African Dance Frame by Frame: Revelation of Sex Roles Through Distinctive Feature Analysis and Comments on Field Research,

Film, and Notation Author(s): Judith Lynne Hanna Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Jun., 1989), pp. 422-441 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784394 . Accessed: 27/02/2012 17:19
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AFRICAN DANCE FRAME BY FRAME Revelation Sex Roles Through of Distinctive FeatureAnalysis and on Comments Field Research, Film,and Notation
JUDITHLYNNE HANNA
UniversityMaryland of

Inspiredby mymentor Margaret Mead's use ofvisualrecords in anthropological William John research, Hannaand I during field research shot16 mmmotion picture 24 film, frames second, per of about 6,500feet danceinNigeria, and Uganda, Kenya (including dancecompany Ethiopia's to performancecelebrate Kenya'sindependence). useda hand-held andHowell70DR. Unedited We Bell footage six dance-plays Nigeria's of of UbakalaIgboprovided the focus anethnographic ofmeaning movement. of in study According to Nigerian reports, filmed the dancesare stillbeingperformed where first them. Howard I saw At I was University eyewitness to thesamewomen's warriors' and at performancesthe1986 inauguralmeeting theNwannedinamba of Association students for and in nonstudents America. Anthropologists commonly probetheir field in work newinsights light various for original of theoretical concerns thatcome to the forefront scholarly of inquiry. Just
AUTHOR'S NOTE: Thisarticleis a revision a paper presented the conference at of "ResearchingDance ThroughFilm and Video," sponsored by the Congress on Research in Dance and the Human Studies Film Archives,SmithsonianInstituon tion, April10-12, 1986. I appreciatethecomments Thomas Johnston an earlier of
draft. JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol.19 No. 4, June 1989422-441 ? 1989Sage Publications, Inc. 422

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becausedatawerecollected sometime doesnotinvalidate or ago it thecollection method. Filmwas selected thestudy for overnotation thefield only in or nativedescription interpretation the following and for reasons. Accurate speedy and notation a danceinitsfield of context nearly is impossible, because some dancesmaybe performed once only a during research period,improvisation occur,and some may dancers be unable unwilling replicateperformance. a may or to The contemporary notation systems, developed thepurpose confor of the structing choreographer's intention thedance, for assume dance phrases be repeated a transcriber. will for views about Whileit is important elicitthenative to dancers' their dances,reliance uponverbalexegesisalone maypreclude understanding some people's dances (Hanna, 1989a). The lanand guageof danceis nonverbal notalwayseasilytranslatable. in Indeed,people expressthemselves nonverbally partbecause wordsareless adequatefor somecommunication. Psychologists that are Gardner (1983) andGazzaniga(1985) demonstrate there alternative ways of knowing well as different as typesof intellectualcompetencies. Not all people have a reflective verbaldiscourse abouttheir dance.Manyfeatures dancegenerally beyond conscious of lie the of In most awareness dancers viewers. American and culture, social do dancers notknowthenamesofspecific stepsinsuchdancesas the waltz, rock roll, disco.Just all peoplehavebodiesand and or as use them, most peoplehavelimited about understanding thebody andhowitworks. itis thephysiologists, anatoAs kinesiologists, and mists, medical experts areknowledgeable who aboutthe body, anditis the and grammarian linguist areknowledgeable who about it vocabulary syntax, is themovement and analyst whois familiar in withthecomparable elements dance.Of course,some dance cultures example, (for classicalWestern ballet classicalIndian and of dance)havecodified systems withnamesandmeanings steps andgroups movements. of and are with Anthropologists concerned ethnocentrism notima posing Western viewpoint uponanother culture's dance.Yeteven

