PAPER PRESENTATION ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

B.NIKESH KUMAR Bharat Institute of Engineering and Technology

bnikesh02@gmail.com S.Pooja Reddy

Bharat Institute of Engineering and Technology pooja_sudireddy@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. Textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines." The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence the sapience of Homo sapienscan be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science. AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each

other. Subfields have grown up around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still a longterm goal of (some) research. INTRODUCTION: AI is one of the newest sciences. Work started in earnest soon after World War II, and the name itself was coined in 1956.Along with molecular biology; AI is regularly cited as the field I would most like to be in by scientists in other disciplines. There are eight definitions for Artificial Intelligence. These definitions vary along two main dimensions.ie; reasoning and behavior. 1. System That Think Like Humans 2. System That Act Like Humans 3. System That Think Like rationally 4. System That Act Like rationally

HISTORY: Thinking machines and artificial beings appear in Greek myths, such as Talos of Crete, the golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion'sGalatea. Human likenesses believed to have intelligence were built in every major civilization: animated statues were worshipped in Egyptand Greece and humanoid automatons were built by Yan Shi, Hero of Alexandria, Al-Jazari and Wolfgang von Kempelen. It was also widely believed that artificial beings had been created by Jbir ibn Hayyn, Judah Loew and Paracelsus. By the 19th and 20th centuries, artificial beings had become a common feature in fiction, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein or Karel apek's R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). Pamela McCorduck argues that all of these are examples of an ancient urge, as she describes it, "to forge the gods. Stories of these creatures and their fates discuss many of the same hopes, fears and ethical concerns that are presented by artificial intelligence. The field of AI research was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. The attendees, including John, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, became the leaders of AI research for many decades. They and their students

wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing: computers were solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AI's founders were profoundly optimistic about the future of the new field: Simon predicted that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" and Marvin Minsky agreed, writing that "within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved". In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems, a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S and British governments to restore funding for academic research in the field. However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer lasting AI winter began.

In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry. The success was due to several factors: the incredible power of computers today (see Moore's law), a greater emphasis on solving specific sub problems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems, and above all a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards. PROBLEMS:

or make logical deductions By the late 1980s and '90s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics. For difficult problems, most of these algorithms can require enormous computational resources most experience a "combinatorial explosion": the amount of memory or computer time required becomes astronomical when the problem goes beyond a certain size. The search for more efficient problem solving algorithms is a high priority for AI research. Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments

The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into a number of specific subproblems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention. DEDUCTION, REASONING, PROBLEM SOLVING:

rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. AI has made some progress at imitating this kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: agent approaches emphasize the importance of sensor motor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research attempts to simulate the structures inside human and animal brains that give rise to this skill. KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION:

Early AI researchers developed algorithms that imitated the step-by-step reasoning that humans were often assumed to use when they solve puzzles play board games Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are

expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects situations, events, states and time; causes and effects knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains. A complete representation of "what exists" is an ontology (borrowing a word from traditional philosophy), of which the most general are called upper ontologies. Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representations are: The number of atomic facts that the average person knows is astronomical. Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time. A major goal is to have the computer understand enough concepts to be able to learn by reading from sources like the internet, and thus be able to add to its own ontology.

THE BREADTH OF COMMONSENSE

KNOWLEDGE:

DEFAULT REASONING AND

THE QUALIFICATION PROBLEM

THE SUB SYMBOLIC FORM OF

Many of the things people know take the form of "working assumptions." For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture an animal that is fist sized, sings, and flies. None of these things are true about all birds. John McCarthy identified this problem in 1969 as the qualification problem: for any commonsense rule that AI researchers care to represent, there tend to be a huge number of exceptions. Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires. AI research has explored a number of solutions to this problem. Much of what people know is not represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could actually say out loud. For example, a chess master will avoid a particular chess position because it "feels too exposed" or an art critic can take one look at a statue and instantly realize that it is a fake. These are intuitions or tendencies that are represented in the brain nonconsciously and sub-symbolically. Knowledge like this informs supports and provides a context for symbolic, conscious
SOME COMMONSENSE KNOWLEDGE

knowledge. As with the related problem of sub-symbolic reasoning, it is hoped that situated AI or computational intelligence will provide ways to represent this kind of knowledge.

learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. Supervised learning includes both classification and numerical regression. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a

PLANNING Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. They need a way to visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices. In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be. However, if this is not true, it must periodically check if the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.Multiagent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is used by evolutionary and swarm intelligence.

number of examples of things from several categories. Regression takes a set of numerical input/output examples and attempts to discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs. In reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. These can be analyzed in terms of decision theory, using concepts like utility. The mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational.

NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING

ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent

LEARNING
Machine learning has been central to AI research from the beginning. Unsupervised

algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs.

able to handle such tasks as object natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation. MOTION AND MANIPULATION manipulation and navigation, with subproblems of localization (knowing where you are), mapping (learning what is around you) and motion planning (figuring out how to get there). PERCEPTION Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected sub problems are speech recognition, facial recognition and object recognition.

SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE

Kismet, a robot with rudimentary social skills The Care-Providing robot FRIEND uses sensors like cameras and intelligent algorithms to control the manipulator in order to support disabled and elderly people in their daily life activities. The field of robotics is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be Emotion and social skills play two roles for an intelligent agent. First, it must be able to predict the actions of others, by understanding their motives and emotional states. (This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and the

perceptual skills to detect emotions.) Also, for good human-computer interaction, an intelligent machine also needs to display emotions. At the very least it must appear polite and sensitive to the humans it interacts with. At best, it should have normal emotions itself. CREATIVITY

like artificial consciousness or an artificial may be required for such a project. Eliezer Yudkowsky has argued for the importance of friendly artificial intelligence, to mitigate the risks of an uncontrolled intelligence explosion. The Singularity is dedicated to creating such an AI. Many of the problems above are considered AI-complete: to solve one problem, you must solve them all. For example, even a straightforward, specific task like machine translation requires that the machine follow the author's argument

TOPIO, a robot that can play table tennis, developed by TOSY. A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective) and practically (via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative). A related area of computational research is Artificial Intuition and Artificial Imagination. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE Most researchers hope that their work will eventually be incorporated into a machine with general intelligence (known as strong AI), combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or all of them. A few believe that anthropomorphic features

(reason), know what is being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's intention (social intelligence). Machine translation, therefore, is believed to be AI-complete: it may require strong AI to be done as well as humans can do it.

CONCLUSION:
Thus, AI is one of the newest sciences.AI currently encompasses a huge variety of subfields, ranging from general purpose areas, such as learning and perception to such specific tasks as playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry and diagnosing diseases.AI systematizes and automates intellectual tasks and is therefore potentially relevant to any sphere of human intellectual activity. In this sense ,it is truly a universal field.

REFERENCES:
1. Sturat Russell 2. Peter Norvig