Lecture 01-08 FM1 2012

Lecture 1
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Content:

Introduction

Some Definitions

Fluid Properties

Units

Problem Solving Methodology

Problems

Reading: Chapter 1 of MY&O

Lecture 1: Introductory Concepts and Definitions 2

Definitions

Macroscopic View:

used in Classical Thermo. & Fluid Mech.
concerned with gross or overall behaviour
based on observations of the overall system
simple, uncomplicated approach.

Continuum Hypothesis:

matter is distributed continuously throughout the
system (no empty spaces)
homogeneous properties - same in all directions
i.e. the existence of atoms and molecules is ignored
Consistent with the Macroscopic View
For the Continuum Hypothesis to hold, pipes, vessels
and bodies must be large compared with particles,
molecules and atoms.

CH holds:

pipe >> particles

CH does not hold:

pipe = particles

Definitions (Continued)

Property:

macroscopic characteristic of a system independent of
history (e.g. mass, volume, energy, pressure and
temperature and others).
mass flow rates, energy transfers (work, heat) are
NOT properties (they are process characteristics).

Intensive Property:

independent of the size of the system (e.g. pressure,
temperature, concentration).
test by asking "what happens if I double the mass?"

Extensive Property:

dependent on the size of the system (e.g. mass,
volume, energy).
again, test by asking "what happens if I double the
mass?"

Steady State:

none of a system's properties change with time
e.g. continuous flow through a pipe with
constant supply pressure.

Unsteady State:

also known as "transient" processes
system's properties change with time
i.e. time dependent process
- engine cylinder
- opening or closing valve.

Fluid Properties - How Fluids are Described

Density and Specific Volume

It is assumed that the continuum hypothesis applies, i.e. that
the matter is distributed continuously throughout the
system.

The spacing between atoms and molecules is dependent on
pressure and temperature and also the state (liquid, gas) of the
fluid.

Note: a fluid can be liquid or gas.

Density ( )

The density is the mass (m) per unit volume (V or ) at a point:
=
Mass
Volume
=
m

Specific Volume:

The specific volume () is the reciprocal of the density:

=
Volume
Mass
=
1

Total mass: M = . dV
V
=
1
. dV
V


Specific Gravity (Relative Density):

The Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of water at 4C (1000 kg/m
3
):

S =
Density of substance
1000 kg/m
3

Specific Gravity is sometimes denoted by the term "SG".

Specific Weight:

Specific Weight is the ratio of the weight of a given amount of
a substance to the volume which this amount occupies:

=
Weight of substance (mg)
Volume of substance ()
= g

Typical values for some common fluids:

Fluid
(kg/m
3
) (m
3
/kg)
S (-)
(N/m
3
)
Air 1.225 0.77
1.3 x 10
-3

12.8
Water
0.998 x 10
3
1 x 10
-3

1
9.81 x 10
3

Ethanol
0.789 x 10
3
1.51 x 10
-6

0.79
7.74 x 10
3

Mercury
13.6 x 10
3
73.5 x 10
-6

13.6
133 x 10
3

Mineral
Oil
0.9 x 10
3
1.11 x 10
-3

0.9
8.8 x 10
3

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

All matter is to some extent compressible;
liquids are often treated as being incompressible,
gases are highly compressible.

The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterised by
the bulk modulus of elasticity, E
v
(N/m
2
):
E
v
= -
p
p

where p represents a small increase in pressure applied to the
material and is the corresponding small increase in the
original volume .

/ is called the volumetric strain.

Note the negative sign in the equation. This is because is
negative when p is positive.
Force and Stress Systems

Consider a uniformly distributed force F acting on the face of a
body of area a x b.

F may be considered to have two components:

F
N
is the component normal to the face
F
T
is the tangential (shear) component

F
F
T
F
N
a
b

Each of these force components gives rise to a separate stress
component (stress is defined as the force per unit area);

(i) ormal stress (acting normal to the face)
=
F
N
ab

Compressive normal stresses (i.e. positive pressure) are
considered to be positive.

(ii) Shear stress acting in the plane of the face

=
F
T
ab

The planes on which the shear stresses are acting within a fluid
are defined by the flow pattern of the fluid.
Pressure

The pressure is the normal stress acting on a body or within a
fluid (on a "fluid particle").

Let A be the area corresponding to the lower bound of the
continuum assumption. Then;
p = lim
abA

F
N
ab

Practically, the pressure is the normal force per unit area on any
real or imaginary surface, i.e., p =
F
N
A
.

"Types" of Pressure:

Gauge Pressure = pressure measured relative to the local
atmospheric pressure (i.e. as measured
by a standard pressure gauge)
= p
g

Absolute Pressure = as measured relative to a perfect
vacuum
= p
a

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Unit of Pressure: 1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m
2
1 kPa = 10
3
N/m
2

1 bar = 10
5
N/m
2
1 MPa = 10
6
N/m
2

Standard Atmosphere = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bar.
Definition of a Fluid

A fluid is defined as a material substance that deforms
continuously under the action of an applied shear force or
stress.

A solid will tend to resist deformation at all times, even if it is
in static equilibrium.

A fluid can only resist a shear stress when it is moving.

Once moving, the fluid will continue to flow (i.e. change its
shape) as long as the shear stress continues to act.

The fluid will not recover its initial shape (unless the process is
run in reverse!).

Fluids are found in both liquid and gaseous physical states.

Liquids and Gases:

For the purposes of Fluid Mechanics, the main distinction
between a liquid and a gas is:

a liquid will not necessarily fill a container - if the
volume of the liquid is less that the volume of the
container, the liquid will only partially fill that
container (the rest will be occupied by gas);

a gas will always expand to completely fill a container.
Viscosity and Shear Rate

Consider a solid "element" under the action of shear :

x
y
s
Original
Shape
Deformed
Shape

For the solid, elastic deformation takes place (and then stops).
The element is considered to have undergone a simple
distortion. This distortion is characterised by the strain term:

=
s
y

Viscosity and Shear Rate (Continued)

Consider a fluid "element" under the action of shear :

x
y
Original
Fliud
Element
(t = 0)
x
y
s
Deformed
Element
(t = t)
u + u
u
u + u
u

When shear stress, , is applied to a fluid, a continuous flow
process takes place and the rate of shear (= the shear strain rate
or "shear rate") is given by:
=
d
dt

s
y
t
=
s
y t
=
u t
y t

du
dy
as y 0

(Aside: s =u.t )

Hence, for a fluid, =
du
dy

The term
du
dy
is known as the "velocity gradient",

i.e. the rate of change of velocity with respect to length in the
direction perpendicular to the flow.

Some texts use instead of .
Viscosity and Shear Rate (Continued)

Velocity Gradient:

y
u(y)
gradient
du
dy

Sir Isaac Newton postulated for straight and parallel motion of
a fluid (2-D flow):
=
du
dy
Newton's Law of Viscosity

i.e. is a constant of proportionality between the shear stress
and the velocity gradient.

is known as the coefficient of "absolute viscosity" or the
"dynamic viscosity" of the fluid. (Units of are Ns/m
2
.)

Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the absolute viscosity divided
by the density of the fluid, i.e.
=
(units m
2
/s)
Typical values for some common fluids:
Fluid
Absolute or Dynamic
Viscosity,
N s/m
2

Kinematic Viscosity,
m
2
/s
Air
1.85 x 10
-5
15x10
-6

Water
1 x 10
-3
1x10
-6

Mercury
1.55 x 10
-3
0.114x10
-6

Mineral Oil
8 x 10
-4
0.9x10
-6

Pitch
10
2
- 10
6
-
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Newtonian Fluid:

= const. for constant T and p, independent of the
shear rate and the time of shearing.

most have a simple molecular structure
e.g. gases, water, most petroleum products.

Non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids that do not obey Newton's Law of Viscosity
i.e. viscosity varies with shear rate or time
e.g.
long-chain polymers
suspensions
blood
printing ink
slurries - high solid loading
tomato ketchup (shear thinning)
corn starch in water (shear thickening)
tooth paste (plastic - finite stress).

Bingham
Plastics
Newtonian
Shear
Thickening
Shear
Thinning
Bingham
Plastics
Newtonian
Shear
Thickening
Shear
Thinning

Surface Tension

Associated with free surface between liquid and gas or two
unmixable liquids.

Surface tension is due to the out-of-balance molecular
attraction acting on the molecules forming the free surface.

If the forces of adhesion between the molecules and solid
boundary are greater than the forces of cohesion between the
liquid molecules themselves, the liquid molecules tend to
migrate to the solid boundary and the liquid is said to wet the
solid (e.g. water and alcohol wet glass but mercury does not).

When wetting occurs, the free surface of the liquid makes an
acute angle ( < 90) with the solid and the level of the free
surface inside a tube will be higher than outside (capillary
action).

Tube
Contact angle =
Surface Tension (continued)

Adhesive < Cohesive - wetting does not occur, the angle
of contact is obtuse ( > 90) and the level of the free surface
inside a tube is depressed.

The free surface of a liquid acts like a perfectly flexible
membrane under tension.

The surface tension, ( units N/m), can be defined as that
tensile force per unit length of free surface. It can also be
defined as the energy per unit area required to maintain the
fluid interface.

The value of the surface tension depends on the following:
(i) nature of the liquid
(ii) temperature ( decreases with increasing temperature)
(iii) pressure ( increases with increasing pressure)

Tube
Contact angle =
Units and Dimensions

Primary Dimensions:

Mass (M)

Length (L)

Time (T)

Temperature ()

Current (I)

(and many more).

Secondary Dimensions: e.g. Velocity (LT
-1
), Area (L
2
).

We will use S.I. units (kg, m, s, K, C, J etc.)

Note 1:
Mass, Length and Time form MLT system, Sometimes FLT
(Force, Length and Time) system is used instead.

Note 2:

Many examples are given in MY&O using the "English"
system of units. The USA still uses these units extensively,
although most of the world uses S.I. units.

We will NOT usually consider problems using English
units.

Be aware of alternative systems of units.

Know how to convert between these systems and S.I.

Some conversion factors are given on the inside back
cover of MY&O.
Problem Solving Protocol

It is expected that you use the following (or similar) protocol:

Given:

Read the question and identify the problem. (summary)

Find:

What do you want to find? (short statement)

Schematic Diagram and Given Data:

Sketch the System and list the given data.

Assumptions:

State main assumptions used in the analysis. (important!)

Analysis:

Solve the problem explaining your procedure.

Comments:

Comment on your results if they are unexpected or
unusual.

Suggestion:

Read the question carefully (several times if necessary) till you
understand what information is given and what information you
are asked to find. If do not understand the problem, you cannot
solve it!
Problems for Lecture 1.
You may now attempt problems the following problems from Tutorial
1. These will not be assessed, but they may be discussed during
Tutorial 1.

1.1 Determine the dimensions, in both FLT and MLT systems, for (a)
the product of mass times velocity, (b) the product of force times
volume, and (c) kinetic energy divided by area.

1.5 If u is a velocity, x is a length, and t is a time, what are the
dimensions (in the MLT system) of (a) u t , (b)
2
u xt , and (c)
u t ( )
.dx?

1.9 According to information found in an old hydraulics book, the
energy loss per unit weight of fluid flowing through a nozzle connected
to a hose can be estimated by the formula
h = 0.04 to 0.09 ( ) D d ( )
4
V
2
2g
where h is the energy loss per unit weight, D the hose diameter, d the
nozzle tip diameter, V the fluid velocity in the hose, and g is the
acceleration of gravity. Do you think this equation is valid in any
system of units? Explain.

1.29 The information on a can of soft drink indicates that the can
contains 355 mL. The mass of a full can of drink 0.369 kg while an
empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, density,
and specific gravity of the drink and compare your results with the
corresponding value for water at 20C. Express your results in SI units.

1.42 The kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of a liquid are
3.5x10
-4
m
2
/s and 0.79, respectively. What is the dynamic viscosity of
the liquid in SI units?
1.54 A thin layer of glycerin flows down an inclined, wide plate with
the velocity distribution shown in the figure below. For h = 0.3 inches
and = 20, determine the surface velocity, U. Note that for
equilibrium, the component of weight acting parallel to the plate
surface must be balanced by the shearing force developed along the
plate surface. In your analysis assume a unit plate width.