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about dance,itis necesthe tells whenan informant theresearcher taken granted for is being said.Things sarytoknowwhat actually jokes, lies, maynotbe articulated; rationalizations, andmetaphors Whena group doesnothaveitsownviewsabout arepossibilities. in to its danceculture, researcher's the intervention trying elicit mayin the rather tosee,film, analyze action than and verbalization new. fact imperialistic trigger be and something to viewsareessential discover, if WhileI agreethat indigenous must it, a peopledoes notanalyze dancebutperform a researcher in field.The heritage a scholarly thenrelyuponthedisciplinary as not however, should beviewed fixed categories for used analysis, in of but as and entities, rather open-ended alterable light new research. theoretical formulations empirical and in As a consequence theproblems withnotation thefield of makesa film potentially and onlyon native views, setting reliance contribution: fourfold an a of record,datum behavior. (1) Film provides invaluable and nonrecurring images selected nonselected of (2) Film preserves not behavior. Whenthecamera picksup information actively film generate data. sought a researcher, may by and by analysis reanalysis primary secondary and (3) Filmpermits investigations. to at speed be units not (4) Film permits ofbehavior visible normal motion. seen examined or slowing stopping and through arbitrarily filmis a comparatively objectivemediumand alAlthough lows checkingan analysisbased on it, drawingconclusions data whatappearson thefilm muchadditional requires beyond on and from field.Supplementary the observations notations the of filmedand nonfilmed representativeness the filmeddance, for the criteria selecting dancesfilmed, dancecatalyst, the proof duction and performance, impact thedance and the process, dancefilming necessary. are Filmobjectivity, course,is illusory (Feld, 1976). A filmis of film a statement abouta filmmaker. ethnographic can avoid "No direcwiththe notionof an invisible,omnipotent grappling

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system; recording value-free of tor... ; thechimera a neutral, imperialor of representation; theinherent aspects thearbitrary 1986:58). A danceis experienced ismoftheimage"(Hoberman, whereasthe filmimage is a symbolicevent,a and observed, someof selectionforthepurposes communicating structured is If performance tobe filmed, experience. an entire thing that of Focusingon an isolatedbit of dancing detailsare sacrificed. The means the loss of the largerview of the choreography. as of elimination such techniques cuts,fades,dissolves,superto or slow motion, changesin focusin an effort be impositions, Film effect. a maycreate two-dimensional to faithful thesetting sincefilmis for purposes, useful contextual is onlysecondarily selective. wouldbe tohaveatleasttwocamera situation The idealfilming an that sequence provides uninterrupted one, records: a wide-angle that focuson and close-ups specific overall patterning, theother, may performances vary. individuals' eventhough detail, movement of It is notalwayspossibleto filmdance.AmongtheTemiar becausethe trance during may no Malaysia, photography be taken whilehe orsheis without dancer an awaken entranced might light the the 1985).Among Songhay, filmmaker a headsoul (Jennings, who to a shooting possesseddanceris comparable a sorcerer a captures person'simageor double.And some people believe privacy. of filming be an invasion ritual to I of and someoftheadvantages limitations film, Havingnoted came to be madeduring will now discusshow theUbakalafilm feature and out research how I carried a distinctive ethnographic in Ubakala patterns gender of analysis dance thatdemonstrated society. Umuahia-Ibeku, of In thecourseof a 1963 study theNigerian we urban-centered community, toldlocal leadersandjust about to in danceanddesire of else everyone we met ourinterest African I that wanted learnthe to We see local performances. explained that to to dancesin order teachthem Americans, people in the dances many States United folk/ethnic/social/ritual from perform Africa. alsoexplained We but none of world, virtually from parts the the to the that wanted film dancesand record accompanying we

