International Journal of Advances in Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No.

2, 2012

Some Statistics of Rain Rate & Rain Attenuation for Tropical & Non Tropical Countries
A. B. Bhattacharya1* and A. Nag1, 2
1

Department of Physics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, India asit1951@yahoo.com

Department of Physics, Modern Institute of Engineering & Technology, Hooghly 712123, India tnnag79@gmail.com

Abstract
Statistical distributions of rain rate have been examined for tropics and compared with the temperate zone using standard model and meteorological data contained in the International Radio Consultive Committee (CCIR) report. The log-normal law provides a correct representation of low rain intensities, but overestimates the high intensities corresponding to low time percentages. On the contrary, the gamma law is appreciable to reflect rainfall intensities above about 12 to 20 mm/h in temperate climates but is unsuitable for low rainfall intensities. Variation of average annual rainfall for 7 locations when examined it shows that the highest rainfall occurred in Meghalaya, with 1204.7 mm of rainfall as Meghalaya is under tropical wet climate and it experiences rain throughout the year. Jammu & Kashmir is the driest place, with 134.5 mm of rainfall. Rapid response rain gauge measurements at seven locations in India are analyzed and some interesting results are presented. We have modeled the variation of rainfall as a linear function of rain height. Mathematical functions valid within a certain range of probabilities have been implemented to model rainfall intensity statistics.

Keywords: Rain rate, Rain intensity, Rain attenuation 1. Introduction

The time variant fading in microwave communication has demanded a closer look on fade dynamics and modeling, related to the rainfall rate and rain intensity at a particular site [1-4]. Since each geographical area corresponds to its own distribution they must be selected on the basis of measurements in such a way as to be as representative as possible and to be carried out at stations of a well defined rainfall climate. The digital revolution has been successfully exploited in new generation of radars with fully digitized outputs to facilitate the quantitative use of radar information. It is a complementary source of information of rain gauge and is useful for gathering information in conjunction with other relevant meteorological and hydrological information by means of multi sensor approach [5, 6]. The purpose of the paper is to provide statistics of rain rate and rain attenuation for selected tropical and non tropical station. We have elaborately considered the existing models of rain rate and rain intensity with a critical analysis of the various parameters involved therein [7, 8]. In this paper rapid response rain gauge measurements at seven locations in India are analyzed and some interesting results are presented. We have modeled the variation of rainfall as a linear function of rain height.

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2. Statistical Model for Rain Rates and Rainfall Intensity

Some models have been proposed under different climatic conditions for the statistical distribution of rain rates. Out of those the long-normal distribution is a good approximation for the low rain rates but overestimates largely the high rain rates corresponding to very low time percentages. The gamma distribution is better for rain rates > 15 mm/h, in temperature climates. But the data from tropical regions reveal that the gamma distribution in these zones itself overestimates the high rain rates. For the low rain rates the curvature being upward while it is downward for the high rain rates. It would be desirable to have statistical model valid in any climate. One can consider that in any climate the curve representing R versus log P has an inflexion and the rain rate is always smaller than a maximum value RM which is dependent on the rain climate. Accordingly, a function can be chosen conveniently to prevent the introduction of a parameter representing the percentage of time without rain. The , which starts slowly from zero, is appropriate from this point of view. The model is then function represented by the equation (1) P in equation (1) being the probability that the value R be exceeded; and are two positive parameters. There is no mathematical restriction on the values. The usual values of , and RM are found in the following ranges: : 5 to 50, : 0.5 to 1, RM: 250 to 5000 mm/h The equation (1) can then be rewritten as, (2) Choosing different values of , , R and RM we have calculated the probability P against the rain rate [9]. The curves so obtained by using the model are plotted in Figure 1. For tropical climate the value of the exponent is appropriate to a value of 0.5 as we have used for the present computation (Figure 1a). However, for temperate climates should be taken as 1 or 2 (Figure 1b and 1c) as reported by others using the same model [10]. In Figure 2 different values of , , and RM for 10 temperate climate stations are shown in Table I.

