antenna in the shape of meander. The meander line antenna includes a bottom half section consisting of a folded conductive pattern, a feeding point (point c) approximately at the central part thereof and top half section consisting of a folded conductive pattern shaped like bottom half section. The meander line antenna further includes a coarse tuning section (point a) consisting of two or more short circuit conductive patterns 1 for coarse tuning that connect countering conductive patterns of either or both of the bottom half section and the top half section at a predetermined interval. A fine tuning section (point b) consisting of two or more short circuit conductive patterns 2 for fine tuning that connect countering conductive patterns of the top half section at a position that counters the feeding point (point c) at a predetermined interval.

13

Figure 2.6 Basic Structure of Meander-line Antenna

Meander line technology allows designing antennas with a small size and provides wideband performance. Meander line antennas are an interesting class of resonant antennas and they have been widely studied in order to reduce the size of the radiating elements in wire antennas, monopole, dipole and folded dipole type antennas. In meander line antennas, the wire is continuously folded to reduce the resonant length. Increasing the total wire length in antenna of fixed axial length lowers its resonant frequency. According to S. Best, when made to be resonant at the same frequency, the performance characteristics of these antennas are independently of the differences in their geometry or total wire length. Uniform Meander Line Antenna (U-MLA) structures, the geometry are described to 3 parameters which are the number of turns, and length of the horizontal and vertical section. For Non-Uniform Meander Line Antenna (NU-MLA) these are no tied values for the variables. The operating frequency is the frequency where the reflection coefficients are less than -20 dB. The good return loss for antenna is less than -10 dB [13].

14

Figure 2.7 Meander Line Antenna

The meander line antenna can be design using several techniques. The chart below demonstrate the method of designing meander line antenna. Empirical Relation Method, Grid Points Method, Evolutionary Approach using Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Method of Moment (MoM) using Fractal Dipoles are some of the methods for designing meander line antenna.

Meander Line Anenna

Empirical Relation Method

Grid Points Method

Evolutionary Approach using Genetic Algoritn and Method of Moment

Method of Moment using Fractal Dipoles

Figure 2.8 Methods of Designing Meander line Antenna

2.1.1

Empirical Relation Method

Empirical relation is one of the techniques used to design the meander line antenna. The number of turns is proportional to size reduction of an antenna. The adjacent horizontal segments of the meander line antenna have opposite phase while the radiation resistance is affected by the vertical segments. The impedance matched

15 between the feed and meander line antenna is being achieved by adjusting the width and length of the open end of the microstrip. The meander line element consists of a meandering microstrip line formed by a series of sets of right angled bends. The radiation mainly occurs from the discontinuities (bend) of the structure [8].

w d

Figure 2.9 Various dimensions of Meander Line Antenna using Empirical Relation Method [8].

The mathematical approach of the design above is shown below. Dimensions of Meander-line antenna: d = 0.16 g s = 0.42 g L = 0.70 g w = 0.05 g Where g is the guided wavelength of the substrate which is given by: (2.8) (2.4) (2.5) (2.6) (2.7)

16 Where the is free space wavelength and reff is the effective dielectric constant given by: (2.9)

where: d = height of substrate

r = dielectric

constant of given material

w = width of meander-line antenna

reff

= effective dielectric constant

2.1.2

Grid Points Method

Meander line antennas are commonly used as small antennas in commercial applications and for these types of antennas the input impedances become very small. Hence, antenna efficiencies become very low. Therefore, increasing the antenna input impedance is very important. Typically, electrically small antenna has low radiation efficiency and narrow bandwidth. As to reduce the size of the antenna, a number of effective ways are possible such as using high-permittivity substrates, shorting pins and meander line. An array of grid of points can be used to design a small size multiband meander line antenna which is using for wireless applications. As a first step, the design of the proposed antenna is to construct by using the grid of points. This grid consists of group of points, the number of points in each direction represent one of the grid dimensions. For the proposed antenna, the grid dimension set to be 8x8 grid points with 1 cm distance between each point and the next one. The area was set 7x7 cm2 square areas. The dipole is center fed along the line of symmetry. That is one half-area the mirror image of the other half-area. By connecting all the selected grid points, a meander line dipole antenna is produced. The rules that

17 were applied to design the antenna are the meander line start from one of the points on the geometry corners as it needs to be connected to other points. Secondly, the meander line can pass through each point once only [5].

Figure 2.10 Construction steps of the proposed antenna [5].

