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GIFT OF
SEELEY W.
and
MUDD
GEORGE I. COCHRAN MEYER ELSASSER JOHN R. HAYNES WILLIAM L. HONNOLD JAMES R. MARTIN MRS. JOSEPH F. SARTORI
DR.
to the
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
SOUTHERN BRANCH
r'i.
*^^-
WNIVtftSl/r OF HA/ifAD..
CALIF
THE
1_
BOOK OF FALLACIES:
UNFINISHED PAPERS
JEREMY ^ENTHAM.
BY A FRIEND.
LONDON
PUBLISHED BY JOHN AND
H. L.
HUNT,
'^
-i.
t^
a-*"
*./
LONDON:
PRINTED BY HICHARD TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE.
*ZiaS.B
YFIiA.UMAM
JP
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
e
The
substance of this treatise, drawn up
all
Mr. Bent-
The
many
appli-
and British
interests
which, with
M. Dumont.
To
a2
iv
EDITOR
PREFACE.
instructive.
which
in the
more limited
namely,
that,
mat;
him
and
able to do
strike out
for
whatever therefore
may
he thought
it
better
that the
in
its
pre-
and having
devoted to
it
EDITORS PREFACE.
be spared from the intervals of a
life
V
of la-
value of whatsoever
M. Dumont's work
Man,
as proclaimed
contains an exami-
tuent Assembly.
Fallacies
employed
in debate,
it
is
But, in
and they
seemed
to lose so
much
of their spirit in a
translation
of the additional chapter would not compensate for the additional bulk
and expense of
the book.
A 3
CONTENTS,
INTRODUCTION.
Page.
Sect.
Fallacy,
what
Sect. 2. Fallacies, by
whom
treated of heretofore
ib.
Sect. 3. Relation of Fallacies to vulgar Errors Sect. 4. Political Fallacies the subject of this Sect. 5
.
5 7 9 12
Hamilton's
16
Work
Sect. 6.
Nomenclature of
political Fallacies
Sect. 7. Contrast
Work and
Parliamentary Logic
The
subject of which
is
and the
object,
Chap.
I.
Analysis of Authority
32
what cases
fallacious
.
2.
Appeal to authority
in
44
Chap.
II.
The Wisdom
ment,
Argu69
(ad verecundiam)
of
Chap.
III.
1.
Fallacy
irrevocable
Laws,
(ad
super-
stitionem)
2.
82
Fallacy of
Vows
or promissory Oaths,
(ad
superstitionon)
104
{nd verecundiam)
..
Chap,
I\'.
No-prccef.lent Argument_,
113
Vlll
CONTENTS.
Page.
Chap. V.
1.
Self-assumed Authority,
verecundiam)
(ad ignorantiam, ad
116
2.
The
120
123
{ad amicitiam)
The
is
Danger
in various shapes;
and the
alarm.
Chap.
I.
Vituperative Personalities,
1.
{ad odium)
127
131
2.
132
133
135
connections.
3. Imputation of
4. 5.
bad motive
Imputation of inconsistency
Imputation
of
suspicious
(^Noscitur ex sociisj
6.
136
(Noscitur ex cognominibus.J
137
7.
fallacies be-
140
Chap.
II.
1.
Hobgoblin Argument,
{ad metum)
2.
or,
" No Innovation!"
1
43
has in truth
145
3.
Time
lacy
148
source
151
Chap.
III.
"What's
at the
bottom ?"
154
{ad metum)
Chap. IV.
Official
Malefactor's
us,
Screen,
{ad
metum)
158
"Attack
CONTENTS.
IX
Page.
(ad metum)
"In-
184
The
is
Delay
in
various shapes
and
it.
the
I.
The
Quietist, or,
" No Complaint,"
{ad quietem)
90
II.
III.
Fallacy of False-consolation,
Procrastinator's
194
Argument,
socordiam)
1
" Wait a
little, this is
98
" One
Not too
Slow and
201
sure!"
{ad verecundiam)
209
The
object
of which
is,
to perplex,
be
avoided.
I.
Question-begging Appellatives,
Impostor Terms,
{ad judicium)
{ad judicium).
213
221
II.
111.
Vague
1.
Generalities,
{ad judicium)
230 232
235
Order
Establishment
2.
3. Matchless Constitution
4.
236
Balance of Power
5. Glorious Revolution
Chap. IV.
.Allegorical
Idols,
{ad imaginationem)
.. .
CONTENTS.
Page.
1
Government
body
for
members
of the governing
258
;
2.
3.
The Law
for law^yers
for
Jbid.
The Churchy
Kings
churchmen
(ad judicium)
260
2G5
Ibid.
Crimes of Kings
;
2.
Catholics
Cruelties of Catholics
266
271
Ibid.
(ad judicium)
2.
Reform
2/6
279
287
295
Theore-
298
301
2.
Utopian
3. 4.
303 307
314
315
2. Uselessness of Classification 3.
316 319
..
Mischievousness of Simplification
4. Disinterestedness a
mark
of Profligacy
320
322
328
5.
How
account ....
or.
(ad judicium)
re-
Efl'ect,
presented as a cause,
the
the influence
:
of
2.
330
Bishops
3.
Eff^ect,
in
the
House
of Lords
;
332
Ob-
system of edu-
CONTENTS.
XI
Page.
cation
pursued
in
Church-of-England
Universities
4.
334
;
Obstacle
repreof the
sented
as
a cause,
Opulence
Clergy
336
(ad judicium)
the
339
Means,
{ad judicium)
. .
justifies the
341
justification,
(ad invidiam)
344
(ad judicium)
" Not measures, but men," or " Not men, but measures."
Chap. XV. Rejection instead of Amendment,
349
Characters
common
359
361
....
Chap.
Chap.
II.
Of the
First
III.
362
Cause
conscious.
.
Ibid.
Chap.
IV.
Second Cause
:
Interest-begotten Prejudice
372
376
Fal-
lacies
379
Fallacies to the utterers
Chap. Vll.
Use of these
ceptors of
and ac-
them
for Fallacies
382
under the En-
glish Constitution
389
:
how created
392
in
by the state of
interests
may be borne
relation
400 406
INTRODUCTION,
Section
I.
A FALLACY, WHAT.
IjY
the
name oi fallaaj
it
is
common
to designate
for the
of deception,
of
causing
to be entertained
by any person
Section II.
FALLACIES, BV
WHOM TREATED
OF HEUETOFORE.
The
tion
is
earliest
Aristotle
by whom,
his treatise
but a
list
denomination
applicable
is
undertaken to be given.
Upon
and
early a period
in
employed by
comparison of what
little
have been, so
the
number of
buted
tlie
whole mass
is distri-
fallacies in
tlie
diction
not
the
number of
*.
the articles
two parts
to
As from
Aristotle
down
so from Aristotle
down
to this
all is
a blank.
in the
To do
is
something
way of
filling
up
this
blank
fallacies,
that
meant,
is,
that
deception for
to
view by
in that
character
and under
that
name;
for
"
2,0(p<ff']U.a,
is
is
the word
singular
employed by
;
The
enough <ro(pof is the wc d that was already in use for designating a wise man. It was the same appellation that was commonly employed for the designation of the seven Sages. ^0(pifJ]s, from whence our
sophist,
being au impretative of
'S,o(f>os,
as
it
were
whose pretension
to the
praise of
wisdom had no
languages and
in
considerable number
who
whom
he has to address
obtained.
What
in these
books of instruction
is
professed to
;
viz.
to produce
whom
you have
to deal, those to
whom
to address yourself,
tlie
most favourable
may
be.
As
to the impression
tion of
be desired, whether
the impression were correct or deceptions, whether the disposition were with a view to the individual or
community
nicious,
in question, salutary,
indifferent, or
in
per-
any of these
In
instances to have
come
war.
yet
whom more
will
Between those
earliest
and these
who have
others in
quite enough.
After so
many
and the
effects,
art of deception
good
and the
art of producing
bad
effects
man and
human
race
after so
many
disposition, action,
the
same
strain of
imperin the
common
first
As
and
h\s Jallacia,
exceptions,
upon examination so
danger would
left
them
unexposed to do
need not
;
his conscience
scarce
any instance
will
And
is
as to the embar-
incapable of formit,
but
in finding
words
tlie
weakness
which
is
not
in discover-
Section III.
an appellation given to an
is
considered
may be
productive.
by
whom
supposed to be entertained
and
this
Fallacy
to
Vulgar errors
is
this subject
by a physician of name
(of
which the
political is
it
was the
to
is
field
Thomas
inti-
Brown
mation
view
composed,
6
the
already entertained,
or persevered in.
who
live in later or
modern
and
times,
vulgar error
fallacy.
By
those by
whom
em-
whom
it
was originally
more or
less probable,
but as a con-
aimed at on
some of
the utterers.
YXiyxpi
is
Go(pi?ojv,
number, to which
his
commenthe name
That
in the use
name
of sophists,
On
this intention
of deceiving
Section IV.
Ol-
THIS
WORK.
The
is
which class
in
which
The
is
two operations
no small
difficulty,
Under the name of a Treatise on Political Fallacies^ this work will possess the character, and, in so far as
the character answers the design of
it,
having for
its
first
place, the
government as remain
place giving
to be introduced
in the
next
them perpetuation
perpetuation, not by
means of
ject (an
will
legislative clauses
inutility
and mischievousness
come
tive of
any useful
effect.
Employed
which
direct,
this
in this
instrument
may
be applied
one, the
more
measure, in
what way, by
quences
it
the other,
by point-
ing out the irrelevancy, and thus anticipating and destroying the persuasive force, of such deceptious ar-
in
use,
or appear likely to be
it,
employed
suade
in the
endeavour to oppose
and
to disit.
men from
these two
Of
the
but harmonizing
its
modes of
several purposes,
more
direct
is
Paris
in
for
whose labours
it
would scarcely,
light.
