Chemistry 11: General Chemistry I

Sections 1343, 1344, 1345 Dr. Jennifer Hsieh

Spring 2012

JM Hsieh

Objectives
Attendance Syllabus Honor Code Agreement Introduction/Ice Breaker

Chapter 1: 1.1 1.7

Attendance
Attendance during the first week of the semester is mandatory.
Enrolled students who are absent from any lecture or lab without a valid excuse during the first week of the semester will be dropped from the course. After the first week, attendance will not be taken during class. However, attendance is strongly encouraged.

Syllabus
The most current version of the syllabus and schedule can be found on the course eCompanion website.
Student access eCompanion via Corsair Connect: http://www.smc.edu/students

Chapter 1: Chemical Foundations

Sections 1.1 1.7

Fall 2011

JM Hsieh

Objectives
Define and apply the terms:
Microscopic, macroscopic, chemical elements & molecules.

Describe and apply the scientific method. Learn and apply the units of measurement set forth by the international scientific community. Discuss uncertainty in measurements and define and apply the following terms:
Certain, uncertain, precision and accuracy.

Explain the purpose and practice of using significant figures and apply the rules to calculations. Describe the process of dimensional analysis and apply the approach. Examine the three temperature scales and practice how to convert temperatures.

Understanding chemistry at the microscopic and macroscopic level

Macroscopic Microscopic

In chemistry we most often study the atomic level (microscopic) in order to understand the world around us at the macroscopic level.

Understanding chemistry at the microscopic and macroscopic level

Combustion Riding a Bike

Combustion of octane: 2C8H18 + 25 O2 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

Glycolysis + Kreb Cycle + ETC: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6 CO2 + 6H2O

http://www.cadillacwallpapers.com/wallpaper/Vintage-Automobile-Cadillac-Dream-Cars.html

Understanding chemistry at the microscopic and macroscopic level

Plant Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

The Scientific Method

A framework used to study/explore the world around us.
Consider one of your childhood explorations, a new recipe in the kitchen, or a new game strategy on the field. While informal, all these explorations follow the basic principle of the scientific method.

The Scientific Method

1.
2.

Making observations (qualitative or quantitative).

Formulating hypotheses a possible explanation for an observation. Performing experiments (to test the hypothesis). (Repeat)

3.

The Scientific Method

Eventually a set of hypotheses will agree with the observations obtained and the hypotheses are assembled into a theory (aka model).
A theory will often give an overall explanation of some natural phenomenon. Theories are often modified as they are further tested.

The Scientific Method

On occasion, scientists will see that the same observation applies to many different systems and can make a general statement regarding behavior. This is called a natural law.

Units of Measurement
Measurement
Quantitative observation consisting of two parts:
1. Number 2. Scale (units)

Examples:
20 grams (g) 35.2 meters per second (m/s)

International System of Units (SI system)

Prefix Multipliers

Use the prefix multipliers to express each measurement without any exponents. (a)1.2 x 10-9 m

(b)22 x 10-15 s
(c)1.5 x 109 g (d)3.5 x 106 L

Derived Units
A derived unit is a combination of other units, like speed (velocity):
* Meters per second: m/s

The derived unit is formed from two other SI units (meters and seconds).

Derived Units: Volume

Volume is a derived unit:
Volume is a measure of space using any unit of length, so that when cubed becomes volume.

cubic meters (m3), cubic centimeters (cm3)

In chemistry, volume is often expressed in Liters (which is not an SI unit). 1 liter = (1 dm)3 = (10 cm )3 = 1000 cm3 1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL

Determine the appropriate SI units for each of the following: a. Density (mass divided by volume) b. Area c. Velocity (speed)

d. Force (mass times acceleration) (Hint: Acceleration is the change in velocity of an object with respect to time a velocity change over a time interval). e. Pressure (force divided by area)

Intensive vs. Extensive Properties

Intensive Property = property that is independent of the amount of a substance present.
Example: Density

Extensive Property = property that is dependent on the amount of a substance present.

Example: Mass

Reliability of Measurement
Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in LA County as measured by US EPA

Uncertainty of Measurement
Scientists have agreed upon a standard way of reporting measurements, where:
More digits more certainty Less digits less certainty Numbers are often written so that the uncertainty is in the last reported digit: 15.0 ppm means 15.0 0.1 ppm (14.9 15.1 ppm) 15 ppm means 15 1 ppm (14 16 ppm)
In general, scientific measurements are reported so that every digit is certain except the last, which is estimated.