1.56 A 10 kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface as
shown in the figure. Determine the terminal velocity of the
block if the 0.1 mm gap between the block and the surface
contains SAE 30 oil at 60F. Assume the velocity distribution
in the gap is linear, and the area of the block in contact with the
oil is 0.2 m
2
.

20
V
0.1 mm gap

y
h
u/U = 2(y/h) -
2
u
U

Lecture 2

HYDROSTATICS (FLUID STATICS) 1

Content:

Introduction and Pascal's Law

Pressure - A Scalar Term

Pascal's Law for Pressure at a Point

Pressure Variation with Depth

Gauge Vs Absolute Pressure

Manometry

Problems

Reading: MY&O 2.1 to 2.7

Lecture 2: Hydrostatics 1
2
Introduction and Pascal's Law

Fluid statics is important in many aspects of engineering, e.g.:
Buoyancy
forces in pressure vessels and on container walls
forces on dam walls
submarine engineering
aeronautical and aerospace engineering.

The essence of this lecture is the application of Pascal's law:

"The pressure at any point in a non-flowing fluid has a single
value, independent of direction ". i.e. pressure is a scalar term.

(This holds true if the fluid is static, i.e. non flowing. If the fluid
is flowing there are additional stresses due to shear which require
more complex analysis.)

In this lecture we will see the implications of Pascal's law on:
pressure variation with depth beneath the free surface
simple pressure measuring devices such a manometers.

Pressure - A Scalar Term

At a given depth under the surface of a fluid, the hydrostatic
fluid pressure can be described as a scalar quantity (as distinct
from a vector quantity), i.e.
it has a magnitude
it acts equally in all directions
Thus, we define pressure:
p = lim
abA

F
N
ab

where F
N
is the normal force acting over the area ab (as given in
Lecture 1).

Note that the direction of the force due to pressure on a surface
depends on the orientation of the surface.
3
Pascal's Law for Pressure at a Point

Consider a static wedge of fluid, in equilibrium, submerged
below a free surface. The only forces acting on the wedge are
surface forces (due to pressure) and body forces ("weight" due
to gravity). For simplicity, we will consider a wedge of fluid
of width y (into the page).

z
x
s
Px
Pz
Ps
Depth into
page y
z
x
Area yz
Area yx
Area ys
g

For the purposes of this analysis we assume that p
z
, p
x
and p
s

are different. In fact, they are not, as will be shown.

Note that the force on each face of the wedge is the product of
the pressure and the area of that face.

The equation of equilibrium in the x-direction is:

F
x
= p
x
yz ( ) p
s
ys ( )sin = 0 (1)

4

The equation of equilibrium in the z-direction is:

F
z
= p
z
yx ( ) p
s
ys ( )cos g
xyz
2

= 0 (2)

where
xyz
2

= volume of wedge.

But from geometry x = scos and z = ssin.

Substituting these equations into (1) and (2), we obtain

p
x
- p
s
= 0

p
z
- p
s
- g
z
2
= 0

To evaluate these relationships at a point, take the limit as x,
y and z approach zero (i.e. shrink the volume of the wedge
down to zero). Then we obtain:

p
x
= p
s
and p
z
= p
s

This is Pascal's Law.

Note:
this analysis is valid for all
this analysis provides the same result in a moving
and/or accelerating fluid. It is not valid if shear
stresses are present.

5

Pressure Variation with Elevation

Consider a small fluid element of side dx x dy x dz at rest in a
stationary fluid. The only forces acting on the element are due
to gravity and pressure (pressure x area). Because equilibrium
in the y-direction will yield the same results as in the x-
direction, equilibrium can be considered in the x and z
directions only.
z
x
dz
dx
A
B
C
D
dW
A
p dydz
C
p dydz
D
p dxdy
B
p dxdy
dz
dx
g

Applying Newtons first law to the element in two directions
( F
x
= 0 and F
z
= 0 ) and noting that dx and dz are very
small, we obtain

F
x
= p
A
dy. dz p
C
dy. dz = 0
F
z
= p
B
dx. dy p
D
dx. dy dW = 0
(1a,b)

in which p is a function of x, y and z.
6

The pressures on the faces of the element, in terms of the
pressure p at the centre of the element, in partial derivative
notation are

p
A
= p
p
x
dx
2
p
C
= p +
p
x
dx
2
p
B
= p
p
z
dz
2
p
D
= p +
p
z
dz
2
(2)

The weight of the element is:

dW = gdx. dy. dz = dx. dy. dz (3)

Note that as dx, dy and dz approach zero, any variations in
and g over the element will be negligible, even though and g
may vary over a larger region. Recall: = g.

Inserting equations (2) and (3) into equations (1a,b) and
simplifying, we obtain:

p
p
x
dx
2

dy. dz p +
p
x
dx
2

dy. dz =
p
x
dx. dy. dz = 0

and similarly,

p
z
dx. dy. dz dx. dy. dz = 0

Dividing by dxdydz in both cases, gives

p
x
= 0 and
p
z
= = g (4a,b)
7

Because p x = 0, it is shown that in a static fluid:

there is no horizontal variation of pressure
i.e. pressure is constant in a horizontal plane
(as shown earlier).

Therefore, pressure is a function of z only.

(Hence it is permissible to replace the partial derivative in
equation (4b) with the total derivative dp/dz.)

Equation (4b) is the basic equation of fluid statics. It can be
written in the form dz = dp and can be integrated directly
to give:
z
2
-z
1
=
dp
p
1
p
2

For a fluid of constant density (this may be safely assumed for
liquids over large vertical distances and for gases over small
distances), the integration yields

where h is the difference in elevation between the locations
considered.
z
2
z
1
= h =
p
1
p
2

or p = p
1
p
2
= z
2
z
1
( ) = h
8
Typical Application:

For the pressure at a depth h below the surface of a fluid (e.g.
water) with a surface pressure p
0
:

p - p
0
= g(z
0
- z) = gh

or, equivalently p = p
0
+ h = p
0
+ gh

This equation allows the increase in pressure with depth in a
fluid of constant density to be easily calculated.

Varying Fluid Density

Given the depth of a point within a fluid, the fluid density and
the pressure above the fluid, we cannot calculate the pressure
at that point unless we know how the density of the fluid
varies (with pressure) ie. we need to know the function.
e.g. air density varies non-linearly with altitude because of
temperature and pressure changes.

In many practical situations, the density of the working fluid
can be considered to be constant:
water in a reservoir,
oil in a pipe
air over small height ranges.
h
p
Fluid Surface
g
Fluid
z
p
0
z
0
Datum

9
Example: Hydraulic Jack

In a hydraulic jack the small piston is used to pressurize the
fluid in a reservoir, and the larger piston does the lifting.
Find F
D
.

5 mm
100 mm
Oil
SG = 0.8
A
h
C
D
F = 200 N
A
F
D

The pressure at the piston face A is: p
A
=
F
A
Area A

The hydrostatic pressure distribution gives: p
B
= p
A
+ gh
Since B and C are at the same elevation: p
B
= p
C

The hydrostatic pressure distribution gives: p
C
= p
D
+ gh

The pressure at the piston face D is: p
D
=
F
D
Area D

Using this logic we therefore find that: p
A
= p
D

and hence that:
F
A
Area A
=
F
D
Area D

which gives: F
D
= F
A

A
2
= 200 x
100
5
2
= 80 kN
10
Note: It is also correct to say directly that since A and
D are at the same elevation, then P
A
= P
D
(manometer rule).
Gauge Vs Absolute Pressure

Gauge Pressure = pressure measured relative to the local
atmospheric pressure (i.e. as measured
by a standard pressure gauge)
= p
g

Absolute Pressure = as measured relative to a perfect
vacuum
= p
a

When quoting or using pressures, it is important to be aware
of the difference between absolute pressure and gauge
pressure. Most pressure gauges measure pressure difference
and use as a reference the ambient air pressure. Because there
are several kilometres of atmosphere above the earth's surface
this means that ambient pressure is around 1x10
5
Pa, so when
a gauge reads 0 pressure it really means 0 difference between
monitored pressure and ambient. To work out absolute
pressure use the relationship:


We adopt a standard atmospheric pressure
p
atm
= 101.3 kPa (or 14.696 lbf/in
2
).

11
Manometry

Piezometer:

A manometer is a device for measuring pressure using a
column of fluid. The simplest form of pressure measuring
device is the Piezometer.

A
B
C
h
liquid of density
Pipe
p = p
C
atm

Let: p
C
= p
atm

If is constant: p
B
= p
C
+ gh
Then, knowing: p
B
= p
A
(same height - manometer rule)
We find: p
A
= p
atm
+ gh

The Piezometer provides a simple and accurate measurement
method provided that the fluid column exhibits constant
density (with depth).

12
U-Tube Manometer:

U-tube manometers are often used to gauge the pressure inside a
system (say a pipe). The height difference h between the two arms of
the manometer represent the "head" of pressure (above atmospheric)
inside the system.

h
liquid of
density
Gas
Pipe
h''
h'
Gas
p
atm
p
gas
p
gas
- p
atm
= gh

If the pipe or vessel being measured contains a gas, the pressure
change due to the gas column height h'' is usually negligible since the
h" is usually of the same order of magnitude as the liquid column
height h and the density of the gas is 2 or 3 orders of magnitude less
than that of liquids.

We will generally only consider the contribution of the working fluid
when: the density is appreciable with respect to the manometer fluid
density (water/oil, water/mercury), or if we want to be very accurate
(especially if the working fluid column height is large).

There are many types of U-tube manometer, all of which operate on
the same basic principle as the one described here.
Other types of pressure measurement device are described in
reputable texts such as MY&O.
13
IMPORTANT POINTS FROM LECTURE 2

In static fluid:

pressure is a scalar (acts equally in all directions)

force due to pressure on a surface depends on the
orientation of the surface.

pressure is constant in a horizontal plane (at the same
elevation) Manometer Rule.

pressure is a function of elevation only.

For a fluid of constant density (many practical situations):

where h is the difference in elevation between the locations z
1

and z
2
with corresponding pressures p
1
and p
2
.

Gauge Pressure - measured relative to the local atmospheric
pressure

Absolute Pressure - measured relative to a perfect vacuum

z
2
z
1
= h =
p
1
p
2

or p = p
1
p
2
= z
2
z
1
( ) = h
14

You may now attempt problems the following problems from Tutorial
1. These will not be assessed, but they may be discussed during
Tutorial 1.
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.9
2.12
2.25
2.32

2.29 from Ed. 3 of Munson.
Water, oil and an unknown fluid are contained in the u-tube
system shown in the figure below. Determine the density of
the unknown fluid.
1 ft
2 ft
1 ft
1 inch diameter 2 inch diameter
Oil, SG = 0.9
Water
Unknown fluid

These problems should illustrate the theory from today's
lecture. Please attempt them prior to Tutorial 1.

Lecture 3

HYDROSTATICS (FLUID STATICS) 2

Content:

Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces
Subjected to Uniform Pressure


Definitions

Centroid

Centre of Pressure

Forces on Curved Surfaces

Buoyancy

Reading: MY&O Chapters 2.8 to 2.11

2
Forces on a Plane Submerged Surface Subjected to
Uniform Pressure

Force acts normal to the area.

p
A

F = p dA = pA

Example 1. Gas Container.

p
0
p
i
a
b
Area A

Force on wall a-b:

F = (p
i
- p
0
) dA
a
b
= (p
i
- p
0
)A
3
Example 2. Bottom of tank.

p
0
p
0
h
A
p
b

F = p.dA

= p
b
- p
0
dA

= p
0
+ gh - p
0
.dA

= gh.dA

= ghA

Note that the result F = ghA suggests that the force on the
bottom of the tank equals the weight of the fluid in the
container (F = g). Whilst this is correct for a straight-sided
container, it is not true if the cross-sectional shape of the tank
varies (see below). In such cases we must also consider the
force exerted on the contained fluid by the vessel walls. In
general, a better approach is to find the pressure on the floor
and multiply it by the area of the floor as given above.

h
A
4

Definitions:

Centre of pressure:

(1) point of application of the resultant force

(2) denoted by a P or R subscript, eg. y
p
. or y
R
.