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in music order analyze to movements, preserve record postera for ity,and make educational filmson dance thatwould be made available Eastern to Nigeria Television other and stations. Thanks thepeopleoftheUmuahia to area,we saw a great deal ofdancing. Unfortunately, impossible film tapemost itwas to and ofthedancesperformed their in natural settings. Lacking lighting equipment, couldfilm we only whennatural conditions permitted. In addition limited to funds rawfilm for stock, inadequate storage and facilities, the absenceof readily accessiblesupplyhouses, from wereoften ormisplaced. example, shipments abroad late For filmwas inadvertently in a hotwarehouse three held for weeks in becausenotification itsarrival Nigeria sent a nonexiswas of to tent "Mr.Jelsom-Jelsom." filming in Thus "everything" order to 1 aimfortheprofessional to 10 ratio good to bad footage of was precluded; hadtoselect we carefully try achieve 1 to2 ratio to to a ofreasonable footage. the of A secondproblem concerned impact therecording equipon dancers. mistook motion the camera ment the Theyoften picture fora stillcameraandwouldpose rather thancontinue dance. to difficulties included eagerness bystanders shake the of to Other hands(sometimes withthosepersons holding equipment), reto or ceive a "dash" (a tokenpayment such as money, cigarettes, of or snuff), to get intotheact by posingin front thecamera. also as do in of Youngsters Nigeria muginfront thecamera they in for theUnited States(Hanna,1986a). It was notuncommon individualsto walk in front thecamerainadvertentlypushthe of or an Frecameraman to during excitedresponse a performance. man's skin, children touched white the quently, young curiously with activities. also had to be preWe often interfering recording an paredtodeal with occasionalroaming or a drunk, goat hostile, ormentally intrusion theproceedings. deranged person's upon the In direct to abouttheseinterferences, response ourlaments for lateChief 0. EbereoftheUbakalaClanmadearrangements J. us to becomeacquainted withsome of his people's dancesfor and His were of documentary analytical purposes. efforts on behalf ourfriendship hadsuggested I becomeone ofhiswives), that (he he butmostofall,thedesire heldforhisclan "togetup,"that is,

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receiverecognition: Everysocial and politicalgrouping the in area with other. ThusUbakala dances Umuahia iscompetitive every of becametheprimary subject mycase study. The Ubakalaperformed thosedancesthat projected their aesthetic: notions appropriateness competency, thedemof and what chosen of ocratically leadership considered be the to groups dancers the We following esteemed rules. filmed idealmodelrepresentan ingvalued performance criteria a sociopolitical and product (resultThe ingfrom process competitive a of negotiation consensus). and the for Ubakala eldersand otherleadersdetermined procedure the an selecting performing groups. First, UbakalaClandance-play outdoor to we was competition,which wereinvited, heldatthe play to area of theNigeria Delta Diocese Central School adjacent the Thirteen Ubakala Central Market. within clan the groupsfrom "tried out"before judgingcommittee a composed clan elders of chosen thechief. werenotpermitted film "audition," to this We by at butwereinvited film performances thechosengroups to the of theCentral Market (owned jointly all Ubakalavillages). by Fortunately, leadershadinformed aboutthefirst the us dancethe playselections before performance The initial date. selections were based on a misunderstanding. a Rather thanrepresenting variety dance-play of genres, their choices had been based on social achievement, recognized which tends be associated to with age. Whenwe askedifthey thought their that selections basedon performance excellence reflected different the kindsof Ubakala the modified selections. dance-plays, judgesquickly their It is noteworthy some titled that society (lifetime association basedonspecific and requirements) wardance-plays area part that of Ubakalaheritage werenotpartof thecompetition. Since the was a special performance not scheduled take place during to holiday season, somekeydance-play participants awayfrom were homewhere they worked. Someof thedance-plays remain secret orareonly at War for performeddesignated times. dances, example, areconsidered inappropriate at leasta minority by within new the of we system law andorder. However, didsee a modified version ofthe BendeDivision includes UbakalaClan)wardance (which the