To
ones
'
give existence to
:
in that instance
is
to
provide
for the
Sophistry
is
a hydra of which,
if all
In
this
and
in
most
active of
them
work
will bring
mind
it,
to obtain
any
tole-
rably satisfactory
command
over
a set of divisions
To
an
upon
it.
An
able to no classification at
British
Houses of Parliament
either-side fallacies.
A
to
persons on
whom
it
was designed
to operate
the qf-
To
marked out by
of the faculty
this subdivision, a
Latin
affix, expretisive
10
or affection aiiDcii
at,
was given
and
:
:
arguments
3.
ad verecu?idiam
ad superstitiojiem :
ad amicitiam:
:
ad odium
6.
:
ad invidentiam
9-
admetum 1 ad quiet em
4.
.
ad socordiam
ad super biam
10.
adjudicium
W. ad imaginatio7iem.
In the same manner, Locke has employed Latin de-
ad
French a
translation, or rather
siderable portion of the present work, divided the fallacies into three classes, according to
the particular
Some he
discus-
others to perplex,
when
first
no longer be avoided.
The
class he
and the
he has
affix
it
also
added
to the
name
which
chiefly addressed.
The
little
it
in this
comprehending
in
one class
all
in the
may
be
supposed to resort
of the moment.
First,
to
them according
to the
emergency
fallacies of author'iti)
(including laudatory
which
is
authority
object, to repress,
all ex-
is
the sug-
gestion of danger in various shapes, and the object, to repress altogether, on the ground of such danger, the
discussion proposed to be entered on.
in various shapes,
and the
of eluding
altogether.
is
to produce,
when
discussion
1'2
the
heads under
it
is,
Still,
imperfect as
the
reflect-
use.
Section VI.
and that of
most intimate.
To
what
in
called
a.
proper
than
in its application
the
name of an
is
class
marked
work of the
mind
is
creation, created.
Still,
less distinguishable
marked
out,
description
may
;
complication
to
may
be such as
any number.
But a
name
more
its
adjunct:
13
or,
if
in siu
li
form
in conjunction
no more
a noun substantive
in the
composition of a sentence.
we
substitute
name.
is
to
is
to the continu-
of that same
line.
The
class being
performed
ing for
it
is, if
to
it,
and giving
name
if
name
has been
for
given to
it,
the sitting in
presents as ade-
may
may
for
the
first
by which, as
conveyed to
14
us of the essential character of those awful volumes
"
The
"The Turnpike
Bill,"
Act,"
"The
Middlesex
Waterworks
&c. &c.
How
useful
how
an additament in
cases,
make
titles,
to those authoritative
An Act
to explain
entitled
An
given,
which
when pretended
is
many
significative appella-
from an
sooner has the last newspaper that appeared the last day of the session
made
its
way
to the
most distant of
its
medium,
in obli-
and buried
So many yearly
is
one of which
to
be found
in
whom
to be used
became num-
bered
among
15
to
new
ideas
among
So many
be grated
if
by a new sound
more rigorous
So necessary
is it
that,
when a
it
thing
is
talked of,
there should be a
name
to call
by
so conducive,
common
sense,
of,
in
one
make
use
of,
command would
men of taste, attach much more importance to the manner than to the matter of a composition, have induced the editor
to suppress for the present
some of
them a
16
Section VII.
Of
this
some
little
pro-
gress made, when the advertisements brought under the posthumous work intituled " Parliamentary LogiCy by the late William Gerard
name
of Single-speech Hamilton.
Of finding
the need of a
present,
nor apprehension
would
When, under
the
title
had been
his ob-
fall into,
need scarce be
said), if
making
17
Taking
tliat
work of
and
serious object of
the
fallacy,
what
a
for conveying
nature
as in
some
instances, for
of,
a mathemati-
mode
is,
in
which
it
may
ge-
nerated.
On
these occasions
satisfy
much
sary to
instructions vvhich
may
to prevent
it
the use of
effect.
it,
of
its
Such,
if
Gerard Hamilton
is
to
be believed, was
:
his
book
is
means of advocating what a good cause, and the means of advocating what
a
with
equal
frankness,
solicitude for
success
in
Gerard Hamilton
at,
Whether on
this
ob-
18 of
this
work
will
in
a condition to
judge.
political
in
character of Gerard
a few words
;
he was
he was as ready to
made from
and wrong,
good and
evil,
were
composed,
"
He
Hence he thought
fill
who
the
first offices
in the state,
with the Constitution) as should tend to bring their friends into the
administration of
affairs,
on
party might with equal propriety adopt a similar conduct, and shape
various questions for the purpose of showing the imbecility of those in
room
And
may be
of theoretical perfection, do
19
and
in so far as
good
consists in
tiie
e.vtirpation of
good,
hence
it
was
to the
opposing of whatso-
ever
is
good
One
price,
malum
in se,
that of
was
This
In the course of his forty years labour in the service of the people, one thing he did that vvas
good
one thing
is
set
down on
that side:
differ (says
state
of things, he used
all
to observe that, if
the questions which have been agitated in Parliament from the time
could be point-
man might
on
by the force of rhetorical aggravation and the may have been represented to be of such
state
depended on the
of
vital nature,
such magnitude, and so intimately connected with the safety and wel-
One
form, or in other words for the new modelling the constitution of parliament
;
moment, and of so
now
living, that
he
would sooner
hand
C 2
20
One
principal use)
to enable
in
shares in
it
:
to
payment for
private service
man whose
talents
qualified
him
for
amusing companion
in every
good house. In
this
cha-
Gerard Hamilton
finding
man
being in
" Yet, such was the warmth of his friend's feehngs, and with such
many happy
had spent together, that he not only in the first place obtained for him a permanent provision on the establishment of Ireland *, but in addition to this proof of his regard and esteem, he never ceased, without
any kind of
solicitude
;
solicitation, to
lively
new
him
or
if
some
circuitous
means
to procure
Mr. Jephson's
re-appointment to the
office originally
conferred on
shend
chiefly
he was continued
office."
Pari. Loff.44.
Duke
" A pension of 300/. a year, which the of Rutland during his government, from personal regard and a high admiration of Mr. Jephson's talents, increased to GOO/, per annum for the juiut lives of himself and Mrs. Jephson. He survived our authoi
* Note hy editor Malone
:
21
lo the sinecure,
and
li^
Here was
Hberality
It is
upon
by such
displayed
;
it
is
imposed
it is
;
and
it is
is
made of them,
are made.
To
this
man
in
virtue
appeared
in
should be odious:
of parliamentary
up the source of
all
Here,
in regard to the
matter of
two
same subject
represen-
one an-
members on
the property
it
as on any pretence
may
shapes,
but a few years, dying at his house at Black Rock, near Dublin, of a
paralytic disorder,
editing, and, in this way, recommending in the lump these principles of his friend and countryman, Malone takes up particular aphorisms, and applies his mind to the elucidation
Note.
May
of them.
may
merits
game
on each occasion,
what
in
at,
several shapes,
this the
only question
swer given to
this question in
his
the side
of those
of
is
in office,
if
;
there be
room
or near prospect
room
for
him
whom
office
but in expectancy,
To
all
thizing friend
object of abhorrence.
How
should
it
be otherwise
By
Official
pay
of adequate
no
*
sinecures,
no pensions,
:
for
amidst the
no plundercries
23
of
No tlieory
The
no theory
the example of
America a
it
so
men of
practical
least
much
as with books
right honourable,
who
in the
house of
commons had
who had
who
in that office
five
complete clerkships:
what says he
no
howsoever talked
right
of,
never so
much
as thought of;
indifference.
Of
ton's
said in their
of Gerard Hamil!
Parliamentary Logic,
how
little
The reason
is
all
anecdote; Hamil-
theory.
What Hamilton
to practise.
endeavoured to
bag-bearers,
teach with
for his
Nor
is
the veil of
decorum cast
off
his practice.
time
In the reign
in a
balcony in
24
a state of perfect nudity.
In Gerard Hamilton
may
he was
better,
is
Of
is
man
to say that
it
good because Gerard Hamilton was averse to it, he would fall into the use of one of those fallacies against
the influence of which
it is
said,
fallacy,
that
it is
and
put by them,
which has produced the demand for parliamentary reform in the character of a remedy.
To
Bay
such
men
it
is
as natural
robbers.
Above
all
not being sufficiently constant in the practice of, is Under the name of action, thrice misrepresentation.
was gesticulation spoken of as the first accomplishment of his profession by the Athenian orator ;
By Gerard Hamilton,
553
in
in a collection of aphorisms,
is
number,
in
about 40 vice
is
recommended
misrepresentation,
c.
25
recommended
sented itself to
which
the
it
pre-
him
as susceptible
viz. in
way of
times.
way of
false substi-
tution twice,
and
in the
He
was
he
meant not
into
whom
he was
in the
in
it.
Of
is
en-
titled to the
the cha-
of
justly designated
it is
the character-
property that
it
of
this kind.
Not
what
is
bad
is
therefore
rard Hamilton.
active talent, that
for so
much
is
of
it
as constitutes
what
to
be earned by the
is
to
of bad causes
cerity as
in preference to
it is,
good ones,
that
for this
Gerard Hamil-
This
is
% and thence by
have been intended for the press, had been " shown
to his friend
by him
which
is
the
is
work
to
this
the editor
be
performance."
is
work
in
'
" But
with law, and had himself sat in Parliament for more than forty years;
who
in the
commencement of
;
of his eloquence
tic
and
who, though
he seldom engaged
in public debate,
devoted almost
above mentioned, to the examination and discussion of all the principal questions agitated in Parliament,
and
modes of reasoning by which they were either supported or opposed. " Hence the rules and precepts here accumulated, which are equally
adapted to the use of the pleader and orator
or general *,
is
:
delivered
and
and precision.