2.1.3

Evolutionary Approach using Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Method of Moment (MoM)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags, known as remote transponder are commonly designed with an antenna. A suitable antenna for the tag is classified as low cost, low profile and especially small size whereas the bandwidth requirement is less critical. According to the specifications above, meander line is the perfect design to be applied for the construction of the tag. An evolutionary approach has been considered in order to explore efficiently a large number of MLA configurations. It is based on a Genetic Algorithm (GA) and a Method of Moment (MoM) to design the best length for each meander line segment. Figure 2.11 shows a symmetric rectangular non-uniform meander line antenna (MLAN) design. The parameters of the design are; the number 2N of turns, the length of the horizontal (wn1 and wn2) and vertical (hn1 and hn2) segments of the nth turn and the length of the central segments wo and ho. The height is given by HN = ho + 2 ( ) [7].

18

Figure 2.11 Non uniform MLAN with parameters [7].

GA starts from an initial population of chromosomes, each representing a complete antenna design. The chromosome is made up of genes each corresponding to one of the antennas vertical and horizontal segments. Each gene is encoded by Nbit = 12 bit. For instance, the discrete counterpart, Bi, of the vertical length hni is Bi = [(hni hmin) / (hmax hmin) (2Nbit 1)] where hmin is the minimum segment length and hmax = Hmax 4Nhmin. GA applies algorithms of selection, crossover and mutation to obtain new populations depending on a non linear combination of the antenna parameters. The parameters are referred to size (HN, WN), antenna maximum gain (G) and input reactance (X). The convergence speed of chromosomes is influenced by the following fitness function: (2.10)

with

and G0, X0 are constant. Additionally, to speed up the GA

convergence, a modified fitness has been considered for those antennas with |X| > X0 or HN > Hmax or WN > Wmax [7].

2.1.4

Method of Moment using Fractal Dipoles

Some of the fractal geometries have a self-similar shapes, which mean that some of their parts have the same shape as whole object but at different scale. The

19 Iterated Function System (IFS) is used for infinite number of times to build a structure called generator. Generator is initial structure known as initiator. The fractal geometries can be designed in different shapes like Koch curve, Hilbert curve and Sierpinski gasket. The effective length can be increased by geometry of fractal while the relative length of end-to-end is remained. As the iterations of fractal increases, the effective length increases. Large effective length will lower the resonant frequency [11].

(2.11)

A standard Koch curve which has a scaling factor of r = 1/3 and rotation angle of 0 degree, 60 degree, -60 degree and 0 degree. The straight line acts as an initiator as shown in Figure 2.12(a). The initiator is divided into three equal parts the middle segment is replaced with two other straight lines of same length to form an equilateral triangle. This is the first iterated geometry known as generator as shown in Figure 2.12(b). The additional iterations can be performed by applying the IFS approach to each segment.

Figure 2.12 (a) Initiator [11].

Figure 2.12 (b) Generator [11].

20 2.2 PARASITIC ELEMENT

There are various types of antennas which are designed with parasitic elements. Each antenna was designed with its own procedures and method. There are number of methods were discussed in this section in order to obtain an effective method for complete the project.

Parasitic Methods

Parasitics as Directors

Parasitic as Shorting Strips

Parasitic Strips with Slot Method

Parasitic Strips as Loading Bars

Figure 2.13 Methods of Designing Meander Line Antenna using Parasitic Element

2.2.1

Parasitic Elements as Directors

There are so many purposes to use the parasitic element in the design of an antenna. For the proposed antenna, adding parasitic element can produce a better return loss. The frequency bandwidth is increased while the directivity is decrease. For the bidirectional notch antenna design, the parasitic element or directors is used to compensate the tilted radiation pattern by the edge effects of mounting board. The parasitic element length is less than half-wavelength the same with Yagi array and a few elements are installed on both side of the notch antenna shown in Figure 2.14. The antenna gain is increased by adding parasitic elements. When the parasitic elements are increased, it is exceeded from the edge of mounting plate and the beam direction is tilted downward.

21

Figure 2.14 Notch Antenna with parasitic elements [6].

2.2.2

Parasitic Elements as Shorting Strips

The effect of parasitic elements also used as to reduce the size of an antenna. This is shown in the design of microstrip patch antenna with parasitic shorting strips [6]. There are four open-end slots are loaded individually at each corner of the patch individually. These slots give space for embedding the parasitic shorting strips. Four strips are arranged individually at each slot. One end of the strip is shorted to the ground plane by a shorting pin, another end of the strip is open-circuited. The horizontal portion of the strip is considered as a capacitive loading whereas the vertical shorting portion of the strip acts as an inductive loading. The four strips in symmetrical arrangement are to suppress the unwanted cross polarization. As to excite circular polarization, two turbulent stubs are attached to the open end of a pair of diagonal slots that are illustrated in Figure 2.15 [6].

22

Figure 2.15 Antenna Geometry for a circularly polarized patch antenna with parasitic shorting strips [9].