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(hatssubstitute thewarriors' for bootyof decapitated headsformerly carried the on performer's during dance). head the Thedance, performed specialoccasionssuchas a hero'svictorious on return from battle, celebrated Igbo who returned an from United the Kingdom with law degree. a Andthough saw UbakalaOkonko we members at this Society performingtheUbakalaCentral Market, society dance-play notperformed the"SpecialFestival." was at From10 a.m.to3:45 p.m.on thedesignated market ofJuly day 3, 1963,we filmed, tape-recorded, collected and further information thechosen on dancegroups. ofthe All dance-plays place took on the Central Market's smooth, hard-packed earth performing area. Themarket was in to setting appropriate because, addition being a center trading for it that activity, is a keysocial center brings a of together widenetwork people(see Green, 1964: 29, 37, and of The Uchendu, 1965: 27-38, on the importance themarket). integrating ofthemarket in itsregulation. thepast,the role lies In market one of twoareasoverwhichthegovernment the was of villagegroups, clan,had authority; other or the area concerned related the earthgoddess.In recent to ritualmatters yearsthe of The authority theclanhas increased. market provides opportuto nities women for natal at wholeavetheir villages marriage visit members cometoexchange who family goodsandsocialize.Inthe market's there dancopen-air "theater-in-the-round,"is commonly ingfor merriment, courtship, status and display. For themostpart, specially the performed dance-plays closely was their The approximated natural counterparts. staging typical, crowds and gathered, palmwineflowed (drinking palmwineand to pouringlibationsto the spiritsand ancestors invoketheir on festive blessingsare customary important occasions).Since itis theduty theowners a market ensure theweather of that of to is clement, the whena rainshowerinterrupted performance, a rainmaker was present "drive"therainfrom to the (dibia miri) the we from under Of marketplace. course, rain stopped, crawled and thetablewherewe weresheltering audiovisual equipment, theproceedings resumed.

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and the between specialperformances danceOne difference was duration natural circumstances the under performed more plays no short, were these oftheperformances; performances atypically dancehowever, At an than hour. times, lasting longer dance-play days.Another or hours evenseveral for playscancontinue several the of was difference in the behavior the audience.Normally, the viewing dancers passively, by first onlookers stand somewhat is whenthedance-play fully Then, "in andmusicians theround." own fibers their of with very the respond under way, spectators the in enthuthe with performerstheir merge and musculature virtually tends close to The and siasm,empathy, encouragement. audience at a "stage"until "sergeant arms" the thecircle, shrinking dancing of (a threatens beatthecrowdbackwitha palmfrond symbol to will join Members theaudience sometimes a of peaceorurgency). the making occasionespeor dancegroup dancebesidea group, in participate youngpeople's dances Adultsoften ciallyfestive. their elders. often toimitate try children and fun," young "justfor and on Theperformers heartened urged bylooksandnodsfrom are try as my or spectators bysuchurgings "Mybrother, sister, hard!" face a spectator wipea performer's with may As further inspiration, or a handkerchief place a coin or noteon thehead of a favorite of the dancer. However, during specialperformance dance-plays, was and off thedancing was roped atourrequest theaudience area we so from dancers that the apart to physically urged keepitself and facility. havemaximum filming, tape-recording, writing might in How was thisfilmused? Any method seriousscholarly of and to is research related theory theexploration itspropositions. Elsewhere(Hanna, 1976, 1979a, 1979b, 1979c/1987,1979d, 1983a,1983b,1986a,1986b,1988a,1988b,1988c,1989a,1989b, the toward anthropology/semiotan in press)I present approach of ics/ethnologydance. in interest the to a Forpurposes it here, willsuffice note primary (or and context the the (or between text movement) the relationship of and and history, ecology thedancers audience). culture, society, villagesor New YorkCity After dancesanywhere-Ubakala all, air. theater stages-do notcomeoutofthin