The work,
filled
and parliamentary and forensic wisdom, and cannot but be of perpetual use to all those persons
House of Commons,
" This Tract was fairly written out by the author, and therefore may
be presumed
to
He had
shown
it
to his friend
a very curious
.1.
B.
ii7
pous preacher of melancholy moralities saw, if the editor is to be believed, nothing to " object to," but
" the too great conciseness and refinement of some
parts of
it,"
it
gave to "
a.
wish that
So
far as
them from
seem
:
same nosegay
to have been worthy to smell at the and an " expansion and enlargement,"
it, would beyond doubt have been a " very curious and masterly," as
masterly performance."
Two
is
months before
his death,
if
to
extinguished in
to
him %
four
of the palsy*',
he was visited by a
of that
fit
fit
was
to try whether, in
of independence.
successful.
The experiment was not From some lord, whose name decorum
page 26.
''
page 14.
2JV
testified,
"on
object of this letter was to learn whether, along with the seat, " the power of thinking for himself " might
be included
in the grant
" confidence."
request was inadmissible, and the confidence
The
men
to puppets,
and the
will
become once
more an
but parliamentary
reform was that sort of thing which "he would sooner," he said, " suffer his hand to be cut off than vote for * :"
whether
this
it
was before or
after the
experiment that
informed
The
work as
it
were
his
own.
is
True
it is,
given,
at,
showing
it
how
mischief
may
be done or aimed
whether
shall serve as
page xxxvii.
29
the upshot, upon the person on
effect
whom
it
operates with
Many
have that
effect
how to administer poisons with sucmay on the other hand have the effect of enabling a person who takes them up with an opposite view, to
cess,
more
of poisons
in
much
dif-
comprehending
of his instruc-
tions
room
any
in
As
little
can there be
dis-
cipulus puer
es,
Hue
mo
The
how
in
a supreme
to gain
be.
The means
and be
Come
I will
me
all
:
bad or good, so as
it
be not par-
liamentary reform, to
me
it is
matter of indifference.
30
Here
cular,
in the
cerity to be
employed
it
most
fit
for,
and
in
which
name
and
of his editor
itself.
To
of drunkenness,
told of Spar-
contempt might be
felt to
which a
man
it
stands exposed
when
An
English father,
if
con-
by
this
book
in that mirror
may
be seen to what a
is
to
what a
state of degra-
man
is
he
may
minds.
PART THE
FIRST.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY,
The
subject
of which
is
and the
of the reason-
ing faculty.
With
reference
to
has
commonly
been, in the
first
instance, to endeavour
by adducing authority
in various
shapes as con-
clusive
argument here
in question^ it will
be necessary
to
ought to be borne
in
mind
it is
or
oifact, or quidfactum.
will frequently
hap-
more
or less regard,
32
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
1.
CHAPTER
Sect.
1.
I.
Sect. 2.
I.
What
is
the legitimate
was placed
?
Upon
say
3dly,
Upon
the degree of
relative
Upon
and
Upon
depend
defi-
to be
looked
for.
i.
Deficiency of attention,
e.
intensity
and steadicir-
in
order to be cor-
to be
grounded
deficiency in respect
Sect, 1.]
33
hand
distance in point
given,
any deficiency
in respect
quate intelligence
is, it
seems, to be looked
It is in the character
lative
intelligence,
in regard to
As
this
to relative probity,
will
head
persona
of sinister interest
2.
con-
Causes of the
The most
But
itself,
sinister interest,
is
in
so far as this
in
occasioned
two ways
if this
from
fixing
34
lALLACIES OP AUTIIORITV.
[Ch.
1.
As
to the
grounded on
it,
will
the
On
constituted by what
:
may be termed
is,
that
opinion en-
may
with reason be
As
they will in
evil
:
profit
profit
nion
ness.
will
Sect. 1.]
is
FALLACIES OF AUrilORITY.
is
S5
the
made of them
in
opinion.
Thus
in the case
man
it,
are the
motives by which he
urged to apply
his attention to
may
contri-
he
may have
by which such
profit
may be
obtained.
The
the following
may be
noticed as expressive of so
many
many
The
inferior
greater
in
the quantity of
power a man
has,
no matter
what
comes
opulence.
Opulence
to a consider-
way
is
to
many
or
to
which power
applicable,
36
FALLAC[FS OF AUTHORITY.
after
[C/l.
I.
power
in the scale
of instru-
above,
as
among
By
reputa-
tion,
authority as above.
Note, that of
is
all
it
vantage, which
legitimately
By having
since
man
has
it is
mois
indebted for
his
It is
from
means.
But
that he
ac-
sufficient to
the
full
action
that energy
by
in
On
same proportion,
Sect. ].]
lALLAClKS OF AUTHORITY.
it
37
may), he
is
apt to sink
level
the quantum of the share of the general mass of objects of desire that a
man
is
already in possession
of,
the greater
is
the
amount of
which
is
amount of
is
maining unsatiated,
left free
upon
his
mind
in the character
of a motive.
the
Under
Oriental despotism,
person at whose
command
person whatever,
is
the despot
is
result
is
and ignorance.
lodged, unincum-
Such
or, in other
on the above
principle, present
at all in public
sibility to
>^ \^
1 ^
r^ \j \f
^i^
5H
38
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
1.
is
no degree
of imbecility that in either of those two other situations can suffice to render
it
matter of danger or
in-
convenience to the possessor, either to leave altogether unexercised the power annexed to such situation,
or,
welfare, to exercise
in
whatever manner
to himself.
may be
in
a word,
to the action of
any
such
depends on the
in-
title
On
the
the contrary,
if either
medium of
more
in-
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
it is
39
the system
Hence
that
on the question,
What is
of remuneration best adapted to the purpose of obtaining the highest degree of official aptitude through-
field
of
official service
the authority
or formerly,
situation
now
was
in possession or expectation of
any such
is
muchbelow
e.
so far as
it affiards
So again as
to this question
What,
in so far as
law ought to bo
in the
who
or formerly, but
more
was
in possession or expectation of
any
situation, profes-
applied,
the weight
to credit
of the
the strength of
its title
on the
it
is
much below
is
0.
spoken of as being
40
interest),
FALLACIES OF AUTHORETV.
what
is
[C/i.
1.
is,
tion in
offered
tlie
same
as
that in
which the
for
if,
the di-
rection in
which the
in
one
lies
of the opinion
to
which
is
much increased,
minds of
this class
spent
there-
by greater.
Accordant with
this,
common
among
own testimony is
wherever a
the weakest,
on
this
account
that,
man
is
in
means
of,
and motives
for,
and
specific
way,
if
SecL
tible
1.]
FALLACIES OF AUIHOKITY.
41
effi-
is
the probability
If,
then,
or by
relevant
way of supplement and support to such information (when weak and insufficient), the
of such bad arguments aftbrds a sort
mean
de-
is
of
this,
it
is
common and
that
As
to the fourth,
fidelity
it is
here brought
to view in the
of authority
is liable
to experience decrease
of
its
admission into
this list
the propriety
is;
on the
42
FALLACIES OF AUTHOIUTV.
it is
\Ch.
1.
in the
power of
rea-
make
it.
In
and mea-
question neither
more nor
less
than an article of
cir-
cumstantial evidence.
The need
authority,
i.
persuasive force of
whom
it
is,
The
man
is
qualified to
form a judg-
on
the
more cogent
the necessity he
under of trusting,
and
in pro-
portion to the
number of
the persons
who
possess,
each within himself, the means of forming an opinion on any given subject on the ground of such
direct evidence, the greater the
number of the
per-
sons to
whom
it
ouglit to
be matter of shame to
and ne-
Of the
men
belonging to
community
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHOIUTY.
43
community
In
in general,
in
of the fraternity
of lawyers,
may be
in a state of as
complete
in-
cognoscibility as possible
conduct
is
professed to be directed by
and whose
by
it.
In
this
same perception,
in
acknowledged
In
this
same perception,
in this
EnRomish
church,
same perception,
may be
seen one
made by
so large a proportion
and
if
which has
To
return.
Be
what
it
may, to
made of an
effect, as
having
is
to
44
FALLACIES OF AUTHOlilTY.
{Ch.
1.
in
a more complete
is
no irrelevancy.
The arguments
relevant ones
;
referred
to are,
if
by the supposition,
such
as,
the person by
whom
they
their weight
the opinion
Neither
is
making reference
to
correct
specific argu-
ments as belong
beyond
their
competence. In
arts, the
various branches of
Sect. Q.
Appeal to authority,
in
what
casesfallacious^.
is
The
open
to
"
An
unquestionable
maxim
and
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
that
45
argument
it
would be perfectly
authority
argument
is
in
employed
other side.
in
argument
is
in the highest
is,
where
the situation of the debaters being such that the forming a correct conception
of,
not beyond
public,
lieu
is
adduced
of an argument,
in
to furnish.
on a question of
legislation, are in
a peculiar degree
sinister
by the action of
He
Div. Legat,
effect
;
302
and
in his
AUiance, &c.
46
tion,
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[C/t. 1.
tions
viz.
i.
e.
that the
number,
is
not at the
In the
first
enemy
is
to the
comall to
whom
regard,
community
an object of
than what,
take place.
men
is,
virtually to ac-
to possess
safe
as safe to be
whom
he knows
little
or
many
years ago
much much
an-
own time
guidance so
the
this
account of himself,-^
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITV.
represents his
4/^
when he
this
own mind
as labouring
under
whom
He
who,
in place
of reasoning, deduced
(if
the sub-
readers
whom
he addresses
judgment of
their
own.
may
it
justice of
Of
imbecility, at
self-
avowed
ought na-
On
bones,
of
this spe-
cies of idolatry,
all
of
this
most opposite
to humility,
and overbearingness,
are
With
mind
played in the
of reasoning, no reasonable
man
ever manifests so
much
heat,
assumes so much, or
little,
as these
men, whose
title
is
thus given
up by themselves.