2.2.3

Parasitic Strips with Slot Type Antenna

Most of the communication system especially ultra wideband (UWB) communication system has its own range of bandwidth. However, over the designated UWB frequency band, there are existing wireless network which may cause interference with another UWB operations. As to overcome this problem, a band-rejected antenna is designed by attaching the parasitic strip to the bottom layer of the antenna. The antenna is composed of a rounded ground with a slit, a planar half-ellipse-shaped radiation patch with an ellipse-shaped slot and three steps and the parasitic strips. The half-ellipseshaped radiation patch is adapted to increase the effective electrical length at the lower frequency band. The ellipse- shaped slot makes the antenna have a wider bandwidth performance. The parasitic strip has a width of 1 mm and a length of 14 mm. It functions as a filter to eliminate the limited band and lead to good impedance matching [9].

23

Figure 2.16 Structures for the antenna in terms of three ways to reject the limited band [9].

Figure 2.17 Comparisons of the simulated VSWR among Figure 2.16 (a)(c) [9].

2.2.4

Parasitic as Loading Bars

The distance between the parasitic strip and the ground plane (d), influence the performances of an antenna. As the distance getting much smaller, the better performance of an antenna can be obtained. The antenna configuration is shown in three ways to reject the limited band. The slots location in Figure 2.16(a) and the parasitic strips location in Figure 2.16(c) are exactly equal. According to the Figure 2.17, the configuration shown in Figure 2.16(b) is not play a role as a filter, and therefore the proposed way in figure 2.16(c) to reject the limited band shows the best result. By attaching the parasitic strip on the bottom layer, it is clearly observed that the antenna

24 with parasitic element only has the band elimination characteristic, but also improved the VSWR values. Another method known as a trial-and-error approach has been done for design optimization by using Microwave Studio CST. Analysis procedures have been done by varying the antenna parameters once a time. The parameters of the meander line antenna which considered are the horizontal length (h), vertical length (v) and the distance between the antenna trace and the loading bars (parasitic element). As the angle of parasitic element is increased, the resonant frequency has been shifted in small variation and the frequency bandwidth increased while the directivity was decrease. The resonant frequency is determined by the horizontal length (h) of main patch line which is the meander line. The analysis for the effect on degree of parasitic has been done by constant the value of horizontal length and varying the degree of parasitic. The second analysis has been done by constant the value of degree of parasitic and varying the length of horizontal [14].

25

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0

INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the procedures and methods used in order to construct this project. Starting from problem studies until the project is been done, each process involved are been included here. This chapter shows the procedures of developing the project which includes designing, simulating, fabricating, analyzing and followed by testing. The significant of this chapter is as a guidance to ensure the process is done systematically. The procedures are represented in a flow chart form and the main steps are been elaborate here. Figure 3.1 shows the flow chart of all the project process planning.

26

Start

Planning

Literature Review

Design

Simulation

Fabrication

Analyze, testing and repair No Ok Yes Finish

Figure 3.1 Project Methodology

27 3.1 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Once the project is started, the literature studies about the project have been done. Through literature studies, the information of the design been used, techniques and methods related to the project are been found out. The basic meander line antenna design is based on some specifications and materials in order to obtain an antenna with good performance. The design specifications are:

Frequency, f = 2.4 GHz Return Loss, RL = < -10dB Bandwidth, BW = 2.4-2.45 GHz Gain, G = 8-9 dB Directivity, D = 3 dB

The materials used for the project are: Relative dielectric constant, r = 4.7 Resonant frequency, f = 2.4 GHz Substrate thickness, d = 1.6mm Copper width, wc = 0.035mm Substrate = FR-4 printed circuit board

The method used to design the proposed antenna is Parametric Study Method. This method is chosen with the purpose of getting the optimum dimensions of basic meander line antenna. The parametric study means process of calculation to obtain an optimum results or value. In parametric study, one of the parameter is varied for numbers of calculation and obtains the result while all the other parameters are remained constant. The process is continued for every parameter respectively until the optimum result achieved.

28 The method is initiated with a simple calculation of Empirical Relation Method. The Figure 3.2 below shows the typical structure of meander-line antenna and the preliminary dimensions of the antenna using Empirical Relation Method.

w d

Figure 3.2 Various dimensions of Meander Line Antenna using Empirical Relation Method

The mathematical approach of the design above is shown below. Dimensions of Meander-line antenna: d = 0.16 g s = 0.42 g L = 0.70 g w = 0.05 g Where g is the guided wavelength of the substrate which is given by: (3.5) Where the is free space wavelength and by: is the effective dielectric constant given (3.1) (3.2) (3.3) (3.4)

reff

29

(3.6)

where: d = height of substrate / substrate thickness

r

= dielectric constant of given material

W = width of meander-line antenna

reff

= effective dielectric constant

3.2

DESIGN AND SIMULATION PROCESS OF BASIC MENADER LINE ANTENNA

After the dimensions are calculated, the antenna is designed using Computer Simulation Technology (CST) software. At the beginning, the CST MICROWAVE STUDIO is created as a design environment for the project. Then, the Antenna (Planar) is chosen as a template.