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In theanalysis the of filmed andpreparation a movement text of transcript, I usedthepart Laban's theory of basedon "objective" and human movement observation distinctive, universal ofthe units and that the architecture function forms basisofLabanotation body I To andeffort-shape analysis.' examined physical dancebehavior. identify dancemovement style2 structure thepurposes and for of discursive description consequent and distinctive feature analysis, motor units essentially are Laban's processual movemeaningful ment of concepts (Dell, 1970; Hutchinson, 1970) consisting six and dimensions their valuesofspace (amplitude, direction, focus, level,shapeflow, group), four dynamics of (force, space,effort flow, time), four rhythm of (accent, duration, meter, tempo), and three characteristic usage(posture, of body locomotion, gesture). Becausemore peopleinthefields dance,thesocialsciences, of and are humanities, thearts fluent verbal with than with notational I a graphic symbols, prepared verbal transcript thefilm. from The Ubakaladancetranscripts first were tested a groupof on Michigan StateUniversity collegestudents a class on African in dance(somestudents never had dancedbefore, others werequite and with other of and experienced) later groups students teachers film. as revisions weremade, back always referring tothe Students reconstructed Ubakaladance-play the movements from tranthe in withtraining Nigerian thoseindividuals scripts. Obviously, more danceperformed liketheUbakalathan other did students. on Further comment theuse ofverbal rather graphic than symhas bolsfor movement the is The transcriptcalledfor. danceworld of notation. observed utility music the there nowthree are Although relatively well-tested notational languages (see Kleinman, 1975, fora comparative and discussion), each of themis used within of segments the dance world,thereis no "universal" system. Notational in ideographs, representationsgraphic symbols, a are is academic shorthand data, for as and jargon-meaningful rapidly usedbya small coterie "experts." of the However, notation systems do notspecify meaningful the structural foranalysis units beyond thecorpusof whatis notated reconstruction a dance,the for of for weredeveloped. Neither purpose whichthesystems graphics norcorresponding verbalinstructions readily transcribed can be

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intopatterns simple, by quickinspection. Movingto contrastive patterns to digitalcodingforcomputer and analysesto show is quantitative patterning, clusters, correlations, as easyfrom and verbalas from graphic transcriptions (Tracy,1973). Moreover, verbal symbols notations equally and are ethnocentric. symbols The of anysystem of haveassociations are specific theculture that to theusers. The names of movement phrasesin the transcript the are analyst's aredrawn and from Western dancemovement vocabulary. I was notabletodiscover Ubakalanamesfor movements, perhaps to becauseof an attitude similar theone found amongTongans. statement: They prefer interpretation byallusion rather explicit than "A namemight limit motif toone concept. themovement, use Or ifassociated when with name, a might convey named that concept no meaning wanted" is (Kaeppler, 1967: 237). film an modelwas Givenlimited resources, idealperformance leader of from movements eachperforming the developed group's forthetranscript description analysis distinctive and and of style structure of and features topermit (and somedegree reconstruction of and for performance thedancesorspecific movements phrases Inlinguisofintellectual kinesthetic and purposes comprehension). the whichappearsin Hanna tic terms, movement transcription, (1976),centers theidiolect on (individual pattern speech)ofthe of It on danceleader. is a lexicaltransformation visualimagery from at 16 mmmotion picture film, viewedthroughprojector various a which speedsas wellas throughhand-regulated Moviscop, a Zeiss permits singleframe analysis. Some timeafter painful eyestrain I from thatsports viewingdetailin a 4 x 4 frame, discovered with frame four times movement a analysts a motion use analyzer that thesize I used,and,moreover, analyzer a grid their has pattern indicates angles. The movement extranscript notreflect does every movement as the is some actly madeeachtime danceis performed; variation as an permitted different by dancers, well as within individual's The as version a at performance. modelrepresents well-accepted in In of of and particular point time. terms theselection thegroups leaders theUbakaladecision-making by processes, idealperthe