Whence
this inconsistency?
Whence
this violence?
48
FALLACIES OF AUTIIOIltTY.
this alone, that
[Cll.
1.
From
some abuse
and finding
in
it
and a
profit,
interest
By
is
is
proit,
portioned to the
number of
pernicious
to the religion of
Buddh, of Brama, of
Foh, of Mahomet.
And
those
hence
it
may
is
force of authority
indeed
multitudes
who
possessed in
for ensuring
correctness.
Even
such a case
it
would not
di-
in
debate
might be able
ble of
ments; but
much
less
which
is
supposed, be
If in theory
any
tlie
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHOlJfTV.
to the
4p
were ascribed
lowed up
in practice,
as
If distance
in point
possessed and
exercised for so
many
centuries
would be
to be repealed,
is
and
in this
in
it,
through
all
future ages
some other
Christian,
the religion of
Mahomet
the
way of thinking
in matters
of religion, prevalent in
China,
would have
to be substituted
by law to the
Christian religion.
it is,
banded
in its
bosom
And
here
may be
at-
50
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
1.
tached to the course of him whose footsteps are regulated by the finger of this blind guide.
What
duced
is
may
inferences be de-
nor
respecting the
in
reason
the
own
As
same time
it
will
shall
dom,
shall
and particularly
in Par-
liament,
become less and less. Take any part of the field of moral
will find
science, private
go back a
and
argument consisting
As
experience has
reasoning,
to the
drawn from
facts
false,
place.
of
Roman
law heaped up in
a mass,
would employ
by nothing
else,
greater part.
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
:
51
thought
B., catching
it
:
up, tells
at least,
what A.
;
said
C.
tells
said
by A. and B.
rolls on.
it is
and thus
like
mass
Happily
shown and
this
way by
legal punish-
ment.
In mechanics, in astronomy, in mathematics, in
the new-born science of chemistry,
no one has
at this
much
and
most desirable
rational
on the ground of
authority, to decision
on the ground
is
demonstration,
matter of
is
is
universally acknowledged.
would not be
less
and the
E 2
52
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[CIl.
1.
Causes of the employment and prevalence of this fallacy. It is obvious that this fallacy, in all its branches, is
who
are interested
to the great
suppressing
exercise of reason.
its
foolish or un-
own
support, or the
mere
the
whom
oppo-
anticonstitutional
dependence, anticonstitu-
which enable
in the
this
govern-
In
this situation
is
on each occasion
himself unable, or
thus ignorant,
is
if
not
fail
him, because he
so
idle.
cially in so
field,
Sect. 2.]
FALLAClIiS or AUTIIOIll'J
Y.
53
is fre-
because, in so
many
whom, whether
is
a matter of
no degree of
intellectual deficiency,
cluding a
Thirdly,
the instance
any time
whose
who
be-
whom
many
are de-
are commissioned
judges.
What
is
natural talent
between
those
who
are,
and
their rivals
who hope
is,
The consequence
is
excepted in
whom
are worse than useless, the house the furniture of whose minds
is
composed of men
discordant
made up of
54
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
{Ch.
1.
prejudices, of
by which the
moment
is
most promoted.
Then, with regard
to responsibility, so happily
have
is
seat there
house
in both, a
man
when
for both,
ticket
begged or
bought
in neither is
man
;
ligation, other
nuisance to the
company
the
amusement a
True
it is,
man
the
members dependent on
ignorant and
the crown.
member
is
not necessa-
weak
if
by accident a
is
man
pos-
placed in the
ments
all
therefore that
is
meant
is,
its
creatures
it is
Why ?
Because
is
more completely
the
interest-
quious to
all
those
who
is
likely to
be ignorant and
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
55
the emperor
;
clear of obligation
it is
so
is
the
in-
member's
teger,
true, is
it
;
an
but no
ignorance prevents a
or continu-
member:
;
is
:
derived
to enjoy
from birth
gon
so
is
that of
many a member
;
his despotism,
is
no fraud,
much of
;
all to
the
member
ber, if
by ascending and
is
:
no principle
by the
mem-
a borough-holder,
many
;
by being a
the
is
emperor
is
not an impostor
member
not
the
the
lying
among
(if
the ac;
companiments of
his
member does
holder)
lies.
?
pretend
this,
and
a borough-
a representative
is
the
:
yes;
?
Mr. Kemble
it
of
Mac:
because
their
to depute, to delegate
any body
else
delegate,
neither
title
deputation
fact,
circumstances,
representation
a more con-
56
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[C/l.].
it
ed
it is
By canvass
witli
colours, a
;
man
is
represent-
by an ambassador,
Remedy
The
employed
in the col-
man
is
is,
compara-
labour
is
bestowed,
no
labour
is
bestowed, because
to la-
The situation
ployed
were such
that,
in obtaining instruction,
be no
situation, or
but an inferior
here, in-
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORJTY.
would have
its
57
struction
motives,
here, consequently,
its
The
an object not to be
The goodness
By
prohi-
to the delivery
of al-
any part of
paired,
it,
is
im-
and an implied
of the truth
and
utility
of whatsoever portion
thus endeavoured
to be suppressed.
APPENDIX.
E:vamples of descriptions of persons xvhose declared
opinions upon a question
liable to be
sinister interest.
1
Lawyers
oppositeness
of their interest to
the
universal interest.
The
by the operation of
sinister interest.
To
the
interest of the
community
in
vocate
sition
is
in
(especially
matters),
redeem
from the
58
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
trifling
:
[67/. 1.
appearance of
and turn
is
the people's
it is
the advocate's
:
viz.
it
;
expense
proportioned to
factitious
As
to uncertainty
security against
known
to
to
him; that
which
treated as offences,
may
be
known
him
as such, to-
may
wrong or
Hence
it
action, in so far as
all
applies to each
man, should
at
to his mind.
it is
every man's
the lawyer's
it is
to the
It
is
yers'
it is
terest to get
him
in as often,
as possible
words necessary
may as long as
coming into
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
and when
in
5^
existence,
kept from being present to his mind, and when presented from staying there
*.
non-observance of laws, which, so far from having received efficient promulgation, have never yet found
This
is
the
yet,
impos-
To any
effect, as
:
to that
same
effect, in
any deter-
same judge
It is the judge's
interest that
on every occasion
how
be to truth and
other times
:
utility,
own
declaration at
hence,
:
him
*
as possible
same conduct
Common
law of
it
A considerable proportion of
is
what
in
is
termed the
F.ngland
in this oral
and unwritten
is,
state.
The
it
cases in which
which
judges
daily oc-
60
which
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
to others
[C/l. 1.
ward
in his
lie,
it
should be
power
to
do what he
and
verence
money
or ad-
procurement of
him and
his
it is
his
moral depravation
;
That
rous
as
possible
That
injuries
gressions committed by
acts of virtue
injuries
;
as
That the
produced by such
should be
placed,
to the
immutable nature of
wrong-
from
law
is
trary inference
be drawn.
those
(i. e.
in
one presumption
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITV.
if
51
it
another, that
by
sinister interest
fessional
men,
in like
it is
in other words,
judice.
own
interest, that
own
rules his
It is true,
were
much
numBut
among
the
is
nothing could
him a hear-
On
him
afford
finding relevant
and
when
the nais
of
to
regard
;
ac-
companied by
specific arguments,
it is
useless
desti-
6'2
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
it
[Ch.
1.
tute of them,
amounts
to
a virtual confession of
their non-existence.
to
be law.
kept in
tlie state
of
common,
is,
alias unwritten,
every thing.
The
question
is
likely to think:
your
know
tually
but,
forasmuch as
it is
what the
the
get-
view
if
and
medium of
has,
what D.
to
(a former judge)
less analo-
on a subject supposed
be more or
when
the
it
and gives
A shorter way
;
would be
once to A.
mitted.
On many
of a
many
his
own
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY,
6S
posed law
it is
Packwood's
;
be as good as possible
the judge's,
commodity
as in the case of
;
Packwood, the
the shops
equally bad in
it is
both
said to be.
men
referred to
it
its
tendency, in
;
deceptions
the
made
the
as, in
from advocates)
all
To
:
what law
is,
so
law, but as to
what
in those
On
64
TALLACIKS OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
1.
as constitutive of authority.
To
understand
if
how
great
on the ques-
what
in matters of religion
form of the
sinister interest,
divested of
all title
The
On
in the
shape of sub-
and
all
39
articles,
of which, the ignorance and violence of the time considered, should suffice to satisfy
all
2. In
understood to be
but, if questioned, to
3.
In the institution thus established, he beholds shame and punishment attached to sincerity, rewards in
the largest quantity to absurdity and insincerity.
Now
to
engage
men
to declare as-
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
1st,
65
2nd, Thence,
not believed
that
it is
it is
by the acceptor.
It is
ment
to
produce
real
and immediate
belief:
:
but the
1st,
following effects
may
certainly be produced
The
Deall
3rd,
The
The
to,
looking out
all
for,
especially,
belief of the
by which a sort of vague and indistmct most absurd propositions has every where
been produced.
On
field
of knowledge are
fit
re-
in-
hands of
tions,
Demonstra-
And
so in chemistry,
of knowthe im-
left free,
portance of truth
here,
may
where
it
is
thus influenced
but the
more im-
66
FALLACIES OF AUTIIOIIITY.
[67/.
it,
1.
in-
men
are
wards allotted
Of much
it,
of the matter of
is
in the king's
applying
it,
to the
in
to sit as
judges
whom
it is
this vast
mass
extorted,
it is
known,
that, being
by con-
impossible that
is
not em-
in giving
support to
it,
Church-of-Englandism
The
ward
1st,
That
re-
mote
2nd,
Or
in
that
money
3rd,
case of non-compliance,
;
pliance
Or
; ;
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OP AUTHORITY.
is
67
not
punishment; 4th,
Or
that insincerity
to
is
be promoted
5th,
to,
That
good
government
rich to
done by others
this
for a
on pre-
engaged
in
for suppose,
in
withheld, the
same
de-
claration should
who made
it
before.
is
The more
in joining
engaging as
many
as possible
it
number of such
co-declarants, the
professions the
;
greater the
and of those
who
putation of insincerity.