(a)

30

(b) Figure 3.3 (a) CST Design Environment and (b) Template of Project

After selecting the design environment and the template. The Workspace window will appear as shown in Figure 3.4. The Background Properties and Units are defined as shown in Figures 3.5 below before start drawing and design.

Figure 3.4 Workspace Window

31

(a)

(b) Figure 3.5 (a) Background Properties and (b) Units After defining all the constant parameters, the design is drawn using Brick in the toolbar items. The structure of the patch and the feedline are drawn using the same Brick windows. The length of the feedline is set to be /4 and the width is given by:

32

(3.7) where:

d = substrate thickness (1.6mm) W = width of meander line antenna The PEC material is chosen due to ability of conducting current and acts as copper for the design. The FR-4 is chosen as a material for substrate. The relative dielectric constant ( ) is defined to be 4.7 and the Mu ( ) is defined as 1.0.

(a)

33

(b) Figure 3.6 (a) and (b) Brick Windows

Figure 3.7 below shows the parameters that need to be set up for FR-4 board, ground plane and the patch antenna.

Figure 3.7 Parameters Setup

After fixed the design, the next step is defining the Waveguide Port. The dimension of the port must be 5 times larger than the width of feedline. The height of the port must setup to be 5 times greater than the board plus ground plane and the number of modes fixed to be 1. Then, the step followed by Frequency Range setting. The

34 minimum and maximum frequency is set to be 2 GHz and 3 GHz respectively as the resonant frequency is 2.4 GHz.

(a)

(b) Figure 3.8 Waveguide Port Settings: (a) Dimension and (b) Design

35

Figure 3.9 Frequency Range Settings Then, the Boundary Conditions and Field Monitors are defined as shown in Figures below. The Boundary Conditions is setup to be open (add space) for all directions. The E-Field, H-Field/Surface Current and Farfield/RCS are fixed to be 2.4 GHz.

Figure 3.10 Boundary Conditions Settings

(a)

36

(b)

(c) Figure 3.11 Monitor Settings for (a) E-Field, (b) H-Field/Surface Current and (c) Farfield/RCS. As for final step, the Mesh Properties is defined and followed by Transient Solver Parameter setting. The design is simulated by clicking the Transient Solver button.

37

Figure 3.12 Mesh Properties Settings

Figure 3.13 Transient Solver Parameter Settings

After the simulation completed, the results can be obtain from Navigation Tree on the left hand panel. The Return Loss can be observed under 1D Plot Overview. Radiation Pattern can be obtained in 3-D and 2-D Plot under the Farfield Overview. Meanwhile the directivity of the antenna can be observed from 3-D Plot and the Polar Plot will give the information about HPBW, FNBW and main lobe direction.

38 3.3 PARAMETRIC STUDIES ON BASIC DESIGN OF MEANDER LINE ANTENNA

Once the basic design is completed, the parametric study was done onto the dimensions of basic design to achieve the optimum value of dimensions so that the antenna operates at frequency of 2.4 GHz and attain the minimum return loss as well. The parameters of meander line antenna that have chosen for variation are the number of turns (n), horizontal width (hw) and vertical width (vw) of the design. First of all, the horizontal and vertical widths are fixed to be 3.6mm as calculated. The number of turns are varied and the results were observed. As for second step, the horizontal width is varied while the number of turns is fixed to 11 turns and vertical width is set to be 3.6mm. Finally, the vertical width is varied and the number of turns is fixed to 11 turns and the horizontal width is set to be 3.6mm. The results of parametric studies are presented in the form of graph and discussed in Chapter 4.

3.4

DESIGN OF PARASITIC ELEMENT USING PARAMETRIC STUDY METHOD

Throughout the parametric studies, the basic design with 11 number of turns, horizontal width of 3.6mm and vertical width of 4.85mm is chosen. The resonant frequency 2.399 GHz and the return loss of -14.2dB are obtained. Once the optimum dimensions had achieved, the project continued towards designing parasitic element together with basic meander line antenna. The parasitic element is designed in order to reach the objective of increasing the directivity. The parasitic element is added based on the method found through literature studies. The method used for the design is adding narrow parasitic strips adjacent to the non-radiating side of the patch.

39

Figure 3.14 Method of adding parasitic strips [15].

After the method is identified, the design of parasitic element is added to the basic meander line antenna using CST software, following the previous steps. Initially, only two parasitic strips were added adjacent to the non-radiating side of the patch. The length of the strip is fixed similar to the length of meander line antenna. The width is set according to the equation (3.7) above. The picture below shows the parasitic meander line antenna with two parasitic elements. This design is simulated by adjusting the distance between the parasitic element and the patch.

Figure 3.15 Parasitic Meander Line Antenna with 2 parasitic elements.