Uncertainty in Measurement
We can say with certainty that it measures:
20.1_ mL

But is it
20.15? 20.16? 20.14?

There is uncertainty in the final value.

Precision of a Measurement
The precision of a measurement depends on the instrument being used and correctly recording the measurement.
After the measurement, the value is often used in calculations and we must preserve the precision throughout the calculations. We preserve precision by using the Rules of Significant Figures.

Significant Figure Rules

1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).

Significant Figure Rules

2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These do not count as sig figs.
0.00567 has 3 sig figs.

b. Captive (Interior) zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures.
630.1982 has 7 sig figs.

c. Trailing zeros - see next slide.

Significant Figure Rules

2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
c.

Trailing zeros are zeroes at the end of a number and are categorized as follows:
Trailing zeroes after a decimal point are always significant.
45.000 (5 SF) 3.5600 (5 SF)

Trailing zeroes before a decimal point (and after a non-zero number) are always significant. 140.00 (5 SF) 2500.55 (6 SF) Training zeroes before an implied decimal point are ambiguous and should be avoided by using scientific notation. 1200 (ambiguous, 2 SF) 1200. (4 SF) 1.200 x 103 (4 SF)

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

3. Exact Numbers have no uncertainty and do not limit the number of significant figures in a calculation.
Exact numbers originate from three sources: a) Accurate counting of discrete objects.
3 atoms, 5 balloons

b) Defined quantities.
100 cm in 1 meter

c) Integral number that are part of an equation.

radius = x diameter ( is an exact number)

Rules of using Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations

In multiplication or division, the result carries the same number of significant figures as the factor with the fewest significant figures.

1.342 5.5 = 7.381 7.4

6.23/1.567 = 3.975749 3.98

Rules of using Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations

In addition or subtraction the result carries the same number of decimal places as the quantity with the fewest decimal places.
+2.345 +0.07 +2.9975 +5.4125 = 5.41

Rules for Rounding with Sig Figs

When rounding to the correct number of significant figures, round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is four or less; round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped if five or more. Example: Round to two sig figs 5.37 5.4 5.34 5.3 5.35 5.4 5.349 5.3 Notice in the last example that only the last (or leftmost) digit being dropped determines in which direction to round ignore all digits to the right of it.

Rules for Rounding with Sig Figs

To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations round only the final answer do not round intermediate steps. If you write down intermediate answers, keep track of significant figures by underlining the least significant digit.
This is especially important with WebAssign!! Example:

1.002 0.999 0.003 4 4 7.99 10 8 10 3.754 3.754

Calculate to the correct number of significant figures. (a) (24.6681 2.38) 332.58 (b) (85.3 21.489) 0.0059 (c) (28.7 105 ) 48.533 144.99

Accuracy & Precision

As scientists we often repeat measurements several times to increase confidence in the result. We can distinguish between two types of certainty:
Accuracy = how close the measured value is to the actual value. Precision = how close a series of measurements are to one another.

Accuracy & Precision

Error in Measurements: Random Error

Random error is error that has an equal probability of being too high and too low.
Student As measurements are a good example of random error.

Error in Measurements: Systematic Error

Systematic error is error that tends to be either too high or two low, but not both.
Often results from an instrument being improperly calibrated.

Student Bs measurements are a good example of systematic error.

Dimensional Analysis
golfer putted a to ball 6.8 ft across a result/value AProcess used golfconvert a given green. How many inches does this represent? from one system of units to another.

Two key points to consider in your strategy:

1. To convert from one unit to another, use the equivalence statement that relates the two units. 2. Determine the units youre starting with and determine a series of cross canceling equivalence statements to arrive at the final units.

Dimensional Analysis
An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb. What is the mass of this sample in grams? (1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)

Note: With dimensional analysis you can always check your answer by double checking that all initial and intermediate units cross cancel to give the final desired units.

Temperature
The SI unit for temperature is Kelvin (K).
The temperature of a sample is the measure of the amount of kinetic energy (energy due to motion) of the atoms/molecule that compose the matter.
Hot water > high kinetic energy > molecules move fast. Cold water > low kinetic energy > molecules move slow.

Three Temperature Systems

Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit

A sick child has a temperature of 40.00C. What is the childs temperature in: (a)K (b)F

Challenge Question
At what temperature is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit equal to twice the temperature in degrees Celsius?