The
of which
churchmen are
subjects
enlisted
1st.
Perpetua;
2.
Of
absurdity
in
of
the
highest
importance
r 2
68
3.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
Extortion inflicted on the
;
[Cfl.
1.
many
the few
4.
Reward bestowed on
5.
The
6.
doms a
tion
avowedly
But whoever
is
engaged by
support of
his
support in exchange.
re-
it
is
man who
viz.
more
particular ser-
vice to others' abuses as those which render such service to his own.
It being the interest of
each person
so situated to give the utmost support to abuse, and the utmost currency to fallacy in every shape,
it is
men
pose
fallacies,
and thence
to suppress every
it
system of
education in proportion as
lastly,
man
is
more
likely is
it
endeavour
the l^s
fit,
and model
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
69
CHAPTER
Ad verecundiam
Sect.
1.
II.
E.vposition.
This argument
nions of
men by whom
who
are
;
living at the
period of time in
the wisdom bjour the wisdom of ages venerable antiquity wisdom of old times
Our
wise ancestors
ancestoj^s
is
repugnance
Sect. 2.
E.vposure.
numerous instances
influence
in
of custom, that
of prejudice, opinions
intellect.
70
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
This fallacy, prevalent as
it is
[Ch. 2.
in matters of law, is
maxim
universally
admitted
in
human
intelligence,
and which
is
knowledge and of all rational conduct. " Experience is the mother of wisdom,"
the
is
among
future
to the present
it
and
all
No
is,
wisdom
An
its
own
re-
futation
and
all
that
we can do
is,
to
trace
the
such an ascendancy
in matters
of legislation.
Among
thority,
this
more impressive
in
1st,
From inaccuracy
;
rectness of expression
from having
refers,
which, from
at
What
question
in
common
language
is
employed)
to be called
young or
early time.
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
71
As between
same
situation,
he who
is
old,
is
possesses, as such,
;
as between
is
reverse of this
true,
as in ordinary language, a
much
experience as
With
or sources of
nisance of their
own
senses, the
wisdom
later
as are derived
not
it
less incontestable,
than
the
name
man
or old
woman were
aiven to
the infant in
cradle.
What
Is
it
then
the
called old
the
wisdom of gray
*.
No.
It is the ivis-
dom
of the cradle
The
*
Thibet
men
emi-
No
one
will
to
them
that
we
owe
the career of
human improvement
developed in proportion to the state of knowledge at the period in which they lived, and could only have been called into action with a view to
then-existing circumstances,
a period
it is
and under a
7'i
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
to superior
[Ch. 2.
do homage
wisdom
superiority raised to
The learned and honourable gendemen of Westminster set down as impostors the lamas of TurBET, and laugh on
at the folly of the deluded people
whom
wisdom.
at
Thibet
to the infant
body
Westminster
lived in earlier
ages.
employment of
this fallacy,
;
is
a
;
prejudice which,
else, to
the superstitious
will
be seen to be
less
no
no
perni-
accordingly, the
By propagating this mischievous notion, and acting man of selfishness and malice obtains
With
this
jargon
in his
mouth, he
is
imaginary interests
'
of the dead.
Thus imposture,
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
7^
De
with
all its
absurdity,
the adage
Of two attacks, which is the more barbarous, on a man that does feel it, or on a man that does not ? On the man that does feel it, says the principle of utility On the man that does not,
principle of morals.
:
the
prin-
the principle
in
which ima-
gination
is
the sole
mover
which
worth notice.
bepraises
and Fox.
many
adversa-
On
the death of
him
for
who
died
first,
his adversaries
friends.
At what
is
was paid
by the people
no secret
Economy
The
A dead
when
man
has no
in
rivals,
to
nobody
is
he an obstood
ject of envy,
whosesoever way he
may have
living,
stands in any
Pitt's creditors
was
votfid 40,000/.
of the
public
money;
to
year.
74
body's way.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
If he
[Ch. 2.
at once,
assume an
Another
and discouraging
same
sort of persons, as
well as of the
same system of
politics, to idolize,
under
the
ancestors, the
wisdom of
and
folly
*'^
So long
so long
them
ig-
wise ancestors
mob
in
one lump,
may escape
detection.
will the
compared with
tively
class in
will
be the
disparity,
and
to
such an amount
in
favour of modern
"Burdett mol),"
(or
example.
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORiTY.
75
will
Take
for
in
the reign of
Henry
the
in
1509
to 1546.
At
that time
poslittle
what
in the
House of Lords,
all
among
the laity,
it
to read.
them
all in
what
at
instruction
On
tant
no one branch of
legislation
to the circumstances of
be derived
in all those
departments,
:
the
memorandums of
peace, battles,
occurrences
of war and
76
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch. 2.
a speech or an incident that could enter into the composition of any such
work as a
history of
tlie
human
mind, with
Even when
at last, little
by
to
little,
a scrap or two of
political instruction
came
with
it
was so
great, that
less prejudicial
may reasonably be matter of doubt. If we come down to the reign of James the First, we shall find that Solomon of his time, eminently eloquent as well as learned, not only among crowned but among uncrowned heads, marking out for prohibition
men
to death
and torment
Bacon had
laid
losophy,
we
shall find
(to the
man
of law's idolatry)
unable to
tell
but knowing at the same time too well what witchcraft was,
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
:
77
this
many
other wonders.
is
effectually,
by
be-
so cheap an instrument as a
common newspaper:
vam-
and
all
the touch of
absurd to rely on the wisdom of our ancesnot less so to vaunt their probity
:
tors, it is
they were
all
as
much
inferior to us in
that point as in
others
department of Government
present
we
made
in the career of
improvement;
preceding
man would
is
not wantself-de-
78
votion
;
TALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[67/
2.
we
commonly
dupes of an
illusion occasioned
an extensive retrospect.
Such a retrospect
often
made by a
mind
in this
if for
glance
the very
it
were, in a
Thus groves of
trees,
which at a distance
Would you
if
we
in-
Would
you, because
it,
wisdom,
By no means
such a
mode of
and provisional
is
grounded on
much more
on
wisdom of our
ancestors.
Though
the opinions of
little
not the
less
worth attending to
that
is,
in so far
own
experience.
However,
it
is
not so
they did, as
Independently of
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
;
79
is
it
nor
yet,
in legislation,
when every
species of
much
information
or none.
opinions,
little
From the facts of their from the may be derived As to opinions, it is rather
:
From
foolish opinions
comes
foolish conduct;
disaster, the
most
useful warn-
It
is
from the
folly,
ancestors that
is
we have
so
much
to learn
and yet
it
to their
on
their interests as
we on
ours
but as a knowledge
is
to be
pronounced
must
all
specifically,
man
of the
earlier period,
is
clear that
evidence
and
fallacy
in question calls
on us
80
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
2.
may
admit.
be influenced by
to
this
Fallacy.
Wisdom of
all
defence of
employ
But
it.
their exertions
would be of
which they
little avail,
were
it
find
on the part of
argument nearly
relied on.
the
same weight
as those
by
whom
it is
This propensity
connected causes:
may
1.
Both
by Blackstone; and,
2.
Their consequent
inability, for
want of
practice, to
principle of geneis
susceptible of justification.
In the hands of a defender of abuse, authority answers a double purpose, by affording an argument in
favour of any particular abuse which
call for protection,
and by causing
in
and measure of
right
and wrong
is
to be found.
field
of knowledge
religion be
an
men
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
81
mend to us this receipt for thinking and acting wisely. By no gentleman, honourable or right honourable, are we sent at this tinje of day to the wisdom of our ancestors for the best mode of marshalling armies, navigating ships, attacking or defending towns
best
;
for the
modes of
cultivating
its
artificial
and heat
for the
modes of
curing, al-
own
bodies
to apply
Why
this difference ?
Only because
in
any other
it
men
is
so unhappily
com-
men
thing to gain,
either
chemical experiments
his
own experiments
Van Helmont,
or Paracelsus.
82
FALLACIES OF AUTIIORrFY.
[Ch.
3.
CHAPTER
1
III.
2.
Fallacy of Vows.
Ad
superstitionem.
The
together
two
fallacies
brought to view in
this
chapter
to be considered
is
the
same
in both, the
;
employed
and
both of them
of
The
object
is
to tic
by obligations supposed
em-
ployed
is
a contract
may
be
some other
state, or the
whole
or
some
called in
and employed
in
the
character of guarantee.
effect,
is
proposed to a
no matter
in
what way,
it is
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHOIUTV.
83
The
fallacy in
by those who,
some former
thus called on to
for
its
object
yet expired,
all
law
to
any such
now
proposed.
What will
man who
will
so, is
that,
notwithstanding
we
moment
all
can be of no use to
who
way of
all
we can
inflict,
bestow, as well as of
the
sufferings
we can
the
interest at the
bottom.
Ed'posure.
1
.
To
first
place on the
ground of general
At each
for
his
possesses such
means
own
time.
84
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
\Ch.
3.
no
only by a sort of
guess drawn by analogy, that the sovereign of this year can pretend to say what will be the exigencies of
the country this time ten years.
Here
ble law,
immutathose
to
who
means of information,
all
those who, by their very position, are necessarily incapacitated from knowing any thing at
matter.
about the
men
1
themselves up to be led
8th century.
own judgment, the shut their own eyes, and give blindfold by the men of the
such
Men who
men who had
less experience,
to preference.
much
sequent generation,
if it
understood so
much
better
Sect. 1.]
TALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
itself the interest
it
85
of
could
have been
in
an
equal degree anxious to promote that interest, and consequently equally attentive to those facts with which,
though
been,
in order to
form a judgment
it
it
ought to have
it is
?
impossible that
quainted
In a word,
subsequent
same
generation's
Not even
here, after a
moment's deliberate
reflec-
And yet it is their prodigious anxiety for the welfare of their posterity that produces the propensity of these
sages to
tie
up the hands of
this
its
same
posterity for
own hands.
If
it
8th,
it
will
own judgment but by that of the 19th. The same principle still pursued, what
at length
who
ter
;
neither
would
re-
main
an inexorable tyranny,
exercised, as
85
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[C/l. 3.
moment
mischief
of
its
enactment,
is
uncompensated
?
to
any amount.
despotism, though
to
it
Nero, might be
intolerable, than
any degree
may have
his
By benemoments of
by benevolence, by prudence,
word, by caprice,
in
its
consequences.
who
shall
make
lum
feel ?
it
who
this
Let
pose that
will in general
It
is
only
when
felt
mischievous,
and generally
argument of
port of
it.
and understood
to
be such, that an
this
stamp
will
it
will
be supported,
from
its
own
excellence.
But
is it
many
millions of living
esta-
slaves
and a
few
among
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
87
The
way of
any degree
it
by the
The means employed to give effect to this device may be comprised under two heads the first of them
;
absurd.
is
considered as
call it void.
But
to
what
to excite the
people to re-
any such
this is
void law.
meant or nothing.
to consider the
law void
They
are
it
as an act of injustice
;
and tyranny
as an act of
power exercised
it
:
by men who
deal by
it
iiave
no right to exercise
they are to
as they
take
upon them
deal,
it,
as they
would
Magna
Charta.
would be
>'
88
Sndly,
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ck.
3.
The
of a contract or engagement.
The
faithful
observance
argument drawn
from
source cannot
fail
of plausibility.
But be the
parties interested
an end
it is
some end
and
in cases
it
one of
whole community,
worthy
to
endeavoured to impart
:
this
1 ,
and foreign
its
state,
2,
Grant of
privileges
privileges
in
the whole
community
the
3,
Grant of
from the
4,
sovereign to
New
community
5, Incorporative
union be-
mon
head.
so long as
Sect, 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
is
89
aggregate,
in
would be by any
:
on
the
contrary,
if,
True
which
is
it is,
tract to
is
party, in case of
any
is
a dangerous
may
and not pretence, probity not improbity, veracity not mendacity, are supposed alike on all sides the con;
tract
sovereignty
or explain
it
will
away the meaning of the deny or explain away the change, as,
inadequate, compensation.
or to
instead of a real
To
90
1.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ck.
3.
state
and foreign
state, the
dogma of
immutability has
treaties
between
state
It
em-
and when
the pernicious operation of such a treaty on the interests of both parties has
Notice,
the
sufficient
engaged
if
in traffic,
under the
faith
of the
withdraw,
such
traffic,
and
in case of loss,
compensation as far
Grant of
privilege
If,
by
Sect, 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
as are abrogated, adequate
if
91
in the
room of such
is
com-
pensation
made
is
tuted, there
measure.
3.
Grant of
privileges
No
granted
community
was
but, unless in
community
to be affected
by the
change, being as great a part of the aggregate happiness as that of any other portion of equal extent.
Under
this
all
those
more
parti-
assemblage of individuals,
for
money
New
new
com-
munity.
be,
it
ought
made
be the reverse,
change
is
such as
it is
right
and
fitting
should be made.
92
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
first
[Ch. 3.
The
can contrive
to satisfy
one another
such
members of
The frame
tlie
avowed
In
may
require.
Europe, the
effect
of declaring
in the original
frame
lias
laws.
The
article in
being repealed,
it is
and
common
head.
Of
which
all
is
the cases
upon the
list,
this is the
only one
attended with
difficulty.
This
is
same time
that a
at once likely
and
fit
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
is
93
diffi-
other shape,
it
is
interwoven
At
Of
powerful.
If the inequality be
state, naturally
considerable, the
ing, will
more powerful
speak-
states.
On
against oppression
come of
course.
Wherever a multitude of
together, there
picion,
is
but too
and mutual
ill-will.
they ob-
mon
government,
In
will
justly.
men or in money, in labour or in goods, in a direct way or in some indirect one, it may be the study of the new compound government, under the influence of that part of the quondam government
which
is
predominant
in
it,
94
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch.
3.
upon the
other, or to
religious ceremonies,
new laws. new government remain altoone of the two compound nations may
injustice at the
later
restriction will
become
intolerable to
one or
other, or to both.
But sooner or
Sooner or
of the union
will
have been
gree of retardation.
If, in
men more
or less
to
whom
abuse or imperfec-
Sect. I.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
profit,
Q5
whatsoever
tion in
restrictions
men
At
Scotland, the
Tory
party, of
all
whom
a large proportion
or most of
House of
itself
Commons.
Here, then, a favourable occasion presented
to these partisans of Episcopacy for giving perpetuity
presbyterians, by the
in
purpose
custom
to
make
reciprocity
as
if,
the facilitating
the vent of French wines in England being the object of a treaty, provision were
made
in
it
that wine
By
craft,
this
custom
to rivet for
c. 4.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch. 3.
96
had
se-
For
made
in favour of the
on the
principle
Scotch ones,
made
in favour of the
church of England.
Blackstone avails himself of
this transaction
for
may be
establishment of England.
On
independent nations,
be
it
"fundamental and
conditions
of the
union."
2. That,
whatever else
funda-
mental and
same
Vol.
i,
97, 98.
Sect. 1.]
TALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
97
common
so to be.
3.
and
union.
On
see,
we
learned commentator.
alteration of
as for
example by the
any of the 39
articles,
if,
by the aboli-
tion of
ecclesiastical sinecures, or
by any
of duty
of the English
much
fired
breach of faith
union.
and
call
for
a dissolution of the
To
nates
piety,
:
" The
if
has
to be
taken
by which
is
meant,
any
thing, that
98
lALLACIES or AUTHORITY.
[67/. 3.
What
of the
is
evident
is,
Crown could
be supposed to becomejelo de
and employ
itself,
itself in
English
members
in
;that,
in
any attempt to
upon
in the
members
all
unanimous,
to
that in the
House of
all
the
En-
manner have
to
outnumber the 26
in vigour, feared
that they might not always be so, and seized that op-
be deemed irrevocable.
The
for
its
which has
made by
Ann.
c. 8. art. 19.
anno 1708.
Sect. 1.]
TALLACIES OF AUTHORITV.
this
is
99
whole course of
long
article,
taken to avoid
such danger as
as,
improvements
in the
mode
of administering justice
made by
the
is
if,
on the
" heritable
offices," in-
By
yet
still,
spirit
which, on the
occupied
itself in the
of mortal
man
came
same
heritable jurisdictions.
Here was
an act made
Mark now
that
is
to be learnt
from Blackstone.
which
many
of
it.
Anno 2
1747, 20 Geo.
2. c.
43.
II
100
it
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
its
[67^
3.
articles (20)
to preserve, he
to prevail, as that
it
is
every
human
('f t>y
damnain
tion be
made
articles,
at the sug-
of Session,
came upon
applying remedies to some of the most flagrant imperfections in the administration of Scottish justice
:
declama-
to the people
name, a
little less
that would
be
made
to
at.
faith
plighted by that
it,
treaty, which,
he
made
=*
Art. 9.
Sect. ).]
FALLACIES OV AUTHORITY.
all
101
the union
:
sacred bonds
on the other
England.
their
As
neither
good nor
The
ultimate object, as
it
Upon
that
tions.
is
the conclusion
seems
to
a fresh
arrangeujent,
of a prohibitive
it.
True
it is,
that
are
fessed object of
them
is,
to afford a steady
manent
sense,
mankind.
all
of them
may
;
view to perpetuity
but perpetual
not synonymous
all
laws
ought
to be,
i)ave been,
establijhcd,
102
FALLACIES OF AUTIIORITV.
[Ch.
3.
founded.
To
alone,
comprise
is
all
in
one word
Reason,
and that
name
of law.
At
the passing of
it
''.
to
call for
it,
an alteration
an alteration
in
or the abrogation
of
it,
immutable,
ensure
its
so far
permanency,
The
it;
is
argument
it
this extra-
neous source.
first
volume of Dumont's
Truitis
Le"id(itioH,
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
it is
103
But though
instrument to apply
bad laws
in
preference to
is
is
good ones
bad
this
justification
the practice of
in
adopt
at
it
'^
a practice which,
interval put
if rigidly
pursued, must
all
no distant
an exclusion on
bad laws.
To
good
sufficient reasons
would be
in
But
to
for
and power.
in
his
Dumont
to the
Fnpcrs on
Cudifjaifion;
and Ix:Ucni
United States.
104
FALLACIES OF AUTIIOKITV.
[Ch.
3.
played
oft'
against reform, in
whatever shape
is
it
presents
itself,
and
burglars.
^
2.
The
ceding
;
the
same
as in the pre-
come
the
is
added, in
this
l)e
case, that
which consists
in
:
the use
sought to
made of
supernatural power
is
arm
and
supreme
The oath
pronounced,
it
being
or
is
what
is
expected of him
is it
Of
tlie
the
two contradictory
?
propositions^, whicli
that
you
believe
If he
is
Almighty
bound; and by
whom bound
of
the
all
the
worms
there
men,
is
not one
on the supreme
And
lators,
aotli,
to
what
he bound
to
or
madmen, may,
in the
shape of an
be
j>lca^c(J to assign.
SecL
2.J
FALLACIES
it
Ol-
AUTIIOKITV.