Secondly, the number of parasitic elements are added gradually on both side of the patch and the separation between the elements were set to be 1mm based on results discussed in Chapter 4. The optimum number of elements is selected through parametric studies. Then, by using the optimum number of elements and separation of 1mm, the parasitic meander line antenna is designed into three different structures as shown below.

40

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.16 (a) Skewed Up Parasitic Design, (b) Skewed Down Parasitic Design and (c) Diamond Shaped Parasitic Design.

These three designs are different in terms of shape of the parasitic strips. After the structures are designed in three different shapes, the length of every parasitic strips in each structure are varied to obtain the results of parametric study. This is because the different type of length of parasitic strips produce various type of results. For an example, the basic length of the strips in Skewed Up Parasitic design is considered as t. The first two strips which are close to the meander line design are remained with the length of t, meanwhile the last two strips on both side are set to be 1/4 t. The rest are designed by adjusting the length to be increased gradually as shown in the figures above. This design is labeled as Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna I. Afterward, the last two strips are changed to be 1/2 t and 3/4 t as to perform the parametric study. These designs are labeled as Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna II and III. The similar steps is followed for the next two designs which are the Skewed Down Parasitic design and Diamond Shaped Parasitic design. At last, there are nine different types of parasitic meander line structures are completed. These types of different structures are designed in order to achieve the higher and optimum directivity at desired resonant frequency through parametric studies. All the designs are simulated using CST software and the results are discussed in the next chapter.

41 3.5 FABRICATION PROCESS

Based on the comparison of simulation results, three structures are chosen to be the final design of parasitic meander line antenna and proposed to fabricate. The designs are the Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna I (1/4 t), Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna III (3/4 t) and Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna II (1/2 t). In the segment of fabrication, the process involved are the printing, etching, soldering and testing. The basic and the parasitic designs are printed on a transparency paper using Corel Draw software. The layout of the antenna were drawn on 1:1 scale, thus the printed layout will matched with the real dimensions of the antenna. The transparency with the layout of the antenna is cut into the size of the substrate. The black protective film on one side of substrate is removed just before the transparency is placed and securely taped on it. The protective film must be removed in the dark room because the photo-resist board is sensitive to light. Then, the designs are exposed to Ultraviolet radiation to convert the diagrams from transparency into FR-4 board. The board should be placed with the layout surface facing down in the Ultraviolet box. The board should be exposed for 150 seconds in order to obtain clear picture of antenna designs. After that, the etching process is carried out to remove the coating on the board which is known as mask. The boards are dipped in the sodium hydroxide developer solution for 2 to 3 minutes until the image is developed. Then, the boards are rinsed thoroughly in running water and immersed in the Ferric Chloride solution for 10 to 15 minutes. Afterward, the boards are rinsed again using water to remove the solution. After completely removing the unwanted mask, the FR-4 boards are dried using dryer machine. Now, the basic and parasitic meander line antennas have been prepared. Once the etching process completed, the ports for the antennas are soldered using soldering iron and solder lead. The ports are known as the SMA connector which are called subminiature version A. Then all of the antennas are proposed to be tested by measurement process.

42 3.6 MEASUREMENT PROCESS

In the measurement section, all of the antennas are tested or measured for the similar parameters as observed from simulations. The parameters are the return loss and radiation pattern. The technique used for the measurement is indoor measurements with elevated ranges. The elevated ranges are usually used over smooth terrains. The transmitting antenna and the antenna under test (AUT) are placed adjacently.

3.6.1 Return Loss Measurement

The return loss is measured using spectrum analyzer and sweep generator. Figure 3.17 shows the connection setup for measuring the return loss of the antenna. The input frequency need to be set with minimum and maximum range. For the basic and parasitic meander line antennas, the frequency range that have been selected is 2 GHz to 3 GHz. The output is displayed on the screen of the analyzer in terms of dB versus frequency.

Figure 3.17 Return Loss Measurement Setup

43 3.6.2 Radiation Pattern Measurement

The radiation pattern is measured using standard transmitting antenna and network analyzer unit. The fabricated antenna is set to be the device under test and positioned as a receiver while the horn antenna is used as a standard antenna. The height of transmitter and receiver antenna must be aligned before the measurement is executed. The distance between both of the antenna is set to be 1.5m. The ACQ software is used to activate antenna data acquisition. The radiation pattern for E-plane was plotted automatically and the results are normalized. The data were saved in Microsoft Excel format.

Standard Antenna

Device Under Test

Network Analyzer

Figure 3.18 Radiation Pattern Measurement Setup

After measuring the radiation pattern, the gain and the directivity are calculated using the equation below. The maximum gain is referred to the maximum directivity of the antenna. The directivity is usually stated with the direction where the maximum radiation intensity is produced.