Figure1. Comparison between the measurement and the model

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Table I Value of the parameters RM, and for Non-tropical countries

Station Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Observing Station Padang Miami Osaka Belem Papua-New Guinea Manaus Kjeller Rio de janeiro Yamaguchi Ogasawara RM 270 420 540 640 730 750 810 950 1220 1350 7.14 10.50 21.20 16.40 19.80 18.00 27.80 22.00 24.40 28.10 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The log-normal law can provide a correct representation of low rain intensities, but overestimates the high intensities corresponding to low time percentages. On the other hand, the gamma law is appreciable to reflect rainfall intensities above about 12 to 20 mm/h in temperate climates but is unsuitable for low rainfall intensities [2, 11-14]. A mathematical function can be so selected that a point of inflexion is obtained in the graphical representation in the coordinates R/log P. This function should be a probability law and it would be useful if the function could be inverted for either R versus P or P versus R. There are models which meet either all or some of these conditions. One very appropriate model applicable to all climates is represented by the relation (Boithias model), (3) Inverting the relation (3) we get, (4) This relation is based on three parameters: RM, , and , where RM represents the maximum rainfall intensity for P tending towards zero. The coordinates of the point of inflexion can be expressed as, = = ] (5) (6)

No mathematical restriction is there on the three parameters and P always lies between 0 and 1. In practice for a tropical country the exponent may be selected equal to 1 and the relation comes to the form: = (7)

3. Rainfall Intensities for Tropical and Non-tropical countries

3.1 Distribution of rainfall over Indian states
The propagation effects over the earth-space path at higher bands, particularly above 10 GHz, are in the form of attenuation, scintillation, and depolarization; mainly caused by rain. At such high

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frequencies, the sizes of falling raindrops are close to a resonant sub multiple of the signal wavelength. The droplets, therefore, are able to absorb, scatter, and depolarize the radio waves passing through the earths atmosphere [15]. Many theoretical and experimental studies of rain attenuation have been carried out in developed countries located at temperate regions of the world [16]. The data coverage of tropical regions remains inadequate due to the complex and varying climatic behaviors compared to the temperate regions [17-19]. Thus, the performance of communication systems in tropical countries is affected negatively during the heavy rain season [20, 21]. The cumulative distributions of rainfall data for 7 different stations of India for a period of five years (2006-2010) were collected (Figure 2). The stations are not taken arbitrarily and are selected from different corners of India. The position of the stations (locations) over India is shown in the map of India in Figure 3. With the help of this rain data, designers for tropical countries can be familiar with the rainy season in tropical countries and be able to devise suitable designs for these regions. Thus, the performance of communication systems in tropical countries could be improved during the rainy season [22, 23]. Figure 4 shows variation of average annual rainfall for all the 7 locations. Highest rainfall occurred in Meghalaya, with 1204.7 mm of rainfall. It is because Meghalaya is under tropical wet climate and it experiences rain throughout the year. Jammu & Kashmir is the driest place, with 134.5 mm of rainfall. As the state is under subtropical climate, it experiences wet and dry season depending on movement of inter tropical belt.

Figure 2. Variation of average annual rainfall for a period of five years (2006-2010) over 7 different stations of India

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Figure 3. Position of the seven states whose data have been taken into analysis The Rainfall Normals (mm) shown in Figure 4 are the averages of rainfall for West Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Goa for the same period (from IMD data source) [24].

Figure 4. Averages annual rainfall for the period of 2006-2010 for seven Indian stations

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On the other hand, Figure 5 depicts the seasonal normal of rainfall averages for all the Subdivisions for the same period describing the winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon variations.

Figure 5. Seasonal normal of rainfall averages

3.2 Comparison of rainfall over Tropical and Non-tropical Countries

Figure 6 describes the seasonal variations of rainfall for 2010 over (A) four Indian locations viz. Kolkata (22036N,88024E), Mumbai (18055N,72050E), Delhi (28038N,77017E), Nagpur (21008N,79010E), (B) two non-tropical countries: Japan (Kagoshima) (31037N,130032E) and Korea (Seoul) (37030N,1270E)], (C) two countries on the Equator : Kenya (Nairobi) ( 1017S,36049E) and Somalia (Mogadishu) (2002N,45021E) and (D) two prime meridian countries : Spain (Barcelona) ( 41023N,2011E) and France (Paris) (48052N,2020E) [25]. It is observed from the Figure that for the tropical and non-tropical countries (India, Japan, and Koera) annual rainfall is maximum for the months June-September and is minimum in December (driest month) but for the two countries on the equator (Kenya and Somalia) and the two prime meridian countries (Spain and France) annual rainfall is maximum in April-May and is minimum in July-August.