105
Eventual,
is
is
true
but no
;
sooner
is
the
his task
commences
whom
vow
is
it is in-
flicted, is
body ever
The punishment,
be such exactly
as,
it
may
tlie
be said,
when
inflicted, will
in
and
infallible
of the offence.
may
be in-
if
criminal, ought
:
the only
is
the profanation of a
is
ceremony
or beneficial.
It is in vain to urge, in this or that particular in-
command which
any idea
The
No
than
sort of security
it
is
the applying
to llic
to the
most
purpose rather
mo^l pernicious.
106
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
the contrary,
it
[Ch. 3.
On
is
more
likely to
be applied to
;
would be
more
independently
likely
of the oath
as,
the prohibition
greater
is
is
the
demand
We come now
by the ope-
ceremony of
to be applied to the
Among
first
parliament
for
An Act
Oath
^."
is
The form
as follows
:
in
performed
is
By
certain
and
it is
of the
is
com-
Of
is
as follows
" Will
And
this
"
W.
arid
M.
c.
C).
anno 1088.
Sect. 2.]
all
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
107
this I
promise to do."
in
said,
.
the sovereign
Britain,
and so
for ever
to the royal
and preserve
vernment
inviolate
the
said
settlement of
the
thereunto belonging*."
may
as well
doubt.
.')
Ann.
c S. art. 25. 8.
108
1.
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
That
it
[Ch.
3.
ought not to be
in the
power of the
soits
vereignty to
successors.
2.
tie
up
its
own
any where
3.
That, therefore,
all
own
and void.
is
which
is,
will,
it
supposed,
appear
The
and
proposition maintained
is,
that to
is,
any
by
bills,
to
this third
assent
if so,
he
is
assent to any
bills,
It is plainly in
what
and not
tion
was meant
to attach
that, if
they
to apply to the
monarch
in his legisla-
he might find
in
them a pretence
for
from
consenting to any
to abolish or vary
bill,
first
clause
lie
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
109
which would be
to abolish or
first
change any
is
other rights.
For by
this
clause he
made
in parlia-
ment agreed
same."
on,
After
this,
abrogated by
If,
it.
in this
shape
it
any other.
If
Henry VIII.
at his coronation
had sworn
to
many
and sword
religion,
and
oatli,
he could
still
Ca-
By any
[)roper one,
Most
All
I
assuredly not
it is
even were
power.
it
as completely
within as
out of
is,
my
plead for
word
conscience,
it
may
not
or in
any shape
to give
continuance to misrule.
]10
FALLACIES OF AUTIIOI^ITV.
his
[Ch. 3.
seems
difficult
to
of
it, if it
of using
it
two houses
and whose any use.
is
such a manner as in the judgment of the not " conducive," but repugnant " to
whom,
it
is
conceived,
is
in effect either
a check or a
and
more
efficiently
ope-
rative.
in
power
:
Yes
but such as
Modelled by
own
and
this
of
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORIl Y.
1 1 1
now
is
this effect
in plain truth
;
false-
hood,
not a particle
to abdicate, to
the wish of
it
James
but to increase
to a
maximum was
the
manifest object of
But
part,
with respect to a
actually declared:
and
this,
of the subjects," be
be,
must of necessity
on
their
The
ferent stages of societ}', respecting the duration of laws, presents a curious and not uninstructive picture of
1.
human weakness.
At one time we see, under the name of king, a single person, whose will makes law, or, at any rate, without whose will no law is made; and when this law-giver dies, his laws die with him.
Such was the
2.
state of things in
Saxon times,
Next
to this
comes a period
in
whom
owed
its birth,
was
unsettled and left to chance f. 3. In the third place comes the period in which the notions re-
specting the duration of the law concur with the dictates of reason
and
utility,
not so
much from
*
reflection as
because no occasion of a
To
Ric.
I.
inclusive,
I
t John, Ed.
and
II.
ll'i
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch. 3.
sort in question,
human
is
laws.
in that
an attribute which,
stage of society at which laws have ceased to expire with the individual
legislator, is
understood
to
be inherent in
all
sion
is
But
marked
is
determination to
tie
up the
hands of succeeding
legislators
is
up by the
first
revolution.
point of time, not pregnant with any thing like equal mischief, was
before that time acted upon, and
still
English legislation.
may
is
same
In this clause
is
contained, in the
way
is
of necessary impliis
inserted
not capable
hands by which
it
was made.
Ch.
4.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
113
CHAPTER
Ad
E.rposition.
IV.
No-precedent Argument.
verecundiam.
"
The
proposition
:
is
complexion
the present
surely the
in this
first
time that
house."
a specimen of the
of
may
be clothed.
To
to fix attention to
a new or
difficult subject
your course
:"
E.vposure.
But
in the character
of an argument, as a ground
it
is
ob-
viously a fallacy.
Whether
is
an inquiry which
make.
That
it is
impossible that
it
is
completely irrelevant in
U.4
FxVLLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
whether or no
it is
[67/. 4.
expedient
is
a propo-
which
it
seems
difficult to
conceive
how an
If no specific good
by the proi)osed
to
measure,
is itself sufficient
warrant
is indi-
the rejection of
cated,
this
it
an observation of
nature can
sufficient
would
proves
ought not
to
to
be done,
it
ought ever
may
it
be urged, that,
one,
before.
may
If,
its
that
is
ad-
humours
should
is,
not that
it
should not
it
in the
complexion of
it,
which
Ch.
4>.]
FALLACIES or AUTHORITY.
115
be
sufficient to
its
appear-
ance.
In
and retarded by
in other matters.
exist
few
in
tions of
to
genuity displayed in
is
likely to be adverse.
and
in
particular those
when
vance.
Now
them-
but
fail
of being
efficient,
that, to the
man
ductive; because
in
way
man
of law.
12
16
PALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[C/l. 5.
CHAPTER
Ad
ignorantiam
V.
Self-assumed Authority.
;
ad verecundiam.
:
This
two shapes
he
1.
An
avowal made with a sort of mock modesty and caution by a person in exalted station, that
ble of forming a
is
incapa-
judgment on
sometimes pre-
tended
^.
Open
and
may
consequently be reposed
on
all
he says or does.
Sect.
1.
The
first is
commonly played
our institutions
to
off as follows:
is
An
evil or defect in
made
pared
&c.
up
any
starts
man
so,
high in
and, instead of
stating
am
not pre-
" to
do so and
" I
am
is,
The meaning evidently intended to be conveyed I, who am so dignified and supposed to be so capable of forming a judgment, avow myself incompe" If
tent to
do
so,
folly
must there
!
be
in the conclusion
else "
In
beating
of modesty.
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
117
to
doing, if sincere,
deration.
real,
the reasonable
is,
say
the
common
occa-
employment of
office,
this fallacy.
In virtue of his
is
law
Yes of the science of the law as it is, probably as much as any other man but law, as it ought to be,
:
is
has for
somewhat nearer
to
law as
it
this is
is
sure to be at
times unpre;
pared
unprepared
:
every
times contrary to
as to form
unprepared
it
so
much
any
any
its
declared object
in
A
ject,
mind
that,
from
its first
its
entrance upon
this sub-
whole force
to the inquiry,
its
as to
effectual
means of making
118
FALLACIES OF AUTHOiaXY.
system
;
[Ck. 5,
to
a mind
profit
has been
all
and the
ference;
affliction itself,
an object of
indif-
a
its
mind which
has,
course of
bias,
and has
spondent distortion;
to exert itself with
much
his conscience,
his fortune to
at the outset of
will
were
have one, he
is
amiss, in practice
it
cannot be otherwise
amount cannot
to
from
the
it,
is fair
first occupant among persons duly qualified. The wonder would not be great if an officer of
the
if
to inflict
wounds
record
the only
man upon
who
possessed an
and
is
efficiency
;
made and
healed.
The
race of Telephus
extinct
and
any of them
remain
still
among
the ruins.
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF AUTllORFrY.
this case,
J9
Unfortunately in
were the
ability to
form
None
are so com-
who
will
not hear,
none are so
under-
who
will not
covery of which
sible
is in
his
own
own
pocket,
to abjure the
Rome.
he
will
if
hard
will
a volley of fallacies
he
tell
you of the
bill
profit
expected by
petition
whom
the
he
will
place
into
in
the next
multiplying
himself into
the
to hear
and
re-
make a
that
report ac-
He
when
in
any
town a
set of
under ^Os. or
51. is
always accompanied,
120
it
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[C/l. 5.
character of witnesses
it
was
and afterwards
perjury.
by
Sect. 2.
be called
By
this
name
it is
man to
dis-
intelli-
man whose
altar
to himself
raised
on
this
is
in office
who,
in discharge
and
all
inquiry
deemed equivalent
to be reposed in
them on
all
occasions.
If
call for
inquiry, or measures to
promote
publicity,
they set up a cry of surprise, amounting almost to indignation, as if their integrity were questioned, or their
honour wounded.
With
all
this,
they dexterously
mix up
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
must be classed among
121
fallacies,
Sucli assertions
because,
1.
they are irrelevant to the subject in disthe degree in which the predominance
is
cussion
2.
com-
monly asserted
or insinuated,
:
is,
3. the sort
for
it is
no
less
nor
is it
in
less
man
to
make such
false,
Be they ever
so completely
or of public opinion.
For ascribing
to
self- trumpeters
of,
there
is
no more ra-
ppon
as a
On
more de-
man
of
The
virtuous man,
being what he
upon
as such
chance
lii^
own
effiontery,
I'ALLACIES or AUTHORITY.
assertions of authority, therefore, by
122
[Ch.
6. in
These
office,
men
who
their character,
and not
their character
by their conIf
duct,
political fallacies.
there be
anyone maxim
it is,
in politics
more
certain than
virtue in the
another,
that
no possible degree of
it
Madame
in a state of absolute
upon which the female sentimentalist exclaimed, "Sire, your character is a constitution for your country, and your conscience is its
slavery;
guarantee."
qu'un
accident heureux."
Du- Annies
cVExil, p. 313.