44

GR = PR PT GT + [32.41 + 20 log d (km) + 20 log f (MHz)] = PR PT GT Path loss

(4.1)

where: GR is gain received GT is gain transmitted PR is power received PT is power transmitted

45

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the results of parametric studies for basic and parasitic designs are presented and discussed in the form of graph. The simulation and measurement results for basic meander line antenna and parasitic meander line antennas are also presented. Both of the simulation and measurement results are compared and discussed.

4.1

PARAMETRIC STUDY FOR BASIC MEANDER LINE ANTENNA

The Figure 4.1(a) shows graph frequency versus number of turns while Figure 4.1(b) shows graph return loss versus number of turns. The graphs are the results of parametric study for basic meander line antenna.

46

(a)

(b) Figure 4.1 (a) Graph Frequency vs Number of turns and (b) Graph Return Loss vs Number of turns

The graphs above are plotted by varying the number of turns of meander line antenna. As the number of turns increase, the frequency increases while the return loss decreases. Based on the graphs, meander line antenna with 11 number of turns is chosen to be designed as the return loss achieved is more smaller and met the objective. The meander line antenna design with 28 turns is neglected due to the larger size of antenna even though the return loss produced is much more smaller compared to that of 11 turns which is -30.736 dB.

47 The graphs below are the output of parametric study that have done for basic meander line antenna. The first graph shows the frequency that achieved for different horizontal width and the second graph shows that the return loss achieved for different horizontal width.

(a)

(b) Figure 4.2 (a) Graph Frequency vs Horizontal width and (b) Graph Return loss vs Horizontal width

The graphs above are plotted by varying the horizontal width of the antenna. As the horizontal width increase, the frequency decreases and the return loss increases. Based on the graphs, the design is remained to be with 11 number of turns and horizontal width of 3.6mm.

48 The graphs below illustrate the frequency and return loss achieved for various number of vertical width of basic meander line antenna.

(a)

(b) Figure 4.3 (a) Graph Frequency vs Vertical width and (b) Graph Return loss vs Vertical width

The graphs above are plotted by varying the vertical width of the antenna. The number of turns is fixed to 11 turns and horizontal width is 3.6mm. As the vertical width is increase, the frequency also increases while the return loss increases in the beginning and then decrease. According to the graph, frequency of 2.399 GHz and return loss of 14.2dB is achieved at the vertical width of 4.85mm.

49 4.2 PARAMETRIC STUDY FOR DESIGN OF PARASITIC ELEMENT

The graphs below are plotted by varying the distance between parasitic element and basic structure of meander line antenna. The frequency, return loss and directivity are taken as output of parametric study through simulation process.

(a)

(b)

50

(c) Figure 4.4 (a) Graph Distance vs Frequency, (b) Graph Distance vs Return Loss and (c) Graph Distance vs Directivity

Based on the graphs above, the frequency decreases when the distance increase, the return loss is directly proportional to the distance and the directivity is increased at first and then decrease when the distance increases. The smaller the distance, the better the results. Therefore, the design with distance of 1mm is chosen for the next step of design.

4.2.1 Analysis for Different Number of Parasitic Elements with Spacing of 1mm

Table 4.1 Results of parametric studies for n number of parasitic elements.

51 From the Table above, the design with 20 number of parasitic elements is chosen based on the results produced. The resonant frequency achieved is 2.356 GHz, return loss of -20.467dB is obtained, the directivity and the gain are 11.79dB and 8.587dB. The frequency and the return loss are satisfying the requirement of the project. The directivity and the gain increase when the number of parasitic element increases. So, the design with 20 number of parasitic elements are chosen to be the optimum design.

4.2.2 Analysis for Three Different Structures of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna

Table 4.2 Simulation Results for Three Different Structures of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna.

The Table 4.2 shows the simulation results of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna. The frequency for the first two structures are 2.349 GHz and 2.351 GHz. Both of the frequencies are nearly to 2.4 GHz but the frequency for the last design is too much difference than expected which is 2.715 GHz. The return loss for all the three designs are less than -10dB and considered good in terms of efficiency. The directivity and the gain obtained are higher compared to the basic meander line antenna. Based on the results, the first Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna is selected to be fabricated.

52 4.2.3 Analysis for Three Different Structures of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna

Table 4.3 Simulation Results for Three Different Structures of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna.

The Table above shows the results observed from simulation of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna. The frequency for the first two structures are 2.211 GHz and 2.175 GHz. These frequencies are considered too low compared to the ISM band range and not suitable for the antenna to function properly. Meanwhile, the frequency for the third structure is 2.715 GHz and roughly close to the expected frequency of 2.4 GHz. The return loss for all the three designs are less than -10 dB and considered good in terms of efficiency. The directivities are higher and almost same for all the designs. In the meantime, the gains obtained are higher compared to the basic meander line antenna. According to the results above, the third design which is known as Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna III is chosen for fabrication process.

53 4.2.4 Analysis for Three Different Structures of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna

Table 4.4 Simulation Results for Three Different Structures of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna.