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Figure 6. Seasonal variations of rainfall over (A) four Indian locations, (B) two non-tropical countries, (C) two countries on the Equator and (D) two prime meridian countries

4. Rain Rates in the Tropics Measured by Rain Gauges

As the rainfall data reported by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) on a monthly basis includes the non rainy period also, it becomes difficult to get an instantaneous rain rate. In order to

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study the secular variations of regional rainfall we have then carried out the trend analysis for the monthly rainfall series of June, July, August, and September and also for the season as a whole for Nadia and North 24 Parganas. The results are shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8, which shows significant and remarkable variations on the regional scale. With the help of the provided monthly cumulative rainfall data, system designers for the tropical region can determine the rainy and sunny season for the above countries and can come up with a suitable design that would be able to give better communication services.

Figure 7. Variation of monthly rainfalls for the period 2006-2010 for Nadia District (based on IMD data)

Figure 8. Variation of monthly rainfalls for the period 2006-2010 for North 24 Parganas (based on IMD data)

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Figure 9 shows the trends in North West, Central, North East, and South Peninsular Indian monsoon rainfall from 1901 to 2010, for a period of 110 years [26]. From this it is clear that North West India is the driest and the North East India is the wettest part of the country keeping the other two parts in between.

Figure 9. Actual rainfalls (for Jun-Sep) for a period of 110 years (1900-2010) over the 4 sub divisional parts of India Figure 10 on the other hand describes variation of Indian rainfall from June to September (rainy months) for the same period. From this figure it appears that the actual trend of overall rainfall from 1988 to till date is gradually decreasing which is very interesting.

Figure 10. Actual rainfalls (for Jun-Sep) for a period of 110 years (1901-2010) over India

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Figure 11 depicts the rainfall in percentage departure for the rainy months (June to September) for the same period.

Figure 11. Percentage departures of actual rainfalls (for Jun-Sep) over India for the same period

5. Rain-attenuation Prediction Model

Knowledge of rain attenuation is essential for design of a reliable communication link above 10 GHz. The point rainfall rates and the vertical and horizontal structures of rain are important parameters to be considered for estimating rain attenuation. The relation between specific attenuation and rain rate can be expressed as: = (12)

where a and b are two constants. These constants depend on the frequency and microstructure of the rain. The value of a and b can be estimated from [27, 28], = 4.21 x 10- 5 x for 2.9 f 54 GHz -2 = 4.09 x 10 x , for 54 f 180 GHz (13) and = 1.41 x for 8.5 f 25 GHz = 2.63 x , for 25 f 164 GHz (14) where f represents the frequency. A number of rain attenuation prediction models have been published which claim global applicability. Attenuation predictions require first the estimation of a surface rain rate distribution and second the prediction of the radio wave attenuation value distribution, given by the rain rate distribution. Several workers have proposed different models for calculation of attenuation along a path. Previously Ryde [29] presented a rain attenuation model. After that, Crane looked afresh at the model predictions and compared them with the measured values to find matching between model predictions and measurements [30, 31]. He later proposed another model called, two-component model, followed by the revised version [32]. The input parameters needed for the model are: point rainfall rate for the location for 0.01% of an average year (mm/h), height above sea level of the Earth

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station (km), elevation angle, latitude of the Earth station (degree), frequency (GHz) and effective radius of the Earth (8500 km).The step by step procedure for calculating the attenuation distribution is given below: Step 1: Freezing height during rain Hr (km) is calculated from the absolute value of station latitude (degrees) as Hr =5.0 for 00 < 230 Hr =5.0 0.075(23), for 230 (15)

Step 2 : The slant-path length, Ls, below the freezing rain height is obtained (km) (16) where is the elevation angle and Hs is the station height in km. For elevation angles less than 50, a more accurate path length estimate can be made using: = , Re = 8500 km (17) Step 3 : The horizontal projection, LG, of the slant path length is found from: LG = Ls cos (18) Step 4 : The rain intensity, R0.01 (mm/h), exceeded for 0.01% of an average year is then obtained from the 1 minute integration rain rate data, and is used for calculating the specific attenuation, 0.01 (dB/km): (19) The parameter k and depend on frequency, raindrop size distribution, rain temperature, and polarization. They can be obtained from [33]. Step 5 : The horizontal path adjustment factor, r0.01, for 0.01% of the time is also given as: (20)