Centroid:

(1) geometric centroid of area under consideration

(2) points at which average pressure acts on that
area

(3) NOT the point of application of the resultant
force, except where p is constant over surface

(4) denoted by a C subscript, eg. y
c
.
5
Centroid

Consider an inclined submerged surface:

Water Surface
dy
dA
h
dF

0
y
x-axis into page,
through 0

Incremental force: dF = p dA

Geometry: h = y sin

Pressure (P
surface
= 0) p = gh

Combine: dF = g(y sin) dA

Integrate to obtain the resultant force on area A:

F
R
= gsin y.dA

6

We define the Centroid of the surface (as per Statics):

A
F
R
y
C
h
C
Water Surface
0

y
c
=
y.dA
A

i.e. y
c
A = y.dA

So then F
R
=gsin (y
c
A)

=g y
c
sin A

=gh
c
A

But the pressure at the Centroid is: p
c
=gh
c

so F
R
=p
c
A

i.e. Nett force on the surface is the product of the pressure at
the centroid and the area of the surface.

This result is INDEPENDENT of the surface shape or angle.

Recall: the Centroid lies at the "centre of gravity" of a body
of uniform density.
Side
view:
7

Centre of Pressure

Taking moments about 0 (anti-clockwise positive)

M
o
= y.dF = py.dA =

g sin y
2
.dA

Now, the resultant force F
R
applies at the Centre of Pressure
at y = y
p.
The moment of F
R
about 0 is:

A
F
R
y
C
h
C
Water Surface
0
y
p

M
o
=F
R
. y
p

Water Surface
dy
d
A
h
dF

0
y
x-axis into page,
through 0
View
along dF:
Side
view:
8

Equating these moments:

F
R
. y
p
=gsin y
2
.dA
y
p
=
gsin y
2
.dA
F
R

but F
R
=gsin y.dA

so y
p
=
gsin y
2
.dA
gsin y.dA

=
y
2
.dA
y.dA
=
2
nd
Moment of Area
1
st
Moment of Area

=
I
x
y
c
A

where I
x
is the 2
nd
Moment of Area about free surface .

Parallel axis theorem: I
x
=I
xc
+y
c
2
A

where I
xc
is the 2
nd
Moment of Area about
the centroidal x-axis.

9
So y
p
=
I
xc
y
c
A
+ y
c

or y
p
- y
c
=
I
xc
y
c
A

Note: y
p
(used here) is the same as y
R
(used in MY&O).

These equations show:

the Centre of Pressure lies below the Centroid.
the deeper the plane is submerged, the closer the
Centre of Pressure is to the Centroid.

Conclusions:

1. The location of the resultant force is at the Centre of
Pressure.

2. The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the
pressure at the Centroid (= average pressure) times the total
area of the surface.

See MY&O for centroidal coordinates of various geometries.

Also, please refer to MY&O Section 2.9 for the Pressure
Prism method. Many people find this method easier to
understand than the method above.

10
Important Note 1:

Cases where the pressure is constant, e.g. the surface is
horizontal:

In such cases the centre of pressure lies at the centroid.

Important Note 2:

Rectangular gate with height h and width b (into page), top at
water surface:

ie. 2/3 of gate depth

=
2h

3

+ h/2 = h/6

=
bh
3
/12
(h/2)bh

+ h/2
y
p
=
I
xc
y
c
A
+ y
c
Free
Surface
Are
Centroid
F
R
y
C
h
Water Surface
y
p
C
Width into page = b
11

Lateral location of Centroid and Centre of Pressure:

If the submerged area is not symmetrical about the y-axis, the
Centre of Pressure can be displaced "sideways" from the
Centroid. This displacement is determined using a similar
analysis to that above. The resulting equation is:

x
p
- x
c
=
I
xyc
y
c
A

If a plane submerged surface is symmetrical about a y-axis
passing through its centroid, then x
p
- x
c
= 0. i.e. the Centre
of Pressure lies below (or at) the Centroid, but not to either
side. In many (if not most) cases the symmetry of submerged
surfaces allows us to use this fact.

In Fluid Mechanics 1 we will consider only cases where
horizontal symmetry is present.

12

Centroids of Complex Shapes

A property of the 1
st
moment of area is that it can be broken
down into components and summed individually as follows.

X
C1
X
C2
A
1
A
2
X
C
A

It can be shown that: X
C
A = X
C1
A
1
+ X
C2
A
2
.

We can use this principle to simplify otherwise complex
problems.

The principle can be used to find y
c
and z
c
in the same way.

13

Example

Locate the centroid of the shaded area.

R

To achieve this, we break the complex shape into two or more
simple components.

X
C1
X
C2
A
1
A
2
X
C3
A
3

Again, we put: X
C1
A
1
= X
C2
A
2
+ X
C3
A
C3
.

Therefore: X
C3
=
X
C1
A
1
X
C2
A
2
A
3
.

14

Forces on curved or arbitrary surfaces

We resolve forces in horizontal and vertical directions

1. The horizontal force is equivalent to the force on a flat
vertical plate surface of the same projected area.

i.e. total force, centre of pressure, centroid are all the
same as for a flat vertical surface.

2. The vertical force is equal to the actual or virtual weight
of fluid above the surface.

The line of action of the vertical force is through the
centroid (i.e. the centre of gravity) of the volume above.

Example: Find total force on AB. Assume width b (into page).

1. The horizontal force is equivalent to the force on the flat
vertical plate surface of the projected area bh and the force, centre of
pressure, centroid are all the same as for the flat vertical surface.

2. The vertical force is equal to the weight of fluid above the
surface (volume ABCD).

NOTE: y
C
and y
p
are measured from free surface, I
xc
= bh
3
/12
Centroid
Surface
W
Centroid
b
h
y
p

y
C

D
A
B
C
Projected
Vertical plate
15
Forces on Curved Surfaces with Constant Radii.

Problems can be simplified using similar triangles. Consider
a semicircular gate with the water surface as shown.

R
F
F
H
V
2R
3
4R
3
4R
3
Water
Surface
0

The resultant force F passes through O (centre of
curvature).

F
F
H
V
2R
3
4R
3
F
0

Similar triangles give : tan =
4R 3
2R 3
=
F
H
F
V

This simplification can save a considerable amount of work
and act as a useful cross-check.

16
Buoyancy

When a body is submerged in a fluid a net upward force acts
on the body, due to the pressure distribution around the body.

To demonstrate this, consider a simple cylindrical fluid
element. Most text books demonstrate this using an
"elemental" analysis of an arbitrary body. For our purposes it
is sufficient to use a simple example.

h
1
h
2
P
1
P
2
L
Area A
Fluid Surface
Weight

The net vertical force on the cylinder due to pressure is:

F
V
= p
2
A - p
1
A

Pressures: p
1
= gh
1
and p
2
= gh
2

Hence: F
V
= gh
2
A - gh
1
A
= gA (h
2
- h
1
)
= gAL = g

= weight of fluid contained in fluid element.

17
Therefore, we conclude:

The buoyant force on a body submerged in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced (otherwise occupied) by the
body. This is known as Archimedes First Principle.

It is also possible to show that:

The line of action of the buoyant force passes through the
centroid of the displaced volume. This centroid is called the
Centre of Buoyancy.

A body will float in a fluid, if the average density of the body
is less than the density of the fluid.

A body will sink in a fluid, if the average density of the body
is greater than the density of the fluid.

A floating body displaces a volume of fluid equivalent to its
own weight. This is known as Archimedes Second Principle.



Magnitude of the resultant pressure force is equal to the
pressure at the Centroid (= average pressure) times the total
area of the surface.

Location of the resultant pressure force is at the Centre of
Pressure.

Centroid(y
c
): geometric centre of area under consideration

Centre of Pressure (y
p
):
y
p
=
I
xc
y
c
A
+ y
c

Where I
XC
is the 2
nd
Moment of Area about the centroidal x-axis.
18
For Complex Shapes:

X
C
A = X
C1
A
1
+ X
C2
A
2
.

Forces on Curved or Arbitrary surfaces

Horizontal force is equivalent to the force on a flat
vertical plate surface of the same projected area.
(i.e. total force, centre of pressure, centroid are all the same as for a flat
vertical surface.)

Vertical force is equal to the actual or virtual weight of fluid
above the surface with the line of action of the vertical force
is through the centroid (centre of gravity) of the volume
above.

Forces on Curved Surfaces with Constant Radii.
The resultant force passes through O (centre of curvature).

Buoyancy

The buoyant force on a body submerged in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced (otherwise occupied) by the
body. (Archimedes First Principle)

The line of action of the buoyant force passes through the
centroid of the displaced volume (Centre of Buoyancy).

A floating body displaces a volume of fluid equivalent to its
own weight. (Archimedes Second Principle)

You may now attempt any problems from Tutorial 1 up to Prob. 2.80.
These will not be assessed, but some will be discussed during Tutorial
1.

X
C1
X
C2
A
1 A
2
X
C
A

Lecture 4

FLUID KINEMATICS 1

Content:

Introduction

Flow Regimes
Laminar & Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Describing Fluid Flow
Lagrangian Description
Eulerian Description

Steady & Unsteady Flow

Reference Frame and the Galilean Transformation

Flow Lines

Streamline Coordinate System

Flow Dimensionality and Directionality

Problems

Reading: MY&O Sections 4.1 and 4.2.4.
Lecture 4: Fluid Kinematics 1
2
Introduction

Kinematics is defined as the description of motion without
reference to forces (ie. paths, velocities, accelerations). In this
lecture we will look at the various ways by we can observe
and describe fluid motions.

Flow Regimes

Irrotational flow:
regions of orderly flow with small velocity gradients
and small shear
fluid behaviour is essentially independent of viscosity
e.g. flow in core (central) region of a pipe entrance,
flow around a wing (well away from the surface).

Laminar flow:
fluid may be highly sheared with significant velocity
gradients
fluid deforms as layers sliding over one another
smoothly
negligible mixing between the layers diffusion only.

u
u + du
v = 0
Laminae or layers
of fluid

Turbulent Flow:
fluid may be highly sheared with significant velocity
gradients
fluid motions are disorderly with significant
small-scale motions in ALL directions
flow contains eddies of many scales (sizes)
rapid mixing of fluid diffusion and stirring.
3
If we place a velocity measuring probe in a turbulent
flow and measure the velocity over a period of time, we may
obtain a velocity signature similar to the following:

Velocity
V
Time t
t'
V'
<V>
V

V = <V> + V'

where: V = instantaneous velocity
<V> = time-average velocity (also written V )
V' = fluctuating velocity

For each component of velocity in the flow (u, v, w):

x: u = <u> + u'
y: v = <v> + v'
z: w = <w> + w'

If we place a velocity measuring probe in a steady laminar or
irrotational flow and measure the velocity over a period of
time, we would find that the velocity was constant.
4
Laminar & Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Here we use the flow in pipes as an example to demonstrate
the distinction between laminar and turbulent flows.

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe depends on
the Reynolds number:

Reynolds' Experiment

In 1883 Osborne Reynolds demonstrated laminar and
turbulent flow in a series of experiments. In these
experiments he injected dye at the centreline of a smooth pipe
and watched to see if the dye was mixed into the surrounding
water flow or if it continued as a smooth, straight line through
the fluid.

Fluid Density
Dynamic Viscosity
Time & area averaged velocity
Pipe diameter
Re
D
=
V D

=

5

Laminar Flow: the dye persists as a 'thread' through the pipe.

D
Dye Probe
Re < 2000
D
Laminar

In engineering situations the upper limit for laminar flow is:

Re
D
2300

Turbulent Flow: the dye spreads and mixes into the water.

D
Dye Probe
Re > 4000
D
Turbulent

For the range 2300 < Re
D
< 4000, the flow is described as
"transitional".
6
Describing Fluid Flow

Fluid flows can not only be described in terms of their
behaviour, but also in terms of the way it is observed.

To describe the behaviour of flows we define the concept of a
"Fluid Particle".