The Table 4.4 shows the results for Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna. The frequency for the first structure is 2.94 GHz while for the third structure is 2.075 GHz. Both of the frequencies are quite much difference than expected range. The antenna could not perform well within the range observed. The frequency attained for the second structure is 2.375 GHz and it is nearly to 2.4 GHz. Thus, the second design which is called Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna II is selected to be fabricated as final design of parasitic meander line antenna. All of the return loss achieved are below than -10 dB and support the antenna to operate efficiently. The directivity and the gain obtained are higher compared to the basic meander line.

54 4.3 ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF BASIC MEANDER LINE ANTENNA

Table 4.5 Simulation and Measurement Results for Basic Meander Line Antenna

From the Table above, the resonant frequency of 2.399 GHz with return loss of -14.20 dB is achieved through simulation while the frequency obtained from measurement is 2.850 GHz with return loss of -13.423 dB. The simulation frequency is very near to the proposed resonant frequency which is 2.4 GHz but the measured frequency is much more different compared to the expected result. The return loss for both simulation and measurement is below than -10 dB and is considered good to be conclude that the efficiency is about 90%. The directivity and the gain from simulation is 7.924 dB and 7.527 dB. The measurement result shows maximum gain which is 16 dB and it is also known as maximum directivity. The directivity usually stated with the maximum direction of radiation intensity which is found in the radiation pattern. The maximum directivity is 16 dB at an angle of 290 degree.

55

Figure 4.5 Simulated Radiation Pattern of Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure 4.5 above shows the radiation pattern observed from simulation in form of polar plot with main lobe of 8.0 dBi, side lobe of -2.4 dB and angular width of 35.3 degree.

4.4

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF PARASITIC MEANDER LINE ANTENNAS

Table 4.6 Simulation and Measurement Results for Three Types of Parasitic Meander Line Antenna

56 The Table 4.6 shows the simulation and measurement results of three different parasitic meander line antennas. Based on the simulation results, the resonant frequency for Design I is 2.349 GHz; Design III is 2.715 GHz and Design II is 2.375 GHz. The return loss for all the antennas are below -10 dB and considered good as it can contribute towards good performance. The directivity achieved for Design I is 10.71 dB, Design III is 10.85 dB and that for Design II is 11.02 dB. The gains for the three designs are 9.596 dB, 9.069 dB and 9.399 dB. The gains are randomly increased as the directivity increases. According to the measurement results, the resonant frequency obtained for the Design I, III and II is 2.732 GHz, 2.675 GHz and 2.555 GHz. The return loss for the three designs are -13.622 dB, -17.93 dB and -19.316 dB. All of the return loss observed are less than -10 dB as expected and have met one of the objectives of the project. The gain calculated through measurement process are identical to the directivity. The Design I produce gain of 21.66 dB, Design III has produced gain of 20.58 dB and the gain for Design II is 27.5 dB. When referred to the results of directivity, commonly the similar results of gain are mentioned with respective angle of maximum radiation. The maximum radiation were observed through measured radiation pattern and known as maximum radiation intensity. The return loss attained for all the parasitic antennas have met the objective of the project. The directivity and the gain observed from the parasitic meander line antenna are increased and fulfill the requirement of the project.

57

Figure 4.6 Radiation Pattern of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design I)

Figure 4.6 illustrates the simulated radiation pattern of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design I) in the form of polar plot with main lobe of 10.7 dBi, side lobe of -8.4 dB and angular width of 21.9 degree.

Figure 4.7 Radiation Pattern of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design III)

58 Figure 4.7 illustrates the simulated radiation pattern of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design III) in form of polar plot with main lobe of 11.0 dBi, side lobe of -8.0 dB and angular width of 12.3 degree.

Figure 4.8 Radiation Pattern of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design II)

Figure 4.8 illustrates the radiation pattern of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (Design II) that observed from simulation. The radiation pattern is plotted in form of polar plot with main lobe of 11.0 dBi, side lobe of -7.9 dB and angular width of 22.1 degree.

59

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, the design of Parasitic Meander Line Antenna is an antenna that able to operate within 90% efficiency and provide good performance with minimum return loss as well. It is designed using Computer Simulation Technology and fabricated on FR-4 board to be smaller in size which emphasize the reduction in cost of designing. Among the three parasitic designs, the Skewed Down and Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antennas had achieved the best return loss in terms of measurement process which is -17.93 dB and -19.316 dB, roughly at frequency of 2.4 GHz. Besides, the proposed antenna also characterized to change its directivity or to be higher compared to existing antennas while increasing the gain. The Skewed Up and Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antennas had reached the higher directivity and gain in terms of measurement process which are 21.66 dB and 27.5 dB. Meanwhile, the directivity observed for Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna through simulation process is 11.02 dB and it the highest among the designs. The highest gain observed for Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna from simulation which is 9.596 dB. Based on the analysis of the results, all of the objectives of the project is accomplished successfully.