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I,

Photograph 1: Ubakala Men, by WilliamJohn Hanna

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(knowledge of of formance modelis also a statement competence dance). for record permits checking reliability Analysis basedon a film at Mead's defense, Margaret and validity. Indeed,my doctoral included Alexscreening (other members request, included film a Higgins). and ander Alland, AdelaidaReyes-Schramm, Joseph In the analysis danceandsociety,examined of I movement traits A in in as features themselves wellas phrases eachdance-play. as movements has that to of phrase considered be a group related was pattern by in itsownclimax.It is marked moments a movement and of (peaking) quiescence where there alternations activity are It by diminution). is distinguished rhythmic (pose, rest, energy of I and/or gesture. and pattern visualconfigurations locomotion the of features among dancegroups lookedatcontrasts distinctive of based on and examined social characteristics thedancers the involves researcher a engagresearch. Ethnography ethnographic a asking ques(living among group, inginparticipant observation and lookingin muchthesame way as a child learnsits tions, culture). of that number principles seemtogenerate There exist limited a for and married Ubakaladance-plays warrior women, youth. men, in Forexample, illustratedFigure "Warriors'Deep Surface as and 1, and spatial rapidtempo, linearand angular Structures," tension, These can by are patterns characteristic. deepstructures be realized 2, Deep Figure "Mothers' bourree, lunge, and slashmovements. slow and SurfaceStructures," illustrates nontense that effort, and the space generate wave walk,contracttempo, curvilinear movements. release, hipshift and showa relationThe Ubakaladancemovement patterns studied age and sex-role specifically ship to the social organization, and differentiation These seemhomologous conservapatterns. in tive. In Figure3, "Dance Style and Structure Relationto the Age-Sex Role Differentiation," axes forage (vertical)and for greatest are to the sex-role differentiation (horizontal) drawn of illustrate distribution features patterns. the and Youngpeople in of bothsexes haverelatively similar dancemovements terms of their of time, use and At space,energy, bodyparts. theother

_!

... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ s |I

Photograph 2: Ubakala Women, by WtIliamJohn Hanna

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dS-deep structure E-effort T-time s-space

structure sS-surface

dS E-tension, s-linear T-rapid, sS: I bourree lunge I slash

Figure 1: Warriors'Deep and Surface Structures

dS E-nontense, sS: wave walk T-slow, s-curvilinear

contract-release hip shift

Figure 2: Mothers' Deep and Surface Structures

endof theage continuum, elderly menandwomenhave similar dancepatterns. Distribution UbakalaDancein Figure "Tension 4, the another ofviewing differences. way Plays," presents Whenthetwosexesarerelatively in differsimilar age butvery ent in biologicaland social role,thedance movement patterns the contrast between mostmarkedly. Thereis a strong diverge womenas life-creating nurturing themenas life-taking and and and of or in domains movement warriors, actually symbolically,the socialstructure. There distinct for as are behavior rules differential well as actualbehavioral at the Social differences.3 differentiation in manifest the emotional ideological and poles is symbolically as movements eachdance-play of genre, wellas initsparticipation the of and meaning themovement, song. criteria, substantive

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Old

Wamors

Mothers

\oed

Youth/

Young Age = vertical axis = Greatest Sex Role Differentiationhornzontal axis Figure 3: Dance Style and Structurein Relation to Age-Sex Role Differentiation

= horizontal NOTE Age = vertical axis; greatestsex-roledifferentiation axis

Thesexroles, although distinct, nevertheless are interdependent. Men receivetheir their to and birth, nurturance, indirectly right in in and behavior from women.Women, partake political ritual receive their and environturn, birth politically ritually and ordered ment from men. movement when Contrastive occurs most both sexesare notably the physically capableofdistinct behavior, women life-givers, as the menas life-takers. anddeath the Life is ultimate binary structure forhumans. in These dance movement are structures presented Patterns UbakalaDance-Plays." in Figure "Age-SexContrastive 5, Furthermore, men's directional with changesare moreangular, and and marked succession segments; varied bodyshapesaremore in Whereas mendancein a circleextrusively, complex. stepping andout,leaping anddown, moving theball ofthefoot, and on up a the women thecircle use intrusively, keeping more homogeneous

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Warriors
Tension 4
+_

Youth

Titled

in Elderly General

WOMEN

Youth
Tension o

Childbearing, Old

+ Relatively greater
-

Relatively less

Figure 4: Tension Distributionin Ubakala Dance-Plays

lesser NOTE + = relatively greater. - = relatively

Rapid predominantlythewholefoot. on spatial level,andmoving destruction as slowspecd use just speedandvaried spatial suggest killing The construction. warrior's andlimited spatial suggest use and thrust swift; ventures is he abroad.The woman'sgestation years sucking periodof abouttwo and three-quarter somewhat restricts mobility.4 in It seems reasonable concludethatUbakaladance-plays to terms textual arc of and components, who does whatwiththem, aboutsocial relationships of made visiblethrough congruences danceandsociety. data,presented Alan Lomaxduring his The to areas on the that aboutculture Choreometrics generalizes study basisofarbitrarily selected film supplesamples lacking important his that certainly disprove assertion all African mentary material, hip-swinging" dance,with"speed" dance is "wildlyenergetic, movement (Lomax,1968:234). There flowing through African all