A fluid particle is the tiny fluid mass that occupies a chosen
point in space.

A fluid particle can be characterised in terms of the density,
pressure and other properties at that point. In effect, we
consider the fluid to be a collection of an infinite number of
tiny particles that, together, behave as a uniform fluid.

Lagrangian Description (Particle Tracking)

- after J. L. deLagrange, 1763 - 1813.

The Lagrangian description of fluid flow:
identifies and tracks (locates) individual particles
describes what happens to these particles over time

The fluid motion is fully described by an understanding of the
velocities of each fluid particle at each moment in time,
i.e., for each particle:

V = Vparticle identity, t

From a practical point of view this is a feasible only for a
small number of particles (as for Machine Dynamics).

In Fluid Mechanics this description is NOT feasible because
to describe the system fully a knowledge of all velocities of all
particles is required.
7
(A way to remember this is to think of a police officer
using a radar or laser gun to measure the speed of individual
cars on a freeway.)

An application of the Lagrangian description in Fluid
Mechanics is Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV). Small
particles are added to a flowing fluid and a photograph is
taken of all the particles at one instant. After a very short time
a second photograph is taken and the displacement of each
particle is measured. Hence the velocity of each particle can
be deduced. A time-sequence of photographs allows particles
to be tracked over time and velocities can be measured.
Lens
Laser Light
Beam
Laser
Sheet
Flow Channel
Seeding
Particles

A pair of PTV images in a uniform flow looks like this:

Displacement

8

Eulerian Description (point in Space)

- after L. Euler, 1707 - 1783.

The Eulerian Description tells us what is happening at a fixed
point in space or a discrete region in space - a Control
Volume - as time progresses. The velocity at that point (or
region) is then described by the coordinates of the point (or
region) and time:
V = Vx, y, z, t

This is usually the preferred method of describing fluid flow,
since it is easier to identify points in space than to identify
individual fluid particles.

An example of the use of Eulerian description in fluid
mechanics is the measurement of velocities using probes
placed in a flow. The probe is often moved from location to
location, corresponding to a grid of measurement points.
Measurements of mean velocity and other statistics are then
used to describe the nature of the flow. A typical example is
the velocity field measured downstream of a cylinder:

9

Another standard application of the Eulerian description is in
Control Volume analysis. To do this:

1) Identify a series of points in space that define a control
surface at a location of particular interest (so that we do
not need to establish velocities at all points in a system),
and then;

2) Identify velocities as a function of time along the control
surface.

Control
Surface
Liquid
Container

Wherever possible, the fluid should cross the control surface
normally (at right-angles) because this makes examination of
flow rates across the control surface a lot easier.

(A way to think of the Eulerian Description is to think of a
Traffic Engineer monitoring the number of cars passing a
certain point on a freeway each day. Compare this with the
Police Officer's work.)
10

Steady and Unsteady Flow

Recall from Lecture 1 the concept of steady and unsteady
state. When applied to flows, we use the terms:
steady flow (velocities are invariant with time, i.e.
V
t
= 0) and
unsteady flow (velocities vary with time, i.e.
V
t
0).

In an Eulerian frame of reference, "steady flow" means that
the velocity at a fixed point (x, y, z) does not vary with time.
Note that velocity can vary with location.

In a Lagrangian frame of reference, "steady flow" means that
the velocity of a fluid particle is constant.

11

Reference Frame and the Galilean Transformation

A problem which arises in using Eulerian description is that
often we need to look at steady state fluid flow over a moving
object. How do we define our point in space, i.e. fixed or
moving at some velocity?

If we remain fixed with respect to earth (geostationary), then
the object we wish to study will pass through the
measurement point and the analysis will not be steady state.

We can make the analysis steady state by adopting either of
two approaches:

We can make the "unsteady" measurements and then
subtract the velocity of the object from the velocity
measurements (i.e. the observed flow field). This
method is known as the Galilean Transformation.

We can fix the coordinate system with respect to the
moving object. In this way the flow will remain
steady state.

Each of these approaches yields the same result.

12
Flow Lines

In the laboratory, we can gain an understanding of the nature
of a flow simply by 'marking' the fluid with dyes or tracer
particles.

Three types of flow lines can be obtained (and one inferred):

Pathline:
A curve marked out by the trajectory of an individual
particle over time (i.e. a Lagrangian description).
Each particle has its own pathline.
H
2
bubbles, tracer particles used typically

Particle
Release
Point

Streakline:
A streakline is made up of all of the particles that have
passed a certain point in the flow.
In practice, this is achieved by injecting a constant
stream of dye or smoke from a single point.
In steady, laminar flow the fluid will not cross
(perpendicularly) a streakline.
Easy way to tell if a flow is laminar or turbulent.

Dye Probe

13
Timeline:
Dye or particles are introduced in a line perpendicular
to the main flow direction.
Each part of the line travels at the local flow velocity.
Distorted line indicates the velocity profile shape.
H
2
bubble, smoke wire methods used typically.
Best results in laminar flow.

Line at t = 0
Line at t = t

Streamlines:
A streamline is an imaginary line that is everywhere tangential
to the fluid velocity vector. From this we can infer that the
velocity perpendicular to the streamline is zero.

Streamline
Velocity vector

Relationship between flow lines

Unsteady flows: pathlines, streaklines and streamlines are
usually different.
Steady flows: pathlines, streaklines and streamlines are
identical.

It is therefore possible to carry out experiments using dye
visualization to generate streakline patterns and, from this,
infer the streamline and pathline patterns.

Timelines bear no direct correspondence to pathlines,
streaklines or streamlines.
14
Streamline Coordinate System

The use of the streamline concept allows us to define a new
coordinate system, known as streamline coordinates.

At each point in the flow field we can define two directions,
namely:

n - the normal direction (normal to the streamline, towards
centre of curvature), and

s - the direction along the streamline (streamwise or
tangential direction).

The velocity components in the streamline coordinate system
are streamwise velocity V
s
and normal velocity V
n
(=0).

V
n
V
s

Even if the flow is 3-dimensional (as real flows tend to be)
and not planar, we can still use the streamline coordinate
system by defining a plane which contains the normal and
streamline directions at each point.

The advantage of using this coordinate system is the ability to
reduce the number of velocities we need to consider, since at
all points along the streamline V
n
=0.
15
Flow Dimensionality and Directionality

The dimensionality is the number of independent spatial
coordinates necessary to specify the velocity.
can be 1, 2, or 3-dimensional.

The directionality of a flow field is the number of non-zero
velocity components in the field.
can be 1, 2 or 3-directional.

Both are useful when determining how to describe or analyse
a flow.

Example:

Flow along a pipe.

A large distance downstream from a pipe entrance the
flow reaches an equilibrium state - "fully developed".

flow is axisymmetric,
hence 1-dimensional (varies in radial direction r only)

if flow is laminar, no lateral velocities are present,
hence 1-directional (x direction only)

if flow is turbulent, lateral velocities are present,
hence 3-directional.

In general, an understanding of the above concepts allows
significant simplifications when performing fluid flow
calculations.

V
o
V
o
x

r
16

Flow Regimes

Irrotational flow: regions of orderly flow with small velocity
gradients and shear, essentially independent of viscosity.

Laminar flow: fluid may be highly sheared with significant velocity
gradients and fluid layers sliding orderly over one another smoothly
with negligible mixing.

Turbulent flow: fluid may be highly sheared with significant velocity
gradients and fluid motions disorderly fluid motions in ALL
directions with rapid mixing of fluid.

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe depends on the
Reynolds number:
Laminar flow: Re
D
< 2300
Turbulent Flow: Re
D
> 4000
Transitional flow: 2300 < Re
D
< 4000

Lagrangian flow description: identifies and tracks (locates)
individual particles over time. V = Vparticle identity, t

Eulerian flow description: looking at a fixed point or a
discrete region in space as time progresses. V = Vx, y, z, t

Steady flow: velocities are invariant with time,
V
t
= 0
Unsteady flow: velocities vary with time,
V
t
0.

Galilean Transformation: subtracting the velocity of
reference frame from the measured velocity

Fluid Density
Dynamic Viscosity
Time & area averaged velocity
Pipe diameter
Re
D
=
V D

=

17
IMPORTANT POINTS FROM LECTURE 4 (contd)

Flow Lines
Pathline: A curve marked out by the trajectory of an
individual particle over time (Lagrangian description).

Streakline: made up of all of the particles that have passed a
certain point in the flow.

Timeline: particles are introduced in a line perpendicular to
the main flow direction, each part of the line travels at the
local flow velocity. indicating the velocity profile shape.

Streamlines: an imaginary line tangential to the fluid velocity
vector (velocity perpendicular to the streamline is zero).

Unsteady flows: pathlines, streaklines and streamlines are
usually different.
Steady flows: pathlines, streaklines and streamlines are
identical.

Streamline Coordinate System: direction normal to the
streamline, towards centre of curvature and the direction
along the streamline (streamwise or tangential direction).

s
n
(=0).

V
n
V
s

Flow dimensionality: number of independent coordinates
necessary to specify the velocity (1, 2, or 3-dimensional).

Flow directionality: number of non-zero velocity
components in the field (1, 2 or 3-directional).
18

Problem 1

Pathlines and streaklines provide ways to visualize flows.
Another technique would be to instantly inject a line of dye
across streamlines a timeline and observe how this line
moves as time increases. For example, consider the initially
straight dye line injected in front of the circular cylinder
shown below. Discuss how this dye line would appear at later
times. How would you calculate the location of this line as a
function of time?

Problem 2

CO
2
at 20 C travels at 10 m/s through a pipe of diameter 100
mm. What is the Reynolds number of the flow? Is the flow
laminar or turbulent?

V
Dye line at t = 0.
Cylinder

Lecture 5

FLUID KINEMATICS 2

Content:

Introduction

Intensive and Extensive Parameters

Material (Total/Lagrangian/Substantive) Derivative

Acceleration

The Helmholtz Theorem

Rotation, Angular Velocity and Vorticity

Rate of Shear Deformation

Rate of Volumetric Strain

Example

Problems

Reading: MY&O Sections 4.2 and 6.1

2
Introduction

In this lecture we will look at motions, accelerations and strains to
which a fluid element might be subjected and we will describe
these processes mathematically.

Intensive and Extensive Parameters

Define an arbitrary fluid parameter per unit mass of fluid.
is as an intensive parameter (see Lecture 1).

Then the extensive parameter is defined as:

B = m
B and can represent any flow parameter - scalar or vector.

Note: B depends on the amount of fluid in a system, whereas
is independent of the amount of fluid in the system.

For a system of arbitrary shape, the extensive parameter that the
system possesses (B
sys
) is the sum of the amount of intensive
parameter associated with each fluid particle:

B
sys
= d
sys
(recall = volume)

The rate of change of B in the system is going to be:

dB
sys
dt
= B
sys
=
d
dt
d
sys

Similar logic follows if we assess the amount of intensive and
extensive parameter and their rates of change within a control
volume (as distinct from a system, as discussed above).
3
Material (Total/Lagrangian/Substantive) Derivative

Let us consider how might change throughout a fluid system
with time. We will start by examining the material derivative, also
known as the:
total derivative,
Lagrangian derivative or
substantive derivative.

Consider a fluid particle at point (x, y, z) and at time t. The fluid
particle possesses some intensive property , which could be a dye
concentration, temperature, velocity or pressure.

We define the velocity: V = V(x,y,z,t) = u i + vj + wk

The spatial distribution of parameter can now be broken down
into three components:

= (x,y,z,t) =
x
i +
y
j+
z
k

where
x
=
x
(x,y,z,t)
y
=
y
(x,y,z,t)
z
=
z
(x,y,z,t)

v
u
(x,y,z)
y
x
y
x
Velocities at faces
of fluid particle
v +
v
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
v
v
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
v +
v
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
u +
u
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
u
u
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
u
u
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
u +
u
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
Depth perpendicular
to paper is z
v
v
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
z out of page

4
Consider for now the variation of in the x-direction:
(using the chain rule)

d
dt

x
(x,y,z,t) =
x
x

dx
dt
+
x
y

dy
dt
+
x
z

dz
dt
+
x
t

but,
dx
dt
= u,
dy
dt
= v and
dz
dt
= w

so,

d
x
dt
= u

x
x
+ v

x
y
+ w

x
z
+

x
t
=
D
x
Dt

Material Derivative:
d
x
dt
, or
D
x
Dt

Convective term due to changes in position:
u
x
x
+ v
x
y
+ w
x
z

Local (or Unsteady) term:
x
t

In a similar way, it can be shown that:

d
y
dt
= u
y
x
+ v
y
y
+ w
y
z
+
y
t
=
D
y
dt

d
z
dt
= u
z
x
+ v
z
y
+ w
z
z
+
z
t
=
D
z
dt

and the three equations can be written using vector notation:

D
Dt
= ( ).