Step 6 : Calculate the adjusted rainy path length, Lr, [km], through rain: for > for where (21)

Step 7 : The vertical reduction factor, rv0.01, for 0.01% of the time is also given by: (22)

where = 36 ||, for || < 360 and = 0, for || 360 Step 8 : The effective path length through rain, Le [km], is given by: Le = Lrrv0.01 (23) Step 9 : The predicted attenuation exceeded for 0.01% of an average year may then be obtained from: A0.01 = RLe (dB) (24) Step 10 : The estimated attenuation to be exceeded for the other percentages of an average year, in the range 0.001% to 10%, may then be estimated from the attenuation to be exceeded for 0.01% for an average year by using: (25) where p is the percentage probability of interest and z is given by For p 1%, z= 0

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for p < 1% z = 0 for || 360 (26) z = 0.005 (|| 36) for 250and || < 360 z = 0.005 (|| 36) + 1.8 4.25 sin , for < 250and || < 360 (27) The variation of Specific attenuation with rain rate for A) Seoul, Korea, B) Kolkata, India, C) Nairobi, Kenya and D) Barcelona, Spain is illustrated in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Variation of Specific attenuation with rain rate for A) Seoul, Korea, B) Kolkata, India, C) Nairobi, Kenya and D) Barcelona, Spain

6. Discussion
It appears that the concerned model can be utilized largely to represent statistical distributions in different climates but under certain conditions [34-36]. In temperate climates point of inflexion is generally not reached and the value of RM is higher than in the equatorial climate. Again, the value of the exponent is about 1 in temperate climates and decreases to about 0.5 in tropical climates. In this connection we can consider the Capsoni and Paraboni [8] model wherefrom we have,

= or, =

(28) (29)

[P and Po may be either probabilities or time percentages] This simple relation has certain drawbacks. It reflects that when P tends to zero RM represents the maximum rainfall intensity and P0 represents the probability corresponding to point of inflexion of curve R. This value being very low in temperature climates, the main part of the curve becomes concave towards the top while for equatorial climates the point of inflexion remains in the main part.

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For the probability at the point of inflexion is RM /e = 0.368 RM. This means that the function cannot be properly adapted to certain measured distribution, especially in equatorial climates. The value of RM is extremely high in temperate regions, where the statistical distribution has a very steep slope owing to the occurrence of very violent but short lived storms [37, 38]. Clearly, in this case, the useful part of the distribution remains well below the point of inflexion. With decreasing latitudes, the value of RM tends to drop, but the useful part of the curve reaches and even passes the point of inflexion. Finally, it is found that for some stations in low latitude, a value of must be chosen equal to 2 in order to ensure the proper representation of that part of the distribution which corresponds to high time percentages. However, the value of = 1 is suitable for representing almost all measured distributions. It would not seem necessary to use intermediate values of between 1 and2 owing to the variability of rain fall distributions [39, 40]. In tropical climates, like India, the rain drops of 8 mm are frequently observed while the frozen hydrometeors may be even larger than 10 mm. These large particles reflect much less than considered by Rayleigh approximation and so they are estimated to be smaller than they are in reality. In fact, these large particles are not suitably described by the normal drop size distributions that follow the Z-R relation. Besides, other errors that may be present in the estimation of radar precipitation include reflections received from variety of non-meteorological targets like aircrafts, chaffs, insects, birds, solar radiation etc [41-42]. The more problematic part of the attenuation is of course due to the precipitation itself. It may be pointed out that the CCIR model does not hold good for lower elevation angles and also not valid for vertical propagation [36, 37, 40]. It is also noted from the profile of -values that higher rain rates contribute more towards attenuation. With the help of the provided monthly cumulative rainfall data, system designers for the tropical region can determine the rainy and sunny season for the above countries and can come up with a suitable design that would be able to give better communication services. In doing so, the performance of communication systems in tropical countries would not be affected badly during the heavy rain season.

7. Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the University Grant Commission for financial support by sanctioning a project (No. 34 2 \ 2008, 31.12.08) under which this work has been done.

