SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

SSP 3414
SECTION 88

LIGHT EMMITING DIODE LASER DIODE

PREPARED BY: SHAHIZAH BINTI SHUKRI AP080062

LECTURER PROFESSOR DR.SAMSUDI SAKRANI

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

1.0 Introduction

A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) in essence is a P-N junction solid-state semiconductor diode that emits light when a current is applied though the device. By scientific definition, it is a solid-state device that controls current without the deficiency of having heated filaments LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.

Figure 1: Cross section of indicator LED Figure 1 shows the cross section of indicator LED. LEDs are highly monochromatic, only emitting a single pure color in a narrow frequency range. The color emitted from an LED is identified by peak wavelength (lpk) which is measured in nanometers (nm).

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.

Figure 2: Colours of LED

Table 1: Typical LED Characteristic

2.0 Principle & Mechanism The essential portion of the Light Emitting Diode is the semiconductor chip. Semiconductors can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which the electrical behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. When the electrical characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic. This chip is further divided into two parts or regions which are separated by a boundary called a junction. The p-region is dominated by positive electric charges (holes) and the n-region is dominated by negative electric charges (electrons). The junction serves as a barrier to the flow of the electrons between the p and the n-regions. This is somewhat similar to the role of the band-gap because it determines how much voltage is needed to be applied to the semiconductor chip before the current can flow and the electrons pass the junction into the pregion.

Figure 3 : Cross section of a typical semiconductor LED showing the n and p-type semiconductor layers

Band-gaps determine how much energy is needed for the electron to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. As an electron in the conduction band recombines with a hole in the valence band, the electron makes a transition to a lower-lying energy state and releases energy in an amount equal to the band-gap energy. This energy is released in photons. Normally the energy heats the material. In an LED this energy goes into emitted infrared or visible light. The bandgap energy, Eg is approximately equal to the emitted photons energy. Eg = h where h is the Plancks constant , h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js =4.135 x 10-15 eVs The number of photons may be obtained via the following expression N = E / (h) = (P t )/[h(c/)] = (Pt)/(hc)

The diode current on the other hand, is related to the band-gap energy via the following formula J = J1 exp [(e(V-Vg))/kT] for eV/kT >>1

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly. The resistor value, R is given by:

R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs) I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A) Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and convert the current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms ( ). To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A. If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright.

LASER DIODES
1.0 Introduction Laser diodes (also called .injection lasers.) are in effect a specialised form of LED. Just like a LED, they.re a form of P-N junction diode with a thin depletion layer where electrons and holes collide to create light photons, when the diode is forward biased. The difference is that in this case the active. part of the depletion layer (i.e., where most of the current flows) is made quite narrow, to concentrate the carriers The ends of this narrow active region are also highly polished, or coated with multiple very thin reflective layers to act as mirrors, so it forms a resonant optical cavity. The forward current level is also increased, to the point where the current density reaches a critical level where carrier population inversion occurs. This means there are more holes than electrons in the conduction band, and more electrons than holes in the valence band or in other words, a very large excess population of electrons and holes which can potentially combine to release photons. And when this happens, the creation of new photons can be triggered not just by random collisions of electrons and holes, but also by the influence of passing photons. Passing photons are then able to stimulate the production of more photons, without themselves being absorbed. So laser action is able to occur: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

2.0 Laser Wavelength Design

3.0 Laser safety Although most of the laser diodes used in electronic equipment have quite low optical output levels typically less than 5mW (milliwatts) their output is generally concentrated in a relatively narrow beam. This means that it is still capable of causing damage to a human or animal eye, and particularly to its light-sensitive retina. Infra-red (IR) lasers are especially capable of causing eye damage, because their light is not visible. This prevents the eye`s usual protective reflex mechanisms (iris contraction, eyelid closure) from operating. So always take special care when using devices like laser pointers, and especially when working on equipment which includes IR lasers, to make sure that the laser beam cannot enter either your own, or anyone else eyes. If you need to observe the output from a laser, either use protective filter goggles or use an IR-sensitive CCD type video camera. Remember that eye damage is often irreversible, especially when its damage to the retina.

Conclussion on Semiconductor LED Vs Laser Diodes

Light Emitting Diode

Light is mostly monochromatic (narrow energy spread comparable to the distribution of electrons/hole populations in the band edges) Light is from spontaneous emission (random events in time and thus phase). Light diverges significantly

LASER

Light is essentially single wavelength (highly monochromatic) Light is from stimulated emission (timed to be in phase with other photons Light has significantly lower divergence (Semiconductor versions have more than gas lasers though).