V +
t

5
Acceleration

Consider a fluid particle at point (x, y) and time t in a 2-D flow.

Define the velocity: V = V(x,y,t) = u i + vj

and acceleration: a =
d
dt
V(x,y,t) = a
x
i + a
y
j

i.e. a
x
=
d
dt
u(x,y,t) and a
y
=
d
dt
v(x,y,t)

Consider for now the x-component of acceleration:

a
x
=
d
dt
u(x,y,t) =
u
x

dx
dt
+
u
y

dy
dt
+
u
t
(chain rule)

but,
dx
dt
= u and
dy
dt
= v

so, a
x
= u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+
u
t
=
Du
dt

Therefore, the acceleration has two terms:

Convective acceleration term due to changes in position is:
u
u
x
+ v
u
y

Local (or Unsteady) term is:
u
t

In a similar way, it can be shown that:
a
y
= u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+
v
t
=
Dv
dt

6

If we extend this analysis to 3-D flows, we get:

a
x
=
Du
dt
= u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
+
u
t

a
y
=
Dv
dt
= u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
+
v
t

a
z
=
Dw
dt
= u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
+
w
t

or, in vector notation, using the grad operator:

a =
DV
dt
= V. V +
V
t

Acceleration in streamline coordinate system:

a =
d
dt

V (s,n) = a
s
s + a
n
n

R
V
a
s
V
V a
s
n
s
s s
2
=
=

7
The Helmholtz Theorem

The first theorem of Helmholtz states:

"Any motion of a volume element of fluid can at a given moment
be regarded as the sum of two motions: the motion as a solid and
a deformation."

The solid body motion consists of translation and rotation.
Deformation is the result of the ability of the fluid to flow - this
comprises dilation and angular deformation due to shear.

=
+
+
+
Translation
Rotation
Dilation
Angular (shear)
Total
Deformation

We will look at angular, shear and volumetric deformation
components in turn.
8
Rotation, Angular Velocity and Vorticity

The instantaneous angular velocity of a fluid particle is the
average of the instantaneous angular velocities of two mutually
perpendicular lines on the fluid particle.

v
u
v +
v
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
u
u
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
u +
u
y
y
2
|
\

|

|
v
v
x
x
2
|
\

|

|
A
B
A'
B'
y
x

Consider lines A-A' and B-B'. By definition, the angular velocity
is:

z
=
1
2

AA'
+
BB'
i.e. the average for AA' and BB'

where the z-axis is out of the page. ( positive anticlockwise.)

From geometry (see figure) it can be shown that:

z
=
1
2

v
x
-
u
y

From this we define the vorticity :

z
= 2
z

9

Then, the three components of vorticity are:

x
= 2
x
=
w
y
-
v
z

y
= 2
y
=
u
z
-
w
x

z
= 2
z
=
v
x
-
u
y

If all three components of vorticity are zero, the fluid is described
as "irrotational". Otherwise, the flow is described as "rotational".

10
Rate of Shear Deformation

Using similar arguments to those put forward for angular velocity,
the rate of shear deformation can be shown to be:

Absolute mean shear:
z
=
1
2

1
+
2

i.e. the difference between angular rotations of AA' and BB'
So, shear rate is:
z
=
1
2

AA'
-
BB'

A
B
A'
B'
x
y
A
B
A'
B'
x
y
2

Hence:

z
=
1
2

u
y
+
v
x

and similarly, the other components can be found

x
=
1
2

v
z
+
w
y

y
=
1
2

w
x
+
u
z

Note that the symbol is also used for rate of strain.
11
Rate of Volumetric Strain (Dilation/Stretching)

Rate of strain = rate of change of length per unit length.

A (2-D) incompressible particle undergoing stretching in one
direction will shrink in the other direction.

y
x
Time t
Velocities
y
x
Time t + t

Rate of change of volumetric strain
= rate of change of volume per unit volume

1

d
dt
=
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z

= .V

= Dilation

= 0 for an incompressible fluid.

Note: = Volume.
12
Example 1

For a velocity field specified by the following equation:

V = 3ti + xzj + ty
2
k

state whether the flow field is incompressible, irrotational, both or
neither.

Solution:

Using conventional notation: V =ui + vj + wk

Then, from the equation given: u = 3t, v = xz and w = ty
2

i) For incompressible flow:
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (dilation =0)

For the above flow field
u
x
= 0,
v
y
= 0,
w
z
= 0

so the Dilation is zero and the flow is incompressible.

ii) For irrotational flow:
1
2
w
y
v
z
|
\

|

| = 0,
1
2
u
z
w
x
|
\

|

| = 0, and
1
2
v
x
u
y
|
\

|

| = 0

For the above flow field:
w
y
v
z
= 2ty x 0

u
z
w
x
= 0

v
x
u
y
= z 0 0

Therefore, the velocity field is rotational.
13
Example 2

An inviscid fluid flows through the axi-symmetric nozzle shown in the
Figure. The x-component of flow velocity on the centreline of the nozzle
is given by the equation:

u = V
o
1+
2x
L
|
\

|

|

If the flow is axi-symmetric, inviscid and incompressible, find:
the velocity gradient in the x-, y-, and z-directions on the
centreline;
the fluid acceleration in the x direction on the centerline.

Figure: Nozzle.

Solution:

Given: inviscid, incompressible, axi-symmetric flow

Find: 1. Velocity gradients on centerline
2. Acceleration in the x direction on the centreline
x
y
z
x
L
V
o
3V
o
14
Data:

u = V
o
1+
2x
L
|
\

|

|
- (1)

Assume: The effects of gravity can be neglected.

1. Velocity gradients on centerline

- Velocity gradient in x-direction:

From equation (1)
L
V
L
V
x
u
0
0
2 2
0 = |
\
|
+ =

- Velocity gradients in y and z-directions:

For axi-symmetric flow velocity gradients in y and z-
directions are the same:
z
w
y
v

For incompressible flow:
0 =
z
w
y
v
x
u
(dilation = 0).

therefore
y
v
z
w
y
v
x
u
2

x
y
z
x
L
V
o
3V
o
15
and
|
\
|
=
L
V
x
u
z
w
y
v
0
2
2
1
2
1

vel. gradients:
L
V
z
w
y
v
0
=
- towards centerline

and
L
V
x
u
0
2
==
- flow accelerating in x-direction.

2. Acceleration in the xdirection on the centreline

For 3-D flow in general:

z
w
w
y
v
v
x
u
u
t
u
a
x
=

but for steady flow
0 =
t
u

and for axi-symmetric flow at the centerline
0 = = w v

therefore
0 0 0 + +
+ =
x
u
u a
x

using equation 1:

|
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ =
)
`
\
|
+
\
|
+ =
=
L
V
L
x
V
L
x
V
x L
x
V
x
u
u a
x
2
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
0 0 0 0

acceleration in the x dir.:
|
\
|
+ =
L
x
L
V
a
x
2
1
2
2
0

16

Material Derivative in 3-D flow:

d
x
dt
= u

x
x
+ v

x
y
+ w

x
z
+

x
t

d
y
dt
= u

y
x
+ v

y
y
+ w

y
z
+

y
t

d
z
dt
= u

z
x
+ v

z
y
+ w

z
z
+

z
t

Convective term due to changes in position:
u
x
x
+ v
x
y
+ w
x
z

Local (or Unsteady) term:
x
t

Acceleration in 3-D flow:
a
x
=
Du
dt
= u
u
x
+ v
u
y
+ w
u
z
+
u
t

a
y
=
Dv
dt
= u
v
x
+ v
v
y
+ w
v
z
+
v
t

a
z
=
Dw
dt
= u
w
x
+ v
w
y
+ w
w
z
+
w
t

The Helmholtz Theorem:
Motion of an element of fluid can be regarded as the sum of two
motions:
- motion as a solid (translation and rotation)
- and deformation (dilation and angular deformation due to shear).
17

Vorticity related to rotation:

x
= 2
x
=
w
y
-
v
z

y
= 2
y
=
u
z
-
w
x

z
= 2
z
=
v
x
-
u
y

If all three components of vorticity are zero, the fluid is described
as "irrotational". Otherwise, the flow is described as "rotational".

Rate of Shear Deformation:

z
=
1
2

u
y
+
v
x

x
=
1
2

v
z
+
w
y

y
=
1
2

w
x
+
u
z

Rate of Volumetric Strain (Dilation):

Rate of change of volumetric strain = rate of change of volume per unit volume

1

d
dt
=
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= Dilation
= 0 for an incompressible fluid.
18

You may now attempt problems the following problems from Tutorial 2.
These will not be assessed, but they may be discussed during Tutorial 2.
4.14
4.17
4.21
6.1
6.4

Lecture 6

TRANSPORT THEOREM AND CONTINUITY

Content:

Control Volumes and Systems

Reynolds Transport Theorem

Conservation of Mass

Integral Continuity

Differential Continuity

Flow Rate and Average Velocity

Examples

Problems

Reading: MY&O Sections 4.4, 5.1 and 6.21.

Lecture 6: Transport Theorem and Continuity
2
Control Volumes and Systems

A Control Volume (CV) is:
"a specific region of space selected for analysis".

Control volumes should be tailored to suit the problem,
e.g: Fixed or Moving
Rigid or Deformable.

Characteristics of well-chosen CVs:

1. CVs should fit the problem (geometry, moving solid
boundaries);

2. Quantities to be evaluated are clearly defined at the
boundaries of the CV;

3. Control volume surfaces (or Control Surfaces) are
parallel to or normal to the local fluid velocity;

4. Mathematical complexity is not increased by choice of
control volume shapes.

Fixed, rigid control volume
Rigid control volume
moves at car velocity
Control volume expands and
contracts as piston moves

3

A System is:
"a specific fluid mass or group of fluid particles
selected for analysis".

Note:
Control Volume is related to the Eulerian Description
- simple tool to analyse flows
- there we measure the flow (not particles).

System is related to the Lagrangian Description
- laws of motion are related to systems (masses).

Given that we usually need to know about the system but have
to make measurements using a control volume:

How do we analyse the flow if the system is moving
through the control volume?

The answer is to use a theorem called the Reynolds Transport
Theorem.

For details of its derivation consult a reliable text such as
MY&O, and thermodynamics texts (Moran & Shapiro).

The equation and its derivation are summarized in the
following overheads.
4
Reynolds Transport Theorem

Recall from the last lecture that, for a fluid parameter , the
total amount in a system B
sys
is given by:

B
sys
= d
sys
(recall = volume)

The time rate of change of B
sys
is then given by:

dB
sys
dt
= B
sys
=
d
dt
d
sys

The RHS of this equation is what needs to be described using
a control volume approach.

Now if we define a control volume (CV) with system fluid
moving through it, we can evaluate the above integral by
looking at the accumulation of B inside the CV and the inflow
and outflow of B.

B
out
B
in
Control Volume
Volume

dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
d
CV
+B
out
- B
in

i.e. [Rate of change] = [Rate of accumulation] + [rate of outflow]
5
In other words:

The rate of change of any property of the system that
occupies a control volume at any particular instant in time is
equal to the instantaneous rate of accumulation of the
property inside the control volume plus the difference between
the instantaneous rates of outflow and inflow of the property.
The latter term is the net rate of outflow of the property across
the control surface. (from MY&O)

The evaluation of B
in
and B
out
is done by considering the flow
of fluid across the CV's surface (the control surface).

Consider a patch of control surface:

n
V
Surface patch,
Area dA
n
V
V
n
=
V
c
o
s

.