8. References
[1] R. Bhattacharya, P, Mali, R. Guha, S. D. Barman, and A. B. Bhattacharya, Variability of millimetrewave rain attenuation and rain rate prediction: A survey. Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics. 2007, 36, pp. 325-344. [2] F. Moupfouma, and D. Reffye, Model for Rainfall Rate Distribution. Electron Lett. 1991, 26, pp. 1021. [3] A. Burgueno, R. Vilar, and M. Puigeerver, Long term statistics of precipitation rate return periods in the context of microwave communication. Private communication. 1990, pp. 297301. [4] H. W. Arnold, D. C. Cox, and H. H. Hoffman, Fade duration and Interfade Interval Statistics Measured on a 19 GHz Earth Space path. IEEE Trans. on Comm., 1982, 30, pp. 265-269. [5] R Fulton, J. Breidenbach, D. J. Seo, D. Miller and T. O. Bannon, The WSR-88D rainfall algorithm, Wea. Forecasting, 1998, 13, pp. 377. [6] B.W. Golding, Nimrod: A system for generating automated very short range forecasts, Meteorol. Appl., 1998. 5, pp. 1.

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[7] P. N. Kumar, Fade Duration Statistics from COMSTAR 20/30 GHz Beacon Measurement Program, Comstat Tech. Rev., 1985, 15, pp. 71-87. [8] C. Capsoni, and A. Paraboni, A multipurpose model for the structure of precipitation: Statistical assessment against radar data. URSI Symposium. Rio de Janeiro.1990. [9] A. B. Bhattacharya, D. K. Tripathi, T. Das and A. Nag, Statistical Characteristics of Tropical Rain Rate and Rain Intensity from Radar and Rain Gauge Measurements, International Journal of Physics, 2011, 4(1), pp 53-64. [10] CCIR, Propagation data and prediction method required for earth-space communication systems, CCIR Report No. 564-3, International Telecommunication Union, 1986. [11] B. N. Harden, J. R. Norbury, and W. J. K. White, Measurements of Rainfall for Studies of Millimetric radio Attenuation. Microwave, Opt. and Acoustics. 1977, 1, pp. 197-202. [12] E. Villar, A. Burgueno, M. Puigcerver, and J. Austin, Analysis of Joint Rainfall Rate and Duration statistics: Microwave Systems Design Implications, IEEE Trans. on Comm., 1988, 36, pp. 650-651. [13] A. Burgueno, J. Austin, E. Villar, and M. Puigcerver, Analysis of Moderate and Intense Rainfall Rates Continuously Recorded over Half a Century and Influence on Microwave Communications Olanning and Rain Rate Data Acquisition, IEEE Trans. on Comm. 1987, 35, pp. 382-395. [14] CCIR, Propagation in non-ionized media. Report No. 72-1. 1978. [15] V. Kumar, and V. Ramachandran , Rain-attenuation measurement at11.6 GHz in Suva, Fiji. Elect. Let., 2004, 40(22), pp. 23-25. [16] J. S. Mandeep, Comparison of rainfall models with Ku-band beacon measurement, Acta Astron., 2009, 64, pp. 264-271. [17] J. E. Allnutt, and F. Haidara, Ku-band diurnal fade characteristics and fade event duration data from three, two-year earth-space radiometric experiments in equatorial Africa. Int. J. Satellite Comm., 2000, 18(3), pp. 161-182. [18] R.K Crane, Prediction of Attenuation by Rain, IEEE Trans. On Comm., 1980, 28(9), pp. 1717-1733. [19] K. Chakravarty and A. Maitra, Rain attenuation studies over an earthspace path at a tropical location, J. Atmos. Solar-Terrestrial Phys., 2010, 72, pp. 135-138. [20] E. Matricciani, Physicalmathematical model of the dynamics ofrain attenuation based on rain rate time series and a two- layervertical structure of precipitation, Rad. Sci., 1996, 31(2), pp. 281-295. [21] D. K. McCarthy, J. E. Allnutt, W. E. Salazar, R. W. Sitati, M. Okoth, M. J. Mutungi, C. D. Odhiambo and C. Zaks, Results Of 11.6GHz RadiometricExperiment In Kenya, Elect. Let., 1992, 28(3), pp. 1449-1450. [22] T. V. Omotoshoand and C. O. Oluwafemi, Impairment of radio wave signal by rainfall on fixed satellite service on earthspace path at 37 stations in Nigeria, J. Atmos. SolarTerrestrial Phys., 2009, 71, pp. 830-840. [23] Q. W. Pan, and J. E. Allnutt, 12-GHz fade durations and intervals in the tropic. IEEE Trans. Anten. Prop., 2004, 52(3), pp. 693-701. [24] http://www.imd.gov.in [25] http://www.samsamwater.com/climate [26] http://www.imd.gov.in/section/nhac/dynamic/data.htm [27] J. S. Ojo, M. O. Ajewole, and S. K. Sarkar, Rain rate and rain attenuation prediction for satellite communication in ku and ka bands over Nigeria, Progress In Electromagnetics Research B, 2008, 5, pp. 207223. [28] A. B. Bhattacharya, D. K. Tripathi, A. Nag and M. Debnath, Measurements of Rain Drop Size Distribution from Radar Reflectivity and Associated Rain Attenuation of Radio Waves, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 2011, 3(5), pp 4171-4179 [29] J. W. Ryde, The attenuation and radar echoes produced at centimeter wavelength by various meteorological phenomena, Meteorological factors in radio wave propagation, London, Physical Society, 1946, pp. 169-189.