60 5.2 SUGGESTION

Based on the results attained, the proposed antenna having some limitations or disadvantages in terms of bandwidth. The bandwidth obtained from simulation is very small and narrow. A narrow bandwidth could not transmit much signal or could not carry much data through signal transmission. The wider the bandwidth, the more signal can be transmitted in larger range of frequency. Throughout some literature review, the method for increasing the bandwidth of the antenna is found. There are few methods to increase the antenna bandwidth. The antenna can be designed with shape of slots either on the patch or on the ground plane. High dielectric constant can be very helpful in increasing the antenna bandwidth. Besides, the bandwidth can be increased by increasing the spacing between the patch and ground plane. Increasing the height of the patch and designing antenna with multilayer structure also contributes towards bandwidth improvement.

61

CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

[1] [2] [3]

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63 [16] A. Khaleghi, Dual Band Meander Line Antenna for Wireless LAN Communication, IEEE Transactions On Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Journals, Vol. 55, 2007. [17] Sangman Moon and Jongmyung Woo, Folded Meander Line and Multilayered Dielectric Chip Antenna for Surface Mount, IEEE Conferences, Vol. 2, 2001. [18] Seunghwan Yoon, Alfred Grau Besoli, Gye-An Lee and Franco De Flaviis, Helical Meander Line Antenna and its Spatial Power Combining for Circular Polarization, Antenna and Propagation Society International Symposium, IEEE Conferences, Vol. 2A, 2005. [19] Daniel K.C. Chew and Simon R. Saunders, Meander Line Technique for Size Reduction of Quadrifilar Helix Antenna, IEEE Transactions On Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Journals, Vol. 1, 2002. [20] Hidetoshi Makimura, Yuta Watanabe, Kota Watanabe and Hajime Igarashi, Evolutional Design of Small Antennas for Passive UHF-Band RFID, IEEE Transactions On Magnetics, IEEE Journals, Vol. 47, 2011. [21] D. Zhou, R.A. Abd-Alhameed, C.H. See, M.S. Alkhambashi, Z. Zainal Abidin, K.N. Ramli, M.M. Abusitta and M. Usman, Meander Line Antenna Design for UHF RFID Tag Using Genetic Algorithm, IEEE Transactions On Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Journals, March 23-27, 2009. [22] Robert Schlub and David V. Thiel, Switched Parasitic Antenna on a Finite Ground Plane with Conductive Sleeve, IEEE Transactions On Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Journals, Vol. 52, 2004. [23] C.C. Lin, S.W. Kuo and H.R. Chuang, A 2.4 GHz Printed Meander Line Antenna for USB WLAN with Notebook-PC Housing, Microwave and Wireless Component Letters, IEEE Journals, Vol. 15, 2005.

64 [24] Yoshihide Yamada and Woong Hyun Jung, Extremely Small Antennas for RFID Tags, 10th IEEE Singapore International Conference on systems, 2006, IEEE Conferences, ICCS 2006. [25] O. Losito, M. Gallo, V. Dimiccoli, D. Barletta and M. Bozzetti, Transmission Line Model for Meander Antennas, Proceedings of the Fourth European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), 2010. [26] Satoshi Yoshida, Suguru Kameda, Tadashi Takagi and Kazuo Tsubouchi, 5-GHz Band 3-Stacked Meander Line Antennas Using Multi-Layered Organic Substrates, Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium (APSURSI), IEEE Conferences, 2010. [27] Chi-Fang Huang and Pei-Lan Yeh, Design of A dual Band Chip Antenna with Material loading Technique, IEEE Topical Conference on Wireless Communication

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65 APPENDIX A

Figure A1 Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure A2 Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (I)

Figure A3 Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (III)

Figure A4 Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (II)

66 APPENDIX B

Figure B1 Return Loss Characteristic for Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure B2 Return Loss Characteristic for Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (I)

67

Figure B3 Return Loss Characteristic for Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (III)

Figure B4 Return Loss Characteristic for Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (II)

68 APPENDIX C

Figure C1 Directivity of Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure C2 Directivity of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (I)

69

Figure C3 Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (III)

Figure C4 Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (II)

70 APPENDIX D

Figure D1 Measured Return Loss Characteristic for Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure D2 Measured Return Loss Characteristic for Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (I)

71

Figure D3 Measured Return Loss Characteristic of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (III)

Figure D4 Measured Return Loss Characteristic of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (II)

72 APPENDIX E

Figure E1 Measured Radiation Pattern of Basic Meander Line Antenna

Figure E2 Measured Radiation Pattern of Skewed Up Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (I)

73

Figure E3 Measured Radiation Pattern of Skewed Down Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (III)

Figure E4 Measured Radiation Pattern of Diamond Shaped Parasitic Meander Line Antenna (II)