It can be shown that:

B
out
= Vcos
Aout
dA = V. n
Aout
dA

and B
in
= - Vcos
Ain
dA = V. n
Ain
dA

The sign difference comes about because n is defined
outwards from the control surface.
6
Note that it is the velocity component perpendicular to the
control surface that is important in this analysis.

From the above analysis the Reynolds Transport Theorem can be
constructed:

dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
d
CV
+ V. n
A
dA

Rate of change
of B
of the system

rate of
accumulation
of B inside
the CV

net rate of outflow
of B across the
control surface

Notes:

1. The velocity of flow across the control surface is the velocity of
the fluid relative to the surface (as distinct from the absolute
velocity, which may be different). This is important when
considering moving control volumes.

2. The terms on the RHS relate to the CV. The term on the LHS
relates to the system.

Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states:

Mass can neither be created nor destroyed, only transported
or stored."

The continuity equation is the fluid dynamics approach to the
conservation of mass.

We can formulate the continuity equation in several ways,
including:
integral continuity, for a finite control volume,
differential continuity, for an elemental control volume.
7
Integral Continuity Equation

The law of conservation of mass is, in mathematical terms:

dm
sys
dt
= 0

If we now replace the general property B in the Reynolds
Transport Theorem with mass m, such that
B
sys
= m
sys
= d
sys
(i.e. put = 1)
and include the conservation of mass equation, then we get
the Integral Continuity equation, as follows...

Rate of
accumulation of
mass inside
control volume
Rate of mass
flow leaving
the control
volume
Rate of mass
flow entering
the control
volume
- +
= 0
d m
cv
dt
+ m
out

- m
in

= 0
or, expressed
another way:
d
dt
( d
CV
) + V . n
A
dA = 0

- for a series of inlets and outlets.

8

Simplified Forms of the Integral Continuity Equation

1. Steady uniform flow, multiple inlets and outlets

For the case of steady flow, no mass accumulates inside the
CV and so:

d
dt
d
CV
)=
d m
CV
dt
= 0 (

m

in
=

m
out

hence

V
n
A ( )
in

= V
n
A ( )
out

. .

For incompressible flow of the same fluid, = constant:

V
n
A ( )
in
= V
n
A ( )
out

i .e. Q
in
=

Q
out

1-Inlet, 1-Outlet Case:

A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

2. Unsteady flow, multiple inlets and outlets

d
dt

d
cv
= m
in
- m
out

9

Differential Continuity Equation

One of the fundamental laws of fluid flow, which needs to be
satisfied in all cases, is continuity at a point. This is
expressed in the Differential Continuity Equation.

MY&O derive this equation from first principles.
Alternatively, the Differential Continuity Equation can be
derived from the Integral Continuity equation. In either case,
the resulting equations are, in 3-dimensions:

t
+
u ( )
x
+
v ( )
y
+
w ( )
z
= 0

or, in vector notation:

t
+ .
r
V
( )
= 0

Simplifications for steady flow:

In compressible flow ( can vary)

u ( )
x
+
v ( )
y
+
w ( )
z
= 0

In incompressible flow ( constant)

u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0 (= Dilation - Lecture 5)

10
Flow Rate and Average Velocity

Flow rate and average velocity are concepts which are applied
throughout fluid mechanics. The most common context,
however, is when considering flow through pipes, ducts and
channels.

Consider a surface which spans a pipe or channel:

n
V
Area A
dA
V n =V =Vcos .
n
n
V
n
V

The mass flow rate passing through the surface is

m = V. n
A
dA = V cos
A
dA

i.e. the flow rate through the surface depends on the normal
component of the flow.

It is also usual to use the concept of Volume Flow Rate Q (or

Q

) to describe the flow:

Q = V. n
A
dA = V cos
A
dA
11

In a flow of uniform density ():

m = Q

If the density () and velocity (V) are both uniform and the
area (A) is perpendicular to the velocity:

m = AV

and Q = AV

For the cases where the velocity is neither uniform nor normal
across the area, we define an Average Velocity such that:
Q = V. n
A
dA = AV

i.e. V =
Q
A
=
1
A
V. n
A
dA

12

Example 1:

Oil flows into a tank at 10m
3
/s and leaves through a 0.5 m
2

hole in the side of the tank with velocity

V= 19.6h ,

where V is in metres per second and h, the vertical distance
from the centreline of the hole to the free surface of the oil, is
in metres.

Find the steady-state value of h.

n
n
V
h
A
in
out
A
Oil inflow

Assume:
oil
=constant

Analysis:

Locate the control volume (CV) such that mass enters and
exits perpendicular to the control surface.

Steady state implies that
dm
CV
dt
= 0
13
Hence, the CV has one inlet and one outlet and is at
steady state. Continuity gives:

A
IN
V
IN
= A
OUT
V
OUT

Now A
IN
V
IN
= Q
IN
= 10 m
3
/s (given)

and A
OUT
= 0.5 m
2
, and V
OUT
= 19.6 h

Hence 10 = 0.5 19.6 h

so h = 20.41 m.

Example 2:

The rectangular channel in the figure is 3 m wide. What is the
volume flow rate (in m
3
/s) through the channel?

1.0 m
30
y
width = W = 3 m
A
B
y
A = W. y
u = y
1/3
m/s
u(y)

Assumptions: None

14

Solution:

Define coordinate y as shown.

Define control surface A - B.

Consider elemental area A with height y and
distance y.

Volume flow rate through A is Q

Q = u y A = u y .W. y

=
3y
4
3
4
3
0
0.866

= 1.86 m
3
/sec

OR:

Q =
r
V . n
( )
A
.dA
= u y ( )
0
y
max
.W.dy since dA = W.dy

= W u y ( )
0
1cos30
.dy

etc.

Q = W (y) .dy
y = 0
1 cos30
= 3 y
1/3
.dy
0
0.866

u
15

Control Volume: region of space selected for analysis.

System: fluid mass or group of fluid particles selected for analysis.

Reynolds Transport Theorem:
To analyse the flow of System using the Control Volume:

dB
sys
dt
=
d
dt
d
CV
+ V. n
A
dA

Rate of change
of B
of the system

rate of accumulation
of B inside
the CV

net rate of outflow
of B across the
control surface

Conservation of Mass - Integral Continuity Equation

Rate of
accumulation of
mass inside
control volume
Rate of mass
flow leaving
the control
volume
Rate of mass
flow entering
the control
volume
- + = 0
d m
cv
dt
+ m
out
- m
in
= 0
or, expressed
another way:
d
dt
( d
CV
) + V . n
A
dA = 0

- for a series of inlets and outlets.

Steady uniform flow, multiple inlets and outlets:

m

in
=

m
out

hence

V
n
A ( )
in

= V
n
A ( )
out

. .

16

Incompressible flow ( = const.), multiple inlets, outlets:

V
n
A ( )
in
= V
n
A ( )
out

i .e. Q
in
=

Q
out

1-Inlet, 1-Outlet: A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

Unsteady flow, multiple inlets and outlets:

d
dt

d
cv
= m
in
- m
out

Differential Continuity Equation (continuity at a point):
in 3-D flow:

t
+
u ( )
x
+
v ( )
y
+
w ( )
z
= 0

Steady, compressible flow ( can vary):

u ( )
x
+
v ( )
y
+
w ( )
z
= 0

Steady, incompressible flow ( constant):

u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0
(= Dilation)

17


n
V
Area A
dA
V n =V =Vcos .
n
n
V
n
V

Mass flow rate through a surface:

m = V. n
A
dA = V cos
A
dA

i.e. flow rate through surface depends on the normal component
of the flow.

Volume flow rate:
Q = V. n
A
dA = V cos
A
dA

Flow of uniform density (): m = Q

Uniform density and velocity, area (A) perpendicular to
the velocity: m = AV and Q = AV

Average Velocity (velocity is neither uniform nor normal):
V =
Q
A
=
1
A
V. n
A
dA
18

Please attempt some problems from Tutorial 2:
4.51
4.61
5.9
5.13
5.19

Problem 4.57, (MY&O Ed. 3).
Two plates are pulled in opposite directions with speeds of 1.0
ft/s as shown in the figure below. The oil between the plates
moves with a velocity given by

v
V = 10y

i ft/s where y is in
feet. The fixed control volume ABCD coincides with the
system at t = 0. Make a sketch to indicate (a) the system at t
= 0.2 s, and (b) the fluid that has entered and exited the
control volume in that time period.

y
x
0.1 ft
0.1 ft
Control
Volume
0.2 ft 0.2 ft
1 ft/s
1 ft/s
A D
B C
u = 10y ft/s

19

Problem 5.3, (MY&O Ed. 3).
Water flows steadily through the horizontal piping system
shown in the figure below. The velocity is uniform at section
(1), the mass flow rate is 10 slugs/s at section (2), and the
velocity is non-uniform at section (3).

(a) Determine the value of the quantity
D
Dt
.dV
sys

where the system is the water contained in the pipe bounded
by sections (1), (2) and (3).

(b) Determine, if possible, the value of the integral

V
(3)
. n .dA

over section (3). If it is not possible, explain what additional
material is needed to do so.

15 ft/s
10 slugs/s
Area = 0.3 ft
2
Area = 0.7 ft
(2)
(3)
(1)
Area = 0.7 ft
2 2

Lecture 7

ENERGY EQUATION & BERNOULLI

Content:

The General Energy Equation

Average Properties and Velocities

The General Energy Equation for a Streamline

The Mechanical Energy Equation

Bernoulli's Equation

Examples

Problems

Reading: MY&O Sections 5.3.1 to 5.3.3.

Lecture 7: Energy Equations and Bernoulli

2
The General Energy Equation

The treatment of energy is similar to the treatment of continuity in
that it deals with the conservation of a conserved quantity (a
conserved scalar), namely energy.

To obtain the general energy equation we use as our starting point the
Transport theorem, combined with the law of conservation of energy.

Since energy is conserved, we can write:

Rate of change of the
energy of a system

(

(
=
Net rate of transfer of
energy to the system

(

(

This energy balance has many parts to it, namely...

Energy transfers:

Q = Energy transfer to the system due to a temperature
difference between the system and its surroundings.

W = Energy transfer by the action of a force through a
distance or any equivalent action. (See later.)

System Energy E ("Intrinsic" energy, contained in the mass)
includes the following:
Kinetic energy (energy of motion)
Potential energy (usually gravitational but also
electric & magnetic fields)
Internal energy (molecular energy)
Chemical energy (released/used during chemical reactions)
Nuclear energy (released during nuclear fusion or fission)

Ignore Chemical & Nuclear energy changes in this analysis.

Note: that internal energy, mass, temperature and pressure
are considered to be properties of the system.

3
Energies and Energy Transfers:

energy units: Joule, J; Kilojoule, kJ; etc.
proportional to mass (M)
kinetic energy
1
2
mV
2

total energy E
internal energy U
potential energy Mgz
heat transfer (thermal energy) Q
work (mechanical energy) W

Specific Energies and Energy Transfers:

energy per unit mass, J/kg, kJ/kg
hence not proportional to mass
specific kinetic energy
1
2
V
2

specific total energy e
specific internal energy u (c.f. u = velocity)
specific potential energy gz
specific heat transfer q (energy transfer)
specific work w (energy transfer)

We classify these energies in the following way:

Mechanical Energies Thermal Energies
Work (transfer) Heat Transfer
Kinetic Energy Internal Energy
Potential Energy

4
Thus, the energy balance can be written:

Rate of
heat transfer
to system

(

(
(
(
+
Rate of work
done on
system

(

(
(
(
=
Rate of increase of intrinsic
(kinetic + potential + internal)
energy of system

(

(
(
(

Using symbols and sign conventions customary in
thermodynamics and fluid mechanics,

Q W= E

or, in differential terms, for a system:

dQ
dt
dW
dt
=
dE
sys
dt

where

E
sys
=
sys
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
d;
heat transferred to a system is positive;
work done by (transferred from) a system is positive.