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[30] R. K. Crane, Prediction of the effects of rain on satellitecommunication system, Proceedings of the IEEE, 1977, 65, pp. 456474. [31] R. K. Crane, A two-component rain model for the predictionof attenuation statistics, Radio Sci., 1982, 17, pp. 13711387. [32] Crane, R. K., Evaluation of global and CCIR models forestimation [33] Propagation data and prediction methods required for the designof earth-space telecommunications systems, RecommendationP.618-8, ITU-R P Sers., ITU-R, Int. Telecomm. Union, Geneva, 1999. [34] D.C. Cox, and H. W. Arnold, Results from the 19 and 28 GHz COMSTAR Satellite Propagation Experiments at Crawford Hill, Proc. IEEE, 1982, 70, pp. 458-488. [35] R. L. Olsen, D. V. Rogers, and D. B. Hodge, The relation aRb in the calculation of rain attenuation IEEE Transactions on Antenna and Propagation, 1978, 26, pp. 318-329. [36] M. V. S. N. Prasad, S. K. Sarkar, S. Mangal, and B. M. Reddy, Comparision of rain attenuation prediction methods for earth-space paths over northern India Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics, 1994, 23, pp. 135-141. [37] S. K. Sarkar, M. V. S. N. Prasad, H. N. Dutta, and B. M. Reddy, Rainrate characteristics over a tropical stations in northern India Indian Journal of Physics, 1992, 66, pp. 257-262. [38] K. I. Timothy, S. Sharma, A. K. Barbara, and M. Devi, Rain attenuation characteristics: An observational study over LOS microwave link at 11 GHz Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics, 1994, 23, pp. 130-134. [39] M. P. M. Hall, Effects of the troposphere on ardio communication IEE Electromagnetic Wave series & Peter Peregrinus LTD, 1979. [40] P. Mali, S. K. Sarkar, J. Das, Rain drop size distribution from radar reflectivity measurements Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics, 2003, 32, pp. 296-300. [41] Sen, A. K. and A. B. Bhattacharya, Radar Systems and Radio Aids to Navigation, Khanna Publishers, New Dehi, 2009. [42] E. Matricciani, and M. Mauri, Rain Attenuation Successive Fade Durations and Time Intervals between Fade in a Satellite Earth Link, Elect. Lett, 1986, 22(12), pp. 656.

Authors Profile
Prof. Asit Baran Bhattacharya has published more than 200 research papers and 12 text books of high repute. He has conducted many research projects in the Department of Physics, Kalyani University. He is a reviewer of many scientific journals. His field of interest is Solar radio astronomy, radio wave propagation and atmospherics. He did his post doctoral work at the MIT, USA.

Mr. Atanu Nag is a Lecturer in the Department of Physics in Modern Institute of Engineering and Technology and has published more than 10 papers in International Journals. He is working for Ph.D. under the guidance of Prof. Bhattacharya in the Department of Physics, University of Kalyani.

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