00

SPACE

DYNAMI

Direction Amplitude Level

E WO WM N

Grouping unison painng leader in 0

Spatial Flow Locom minimum indulg.

(mothers, life-creating)

countersmall clock0 faceline of direc.ing.se face 0 center vertical line horizontal line diagonal forward/ backward
+

middle low

wa

st free flow
+

(warriors, life-taking)

M EN

small large

high middle low

unison soloist moves apart from group

maximum indulg. curves lines free and boundflow

wa st

ho lun

bou

+ Relatively greater variability. - Relatively lesservariability. Figure 5: Age-Sex Contrastive Patterns in Ubakala Dance-Plays
NOTE + = relatively greater variability = Relatively lesser variability

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continent about with areproblems generalizing aboutan African constel1,000language groups about many and that dancepattern Igbo lations. Peoplesare as diverse theagricultural ofNigeria, as Bushmen Namibia. pastoral MasaiofKenya, hunter/gatherer and of Moreover, within group, amongtheUbakalaand peoplesin a as to other culture areas,there a variety dancesspecific different is of to times,places, people,and situations. While Lomax's effort movement paramidentify culture patterns area quickly using few a in etersin analyzing otherresearchers' filmis admirable, situ have findings invalid(see ethnographers judged Choreometric Hanna,1986b, a further for critique). In orderto drawconclusions beyondwhatappearson film, on supplementary observations notations thelive dance-as and of wellas an ethnography encompasses representativeness that the that dances arefilmed, the filmed danceandthe criteria selecting for and thedancecatalyst, production, process, performance, impact of the dance, and the filming the dance on the dancerand of Thereis another that should problem audience-are necessary. be considered: dancerecordings one peoplebeingusedby the of to its another considered theformer be pilfering possesand by sions, or general exploitation(see Kealiinohomoku,1981; Honko,1984).

NOTES
expression movement, and 1. Laban's theory therelationship of between emotional of in (Hanna,1983b),is notpart challenged recent by studies cross-cultural communication this study. motifs or uniqueto a 2. Styleincludes particular constant the and features recurrent and are tradition. is theway in which thecontributing It all elements selected, organized, place, and time.Structure the is manipulated, by whichone mayestablish and origin, referred of elements dance.Styleandstructure often of are appearance theinterdependent the toas form, "how." circles "forces society are of 3. According Keil(1979: 201-202), the ofNigeria, to for Tiv . .. good. In andculture, femininity, melodic stability. . andcontinuity . andarenormally melodicchange. . . and contrast, anglesrepresent forces individuality, of masculinity, that friction between circles angles and discontinuity andarepotentially ... evil.... Itis the generates energy, dynamism, life."

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4. In addition thecorrelation specific to of movement with patterns social roles,it is noteworthy from that Charles Adams'sanalysis thedance-play of musical accompaniment, thereappearto be musicaldistinctions well. Whereasthe mothers have an open, as relaxed tonal rangeof thirteen semitones, cross-rhythm metersof 3 against4, and the have a widerrange descending melodiccontours sporadicpolyphony, warriors and of intervals(two octaves), 2 against 3 cross-rhythm, no clearly discernible and melody.

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Judith LynneHanna (Ph.D., Columbia), a University Maryland Senior Research of

Scholar, author To Dance Is Human;The Performer-Audience is of Connection; Dance, Sex, and Gender; Dance and Stress;Disruptive School Behavior, Urban
Dynamics in Black Africa (with W J. Hanna), and numerousarticles.