Using the transport theorem and putting gz
V
u + + =
2
~
2
, the
energy balance for a moving, deforming control volume is:

Q W =
d
dt
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|

cv

d
+ u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
6
V
r
. n
( ) dA
A
cv

Note that the term V
r
is used (instead of V) as a reminder that
the velocity of flow relative to the control volume is used.

or

Q

W =
dE
sys
dt

5
The terms Q and W are the time rates of Q and W,

i.e. Q =
dQ
dt
and W =
dW
dt
(= Power)

Types of Work:

Neglecting electrical work and other equivalent forms, there
are three types of (mechanical) work.

Work
done
against
pressure:
Control
volume
Work done by
shear stress:
Work done
by pressure:
Work transmitted
by rotating shaft
Wshaft
Wp, in
W
p, out
W
shear

Stirrer

Shaft Work (W
shaft
) - work transmitted by a rotating shaft
(pump, turbine, stirrer).

Shear Work (W
shear
) - fluid shear stress acting on control
volume boundaries.

Pressure Work (W
pressure
) - fluid pressure acting on control
volume boundaries.

6
The total work is the sum of these three components:

W= W
shaft
+ W
shear
+ W
pressure

(Note that "pressure" here can also be described as "normal stress".)

Rate of work:

W = W
shaft
+ W
shear
+ W
pressure
. . . .

Rate of Shear Work:

.
W
shear
= V . d F
shear
A
cv

=
6
V . dA ( )
A
cv

6 6
6

where

r
is the shear stress vector, which is parallel to dA.

Rate of Shaft Work:

W
shaft
= T
.

where T is the shaft torque and is the rotational speed.

The terms

W
shaft
.
and

W
shear
.
are usually combined to form a
single work

W
s
.
,

W
s
W
shaft
+ W
shear
. . .

where

W
s
.
is the work done by* the fluid inside the
control volume by forces other than those resulting from
pressure. (*"by" is used due to the sign convention for W.)

7

The work done by pressure acting at the control volume
boundary (control surface) is divided into two terms:

"Flow work" occurs due to changing pressure through the
control volume:

.
W
flow
= p
6
V
r
. n
( )
dA
A
cv

"Work of (control volume) deformation" is done when the
control volume deforms (changing or moving CV):

.
W
D
= p
6
V
c
. n
( ) dA
A
cv

Combining these results and rearranging the terms, we obtain
the General Energy Equation:

.
Q
.
W
s
p
6
V
c
. n
( ) dA
A
cv

=

t
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|

cv

d
+ u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
6
V
r
. n
( ) dA
A
cv

which applies for a moving, deforming control volume.


8
Simplified Cases:

For a steady flow, fixed and rigid control volume:

.
Q
.
W
s
= u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
|
6
V
r
. n ( ) dA
A
cv

For a (steady or unsteady) fixed, rigid control volume with a
finite number of uniform flow inlets and outlets:

.
Q
.
W
s
=

t
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
d

cv

+ AV
n
( ) u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
out

AV
n
( ) u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
in

or

.
Q
.
W
s
=

t
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
d

cv

+
.
m u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
out

.
m u +
p

+
V
2
2
+ gz
|
\

|

|
in

For steady CVs the /t term on the RHS equals zero.

9
Average Properties and Velocities

It is often useful to assume that the distribution of flow across
a pipe is uniform. This allows simple, direct calculations of
average velocity and flow rates.

However, the kinetic energy of a non-uniform distribution is
not correctly modeled by the uniform distribution.

Consider the case of a circular pipe:

True Velocity
Distribution
v
n
1

We model the non-uniform velocity distribution using a
uniform velocity profile (a "top-hat profile") with the same
flow rate as the real flow.

Average velocity Approximate uniform
velociy distribution
Plane 1
Area A
1 v
n
1
1


10
i.e. V
1
=
Q
A
1
=
1
A
1
V. n
A
1
dA =
1
A
1
V
n
A
1
dA

where V
n
is the velocity component normal to Plane 1.

The actual kinetic energy flux across Plane 1:

.
E
k , 1
=
V
2
2
|
\

|

| V
n
dA ( )
A
1

The kinetic energy flux across plane 1 for the "model" is:

.
E
k , 1 m
=
1
V
1
A
1
V 1
2
2
|
\

|

|

The kinetic correction factor, , is defined by:

1
2
V
3
dA
1
2
V
3
A

i.e.
=
E
k,1
E
k,1m
v
v


11
Therefore, the true kinetic energy flux across plane 1
is:

.
E
k , 1
=
1
1
2

1
V
1
3
( ) A
1

Typical values of in pipe flows:

Laminar 2.0;

Turbulent 1.05.

With the kinetic energy correction factor, the general energy
equation (for steady flow and a fixed, rigid control volume)
is:

m
.
Q
.
W
s
= m u +
p

|
\

|

| +
V
2
2
+ g z

(

(
out

.
u +
p

|
\

|

|
+
V
2
2
+ g z

(

(
in

.


12
The General Energy Equation for a Streamline

Recall (Lecture 4):

n - the normal direction (normal to the streamline), and

s - the direction along the streamline (streamwise or
tangential direction).

s
n
(=0).

V
n
V
s
1
2

If we apply the general energy equation to a fluid particle
moving along a streamline from 1 to 2 in a steady flow, we
obtain:

.
q
.
w
s
= u
2
u
1
( ) +
p
2

2

p
1

1
|
\

|

| +
V
2
2
2

V
1
2
2
|
\

|

| + gz
2
gz
1
( )

or

u
1
+
p
1

1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
|
\

|

| +
..
q
.
w
s
( ) = u
2
+
p
2

2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
|
\

|

|

which may be interpreted as:

Initial energy
of fluid particle

(

( +
Net energy transferred
to fluid particle

(

( =
Final energy
of fluid particle

(

(


13
The Mechanical Energy Equation

Rearrangement of the general energy equation along a
streamline and grouping internal energy, flow work and heat
transfer terms, we obtain for steady compressible flows:

w
s
dp
1
2
gh
L
=
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
|
\

|

|
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
|
\

|

|

where

gh
L
represents an energy loss and is always positive or zero.

Note: the term
dp
1
2
represents flow work (work done on a

particle by pressure.

Specific cases:

Steady Incompressible Flow

For steady, incompressible flow along a streamline

p
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
w
s
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
+ gh
L

gh
L
= u
2
u
1
q
| |

14

Bernoullis Equation

For steady, incompressible, frictionless flow along a single
streamline, no work or losses can occur, so:

p
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2

i.e.:

p
+
V
2
2
+ gz = constant along a streamline

Bernoulli's equation is one of the most useful equations of
fluid mechanics. It provides a reasonable approximation for
liquid flows and low-speed gas flows and, in particular,
irrotational flows away from surfaces.

Bernoulli's equation and the Continuity Equation are often
used together to solve internal flow (pipe/duct) problems.

Although it is, strictly speaking, applied along individual
streamlines, Bernoulli's equation can be applied across
streamlines (i.e. generally throughout the flow) in the case of
irrotational flow.

15
Examples:

1. Velocity of discharge for inviscid flow

Flexible tubing of inside diameter 6 mm is used to siphon
petrol from a petrol tank, as shown. Bearing in mind that such
activities can be harmful to your health, estimate the exit
velocity at the instant shown and estimate the volume flow
rate of petrol from the tube.

P
atm
1
0
.
1
5

m
0
.
4
0

m
6 mm ID
Fuel Tank
2
V
2


16
Solution:

Given: Flow case as shown in diagram.

Find: Exit velocity V
2
and Q for the instant (petrol depth)
shown.

Schematic Diagram & Given Data:

P
atm
1
6 mm ID
2
V
2
Area A
1
z
2
z
1
Area A
2
Streamline

Assume: Inviscid, quasi-steady flow, constant density fluid.

Analysis:
Set up the problem as shown with a common height datum.
Consider a streamline from the free surface (1) to the tube exit
(2).

Point 2 is located at the exit where atmospheric pressure acts.

17
Continuity: Q = A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
(1)

Bernoulli:
p
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
(2)

But pressure acts all around such that p
1
= p
2

so gz
1
gz
2
=
V
2
2
2
V
1
2
2

But, A
1
>> A
2
, from which (1) gives V
1
<< V
2
.

Hence we can neglect the term containing V
1
in (2):

gz
1
gz
2
=
V
2
2
2

V
2
= 2g z
1
z
2
( )

and since Q = A
2
V
2

then Q = A
2
2g z
1
z
2
( )

Substitute in data to complete answer.

Comments:

The solution method shown here is typical for the solution of
pipe flow problems. When solving similar problems it is
useful to:
Use a streamline originating at the free surface since the
point at the surface experiences atmospheric pressure.
Use continuity arguments to eliminate negligible velocities
at the surface of large bodies of fluid.

18
2. Velocity of discharge including friction losses

Estimate the volume flow rate of petrol from the tube in
Example 1 if the friction loss between points 1 and 2 is
0.4V
2
2
.

Solution:

Given: Flow case as shown in diagram for Example 1 and
the friction loss between points 1 and 2 is 0.4V
2
2
.

Find: Exit velocity V
2
and Q for the instant (petrol depth)
shown.

Schematic Diagram & Given Data:

P
atm
1
6 mm ID
2
V
2
Area A
1
z
2
z
1
Area A
2
Streamline

Assume: Viscid, quasi-steady flow, constant density fluid.

19
Analysis:
Set up the problem as shown with a common height datum.
Consider a streamline from the free surface (1) to the tube exit
(2).

Point 2 is located at the exit where atmospheric pressure acts.

Continuity: Q = A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
(1)

To include the friction losses we apply Mechanical Energy
Equation: L
gh gz
V p
gz
V p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
(2)

But pressure acts all around such that p
1
= p
2 and energy
losses are due to friction gh
L
=
0.4V
2
2
.

so
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
4 . 0
2 2
V gz
V
gz
V
+ + = +

But, A
1
>> A
2
, from which (1) gives V
1
<< V
2
.

Hence we can neglect the term containing V
1
in (2):

( ) 8 . 0 1
2
2
2
2 1
+ =
V
gz gz

) ( 11 . 1
2 1 2
z z g V =

and since Q = A
2
V
2

then
) ( 11 . 1
2 1 2
z z g A Q =

Substitute in data to complete answer.

20
SUMMARY AND COMPARISON OF VARIOUS
FORMS OF THE ENERGY EQUATION:

General Energy Equation heat and work transfer
u
1
+
p
1
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
+ q w
s
= u
2
+
p
2
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2

Mechanical Energy Equation losses included

p
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
w
s
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
+ gh
L

Bernoullis Equation frictionless, incompressible,
steady flow
p
1
+
V
1
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2

Assumptions and conditions for the Bernoulli, general
energy and mechanical energy equations:

Flow
Case
General Energy
Equation
Mechanical
Energy
Equation
Bernoulli's
Equation
Steady/unsteady Steady only Steady only Steady only
Compressibility Compressible/
incompressible
Incompressible Incompressible
Friction Allowed Allowed None
Heat Transfer Allowed Allowed Allowed
Shaft Work Allowed Allowed None


You may now attempt some of the problems from Tutorial 3,
especially Problems 5.90 and 5.93.
Lecture 8

BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Content:

Introduction

Interpretation of Bernoulli's Equation

Different forms of Bernoulli's Equation

Pressure Coefficient or Euler Number

Stagnation Pressure

Pitot-Static Tubes

Yaw Meters

Venturi Flow Meters

Examples

Problems

Reading: MY&O Sections 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 (3.7, 3.8 useful)

Lecture 8: Bernoulliss Equation
2
Introduction

There were several assumptions (limitations) used in the derivation of
Bernoulli's equation. These were:

gravity is constant along a streamline
constant density (compressible flow is allowed under a
more general version of Bernoulli's equation which
is not considered here)
steady flow
= 0
p is the only body force

Bernoulli's equation can be derived by integrating either:

General Energy Equation (Lecture 7),
Euler's equation (Lecture 9).

Application of Bernoulli's equation:

generally applied between two or more points along
a streamline,
often applied in conjunction with the continuity
equation.

Interpretation of Bernoulli's Equation

Some important principles are demonstrated in Bernoulli's equation.
These are:

as the velocity increases the static pressure decreases,

as the velocity decreases the static pressure increases,

the hydrostatic pressure variation is obeyed,

energy is conserved within the fluid.
3


Energy form:

p
+
V
2
2
+ gz = constant

Flow*
Work

(

(
+
Kinetic
Energy

(

(
+
Potential
Energy

(

(
=
Total
Energy

(

(
= Constant

All terms have dimensions of energy per unit mass of fluid
(Nm/kg).

This form of the equation is used in internal flows such as the
flow in pipes and ducts.

* The term "Flow Work" is more strictly expressed as "energy
due to flow work". It is convenient to think if this term as
"potential energy due to pressure".

Pressure form:

p +
1
2
V
2
+ gz = constant

Static
Pressure

(

(
+
Dynamic
Pressure

(

(
+
Hydrostatic
Pressure

(

(
=
Total
Pressure

(

(

All terms have dimensions of pressure (Pa or N/m
2)
.

This form of the equation is normally used in external flows
such as the flow around the outside of bodies (spheres,
cylinders, cars and aircraft).
4

Definitions of Pressure Terms

The Static Pressure is the true pressure within the fluid, as
measured by an observer moving with (or static with respect
to) the fluid.

The Dynamic Pressure or Velocity Pressure is the kinetic
energy per unit volume. If a particle is brought to rest (by a
means other than by shear stress or shaft work) the dynamic
pressure is converted to static pressure, i.e. the static pressure
rises by an amount 1/2V
2
.

The Hydrostatic Pressure term gz is the potential energy per
unit volume. It is not actually a pressure but it allows the
change in static pressure to be calculated for changes in
elevation.

The Total Pressure, or Stagnation Pressure, is the maximum
pressure that can be attained within a fluid (unless work is
done on it). This is attained by a fluid particle that has been
brought to rest and to zero elevation so that dynamic and
hydrostatic pressures are converted into true, or static
pressure.

5
Head form:

p
g
+
V
2
2g
+ z = constant

Static
Head

(

(
+
Velocity
Head

(

(
+
Elevation
Head

(

(
=
Total
Head

(

(

All terms have dimensions of length (m) but head actually represents
the energy per unit weight.

This form of the equation is used in internal flows, particularly in the
area of manometry in pipe flows.

Note:
Static
Head

(

(
+
Elevation
Head

(

(
=
Piezometric
Head z* ( )

(

(

The piezometric head is the height to which the fluid would rise in a
piezometer tube (Lecture 3).

Pressure Coefficient or Euler Number

A standard non-dimensional number based on the concepts embodied
in Bernoulli's equation is the Pressure Coefficient:

C
p
=
p p
1
2
V
2
=
p p
p
total
p

where p is the local pressure at some point of interest
in the flow and refers to conditions far upstream.

Note that C
p
can never exceed 1 since p p
( ) can never exceed

1
2
V
2
.

This will be discussed in greater detail later in the course.
6

Stagnation Pressure

Consider horizontal flow past a stationary body:

In all flows, real (viscous) or ideal (inviscid), the flow will
stagnate (i.e. come to rest) on the leading edge of the body.
At the stagnation point, S, the fluid pressure is equal to the
total or stagnation pressure.

If the incoming flow's pressure and velocity are p
a
and V
a

respectively, then:

p
a
+
1
2
V
a
2
+ gz
a
= p
s
+ 0 + gz
s
since V
s
= 0

and if z
a
= z
s

then p
s
p
a
=
1
2
V
a
2

Therefore the pressure at the stagnation point exceeds the
upstream static pressure by an amount 1/2V
2
, i.e. the
dynamic pressure.

V a
a
S
p
a

a

7

Pitot-Static Tubes

If we measure the static pressure and subtract it from the
stagnation pressure, then we can determine the value of the
local fluid velocity. The device we use to do this is called a
Pitot-static tube.

A Pitot-static tube comprises two concentric tubes aligned
with the mean flow direction. These tubes are usually bent at
a right angle to facilitate mounting. At the centre of the nose
is a total head tube (which measures the stagnation pressure),
and just behind the nose is a series of holes drilled at right
angles to the flow, which measure the local static pressure.

Flow
V
Total
pressure
Static
pressure
Static pressure
holes
Total pressure
hole

p
total
p
static
=
1
2
V

2
i . e .

V

=
2

p
total
p
static
( )

8

Yaw meters

A yaw meter measures the direction of local fluid flow.
Several types are available, but all differential pressure yaw
meters operate on a similar principle to the cylindrical type
shown here.

A cylinder with two small radially offset holes is placed in the
flow. The cylinder is rotated so that the pressure at the two
tappings (holes) is equal. Under these conditions the
stagnation point is situated at the bisector of the angle
between the two pressure tappings (i.e. half way between).
Hence, the angle of the flow can be measured from the
rotation of the probe.

V
0

The location of the holes is chosen (conveniently) such that p
1

= p
. In an inviscid flow, this would be achieved with the

holes at 30 degrees from the free-stream direction.
However, in a real flow this angle is around 39.5 degrees,
such is the effect of viscosity.

9
Venturi Flow Meters

The principle of the Venturi meter was demonstrated by the
Italian Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746-1822), but the
principle was first applied to a practical instrument for the
measurement of flow rate by an American - Clemens Herschel
(1842-1930).

Venturi meters use Bernoulli's equation to measure the flow
rate through a converging/diverging section in a pipe. The
operation is based on the pressure changes with the varying
cross-sectional area of the meter.

1
2
Contraction
Expansion
U-tube manometer
or other device.

Here we use V to represent the average velocity V

The flow rates through sections 1 and 2 are equal:

Q = A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
(1)

Applying Bernoulli's equation between sections 1 and 2

yields:
p
1
g
+
V
1
2
2g
+ z
1
=
p
2
g
+
V
2
2
2g
+ z
2
(2)
10

Using (1) to replace velocities with flow rates:

p
1
g
+
Q
2
2gA
1
2
+ z
1
=
p
2
g
+
Q
2
2gA
2
2
+ z
2

p
1
p
2
g
+ z
1
z
2
=
Q
2
2g
1
A
2
2
1
A
1
2
|
\

|

|

p
1
p
2
g
+ z
1
z
2
=
Q
2
2gA
2
2
1
A
2
2
A
1
2
|
\

|

|

Q = A
2
2g
p
1
p
2
g
+ z
1
z
2
|
\

|

|
1
A
2
2
A
1
2

Q = A
2
2gh*
1
A
2
2
A
1
2

Where h* is the change in piezometric head:
h* =
p
1
g
+ z
1
|
\

|

|
p
2
g
+ z
2
|
\

|

|

i.e. h* is the head measured by a U-tube manometer (or
equivalent).

This equation is correct for all orientations of the meter.
11

In practice, friction causes a slight loss of head leading to the
overestimation of Q. To compensate for this, a Coefficient of
discharge (C
d
) is introduced.

Q = C
d
A
2
2gh*
1
A
2
2
A
1
2

Typically 0.94 < C
d
< 0.98, the appropriate value of
coefficient of discharge for a given Venturi meter can be
found in British or ISO standards (e.g. BS 1042).
12

Examples:

1. Velocity Measurement using a Pitot-Static tube and
an inclined manometer

Determine flow velocity using a Pitot-Static tube and an
inclined manometer setup shown below. Colored water is
used as a manometer fluid.

Given: Flow case as shown in diagram.

Find: Free stream velocity V
.
g
= 30
l = 200 mm

Flow
V

13
Solution:

Pressure measured by the manometer:

gh
p p p
water
dynamic static total
=
=

where h is the displacement of manometer fluid in vertical
direction:
sin l h =

and
2
2
1
= V p
air dynamic

so
sin
2
1
2
gl V
water air
=

and

sin
2
gl V
water
air
=

14
2. Losses in Pipe Systems: The Hydraulic Grade
Line

The hydraulic grade line is the line representing the locus of
(p/g + z) along a pipe.

Practically, this represents the height to which the fluid in a
piezometer tube would rise at various locations along the pipe.

The hydraulic grade line provides a simple, practical means
by which losses in pipe systems can be measured.

Expansion
Loss
Exit
Loss
Entrance
Loss
+
KE Change
Valve
Loss
Total
Head
Line
HGL
Valve
Expansion

Note: The Hydraulic Grade Line is included for illustration
purposes at this stage of the course. It is not examinable.
15


Energy form for internal flows (Nm/kg):

p
+
V
2
2
+ gz = constant

Flow

Work

(

(

+

Kinetic
Energy

(

(

+

Potential
Energy

(

(

=

Total
Energy

(

(
= Constant

Pressure form for external flows (Pa or N/m
2)
:

p +
1
2
V
2
+ gz = constant
Static
Pressure

(

(
+
Dynamic
Pressure

(

(
+
Hydrostatic
Pressure

(

(
=
Total
Pressure

(

(

Head form for internal flows - manometry in pipe flows (m):

p
g
+
V
2
2g
+z = constant

Static
Head

(

(
+
Velocity
Head

(

(
+
Elevation
Head

(

(
=
Total
Head

(

(

in piezometer:

Pressure Terms:

Static Pressure - true pressure within the fluid.

Dynamic (Velocity) Pressure - kinetic energy per unit volume. Gives
rise in static pressure by 1/2 V
2
.

Hydrostatic Pressure - potential energy per unit volume (gz).

Total (Stagnation)Pressure - maximum pressure that can be attained
within a fluid by converting dynamic and hydrostatic pressures are
converted into true, or static pressure.

Static
Head

(

(

+

Elevation
Head

(

(

=

Piezometric
Head z * ( )

(

(
16

Pressure Coefficient (Euler Number):

Non-dimensional number
C
p
=
p p
1
2
V
2
=
p p
p
total
p

where p is the local pressure at some point of interest
in the flow and refers to conditions far upstream.

Pitot-Static Tubes measure local fluid velocity:

p
total
p
static
=
1
2
V
2
i.e. V
=
2
p
total
p
static
( )
Flow
V
Total
pressure
Static
pressure
Static pressure
holes
Total pressure
hole

Yaw meters measure the direction of local fluid flow:

V
0

Venturi Flow Meters measure the flow rate:

1
2
Contraction
Expansion
U-tube manometer
or other device.

Q = C
d
A
2
2gh*
1
A
2
2
A
1
2

17

Please attempt Problems 3.13 - 3.81 from Tutorial 3. Some of these problems
are given below.

Problem 3.13, MY&O Ed. 3.
A typical prairie dog burrow contains two entrances a flat front door, and a
mounded back door as shown below. When the wind blows with a velocity V
0

across the front door, the average velocity across the back door is greater than
V
0
because of the mound. Assume the air velocity across the back door is 1.07
V
0
. For a wind velocity of 6 m/s, what pressure difference p
1
p
2
, is generated
to provide fresh air flow within the burrow?
(1)
(2)
V
o
1.07 V
o
Q

Water flows from a garden hose with a velocity of 15 m/s. What is the
maximum height that it can reach above the nozzle?

A jet of water flows from a nozzle of diameter d
0
with speed V
0
as shown in the
figure (a) below. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the jet diameter d
as a function of elevation z, ie. d(z). Repeat your analysis for a situation in
which the flowing fluid is the same as that into which it flows. For example,
consider a jet of air injected into surrounding air as shown in (b) below and
show that the diameter remains constant, independent of z.

V
o
o
z
Air
Water
Jet
d
d
g
V
o
o
Air
d
Air
Jet
(a) (b)

18
Water is siphoned from a tank as shown in the figure below. Determine the
flow rate and the pressure at point A, a stagnation point.

Water
3m
A

Air flows through the venturi device shown below. If the air flow rate is large
enough, the pressure within the constriction will be low enough to draw water
up into the tube. Determine the flow rate, Q, and pressure needed at section (1)
to draw the water into section (2). Neglect compressibility and viscous effects.

Q
(1)
25 mm
Air
(2)
0.3m
50 mm
50 mm
Water

Lecture 01-08 FM1 2012

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Lecture 1

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

- flow accelerating in x-direction.

.W.dy since dA = W.dy

represents flow work (work done on a

( ) can never exceed

. In an inviscid flow, this would be achieved with the

Lecture 8: Bernoulliss Equation

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