Ch.
6.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
123
CHAPTER
Ad
VI.
Laudatory Personalities.
amicitiam.
Personalities
and
in
some
tive personalities,
which
will
be treated of next in
of the ensuing book.
order, at the
commencement
number of modifications
the
as will be
shown
:
to exist in
argument
is
so
and modifications of
The
is
on account of
is,
"
therefore
The ob-
of those
is,
vanced
"
the virtues
sition is
it
is
rendered unnecessary by
are in power,
their
oppo-
measure."
124
TALLACIES OP AUTHORITY.
indeed
is
[Cll. 6.
The argument
little else
is
is
altogether unnecessary.
is
sufficient to
warrant an opposi-
apprehended
viduals in question
sufficient
guarantee against
The
assi-
and
ministers,
and as
for
is
There can be no
difficulty in
common
character of being
ir-
The meait,
if
a right
first
its
merits without
Ch.
6.]
FALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
125
ment.
2nd, If the goodness of the measure be sufficiently
established by direct arguments, the reception given
to
it
it,
will
form a better
criterion
argument be good
;
in
it is
and the
it,
if
an abso-
trust in every
imaginable way in
to reap,
which
it
would be possible
it,
for
him
from the
is
breach of
principle
This
the
on which public
and when
it it is
ought to be
formed
applied to
minately, ference
is,
is
injurious to none.
to
trust.
In-
men
in
first
princi-
ples
on which
laws proceed.
5th,
125
fALLACIES OF AUTHORITY.
[Ch. 6.
and
:
house of
parliament.
would
fall,
by
whom
of which
is
Da?iger in various
shapes,
and the
CHAPTER
I.
Vituperative Personalities.
Ad
odium.
inti-
To
this class
mately connected with each other, that they be enumei'ated and some observations
them
in the
lump.
By
to each other,
much more
cor-
them, than
itself.
if
The
fallacies
may
be
denominated,
1.
2.
3.
128
[C/i. 1.
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
4. Imputation of inconsistency.
5.
Nosci-
ex
sociis.
6.
Noscitur ex cognommibus.
Of the
character
common
such sort
the endeavour to
*
;
man
whom
a measure
is
supported or opposed, to
The argument
in its various
shapes
On
lowing are the instructions given by Gerard Hamilton: they contain all he says upon the subject. I. 31. 367. p. 67. " It is an artifice to
be used (but
lity,
if
altercation,
and draw
attention of the
your cause
who
men
of
whom
is
:
is
composed)
"
if
the party
is
if
neither
is
is
good, wound
the opponent.'^
" If a person
contemptible
powerful, he
if
to be
made
ob-
noxious
if helpless,
we
have, so far as concerns the head of personalities, " the whole fruit and
result of the experience of
editor, p. 6),
;
.
one who was by no means unconversantwith " and had himself sat in Parliament for
.
.
mors than
forty years
devoting almost
and
and discussion of
and of the several
all
topics
Ch.
1.]
FALLACIF.S OF
to this
:
DANGER.
\%i^
amounts
tains a
In bringing forward or
;
supportino-
bad design
is
bad
he
is
sure
bad
he
is is
fore the
sistencies
measure
;
bad
he has
or
made some
some
on a
is
occasion
is
bad
he
is
who
man
bad
he
bears
men now no
tertained, or
is
more, by
whom
therefore the
measure
bad.
may be observed
or at
it,
and the
weaker
The second
first,
is
a sort of circum-
and so on.
If the
first is
at
130
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
E.vposure.
[Ch.
1.
whom
they
obtain currency,
1
In the
first
place,
common
with
list
of
2.
siveness.
Whatsoever be
bad measure, to the worst measure that can be imagined^ they would be found to apply with
force to
all
little less
good measures,
to the best
measures that
can be imagined.
Among 658
ters
:
number of persons
all
charac-
the measure
it is
is
it
become bad
If
it is
because
will
it
supported by a bad
man
bad,
man ?
become good because supported by a good If the measure be really inexpedient, why not
show
that
it is
at once
so
irrelevant
is
as a
good one.
more
Sect. J.J
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
|31
Sect.
1.
To
The measure
itself
and
The bad
is
1.
really entertained
2.
That this
tually
This
is,
in effect, a modification
will shortly
of the fallacy of
of.
distrust,
which
be treated
as such a consequence,
effect
The
persons by
will
whom,
if
at
be carried into
effect,
some
to these his
judges;-^
may be no
particular
it,
harm
in
it,
yetj if
you do
this
the
be
bad
and such
is
your weakness,
that,
however bad
132
they
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[CV/. 1.
may
be,
you
will
want
The
and judges,
their conse-
such,
it is
manifest,
le-
On
under
such treatment,
on
aftbrd
reality
The
inference
meant
is,
to be
e.
about to be concerned
in bringing
forward future
contingent and pernicious measures, or simply to destroy any persuasive force, with which, in the character of authority, his opinion is likely to be attended.
In
it is
employ
it, is
to
his
own
weapons.
another modifica-
man suffers
his
upon
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
33
him a
which ought to
cover him
effect
with shame.
Allow
this
it
argument the
into the
power
of any
man
to
draw you
at pleasure
own
is
good, to
measure which
good
the bad
reject
man embraces
it.
you
Is
it
bad
he
and that
split
you into
its
embrace.
You
them
;
upon the
you
it.
Give yourself up
are
to
no
less in
the
a correspondently irrational sympathy and obsequiousness you put yourself into the power of your friends.
Sect. 3.
some bad
design.
This, again,
no more than
;
but one of
human
benefi-
cial, it
would be absurd
its
on account of the
is
motives of
author.
is
But what
peculiar to this
particular fallacy,
which
it is
grounded
viz.
What
constitutes a
134
motive,
is
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
\Ch.
1.
some
but forasmuch as
tion
self,
from pain,
it
bad
in
it-
and
may
But
if,
the proposed
measure
it is it is
its
that
there
any reason
a bad one.
Upon
it.
When, from
man
shape whatever
to himself,
it is
some share
in causing the
conduct
he pursues
it
The
it
measure
is it
itself
On
the contrary,
is
so
much
See
Dumont
ii.
c. 8.
ed. 2
Bentham,
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
135
Sect. 4.
Imputation of inconsistency.
can amount
to
in
the character of an
is,
argument
in
way and
on
Of
already given
the fallacy
and
this, again,
is
a modification of
of distrust.
That
gree,
inconsistency,
when pushed
is
to a certain de-
may
not to be denied
if,
inclining
in question
ar-
a matter of
fact,
denied, be
now
asserted, or
versa,
and
in
each
case
if
is
taken by the
person himself,
will naturally
the operation of
if
it
to his prejudice
be stronger than
an account more or
and causes of the variance. But be the evidence with regard to the cause of the
change what
it
it
136
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch.
1.
tency, if established,
may weaken
and
in
an argument of
this
complexion
irrelevant, has
been
Sect. 5. Imputatioji
of suspicious connexions.
Noscitur ex
sociis.
The
alleged
part
ar-
of the alleged
being
will
;
admitted,
the
gument now
in question
same
But before
ulterior points
1
One,
is
Another,
is
and
his
supposed as-
third,
is,
mind of
will
be induced to intro-
or supported.
As
to the
two
first
facts,
depend on
Of
Sect, 6.]
TALLACIKS OF DANGER.
13.7
In private
life,
sumption
rience
:
in question is established
by daily expe-
as that which
the
same
political
force.
occasion of
of
all
characters,
state of
site characters.
Sect. 6.
supposed
In the
in the present,
mination as persons
in
their
own
time,
138
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch.
1.
community of denomi-
community of de-
CommuWhat
have
of community of interest.
Romans of the present day in common with the Romans of early times ? Do they aspire to recover
the the empire of the world
?
But when
evil
men of the
in time
and prosecuted by
their
namesakes
whatsoever
may
mind
the
present
par-
that in
many
and
many
others the
same ends
are
may
be no
less
is
that which
has been,
unalterable.
whatsoever
opposition
fested towards
them or
their successors,
must conBe my
is
friendship immortal,
my
enmity mortal,"
the senti-
Sect. 6.]
TALLACIES OF DANGER.
warmly and so
antiquity
:
139
ment
ed
justly applaud-
in the
mouth of a sage of
baneful in-
in
re-
di-
stinguished by the
designs, that for
same
pernicious designs,
and
therefore,
had you
ground,
Upon
this
much
as profess to have
lasts,
In vain
is it
of
all
present time.
140
lALLACIES OF DANGER.
[67/. 1.
Austrian empire, in the vast and ever-flourishing empire of France, though the sovereign
is
Catholic, what-
Government allows of is
purpose
this or
is
this
any
worth
the
church of
It is
Rome
had discontinued
hers"^;
In the
it
is
and such
store for
them
to the extent
of their endurance.
Sect. 7.
of'
instru-
ments of deception by which the mind is liable to the degree of be operated upon and deceived,
prevalence they experience,
they enjoy,
depends
ultimately
cause
viz.
those on
whom
Under James
I.,
when,
for
men
Sect. 7.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
141
human mind, a
is
This
is
with authority.
to,
is
the propensity to
its
sup-
own
intrinsic character
and tendency.
and comprehensive
to
intellect,
can enable a
man
To employ
is
required
most
idle
if
ig-
not superior
the
for those
;
who would
same ideas
all
the
that
required
is
Close
hold on the
142
passions,
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
and serve rather
to quell
[C/l.
1.
than to inflame
is
them
always some-
part of
him who
air
of courage and
pendence,
all
The more we
lie
in a similar degree.
A
may
man who
often convert
hear," says he
to his
;
them
into triumph
own
discomfiture.
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
143
CHAPTER
The Hobgoblin Argument,
or^
IT.
No
Innovation
Ad metum.
Exposition.
The
is
denounced by
argument,
its
is
Anarchy ; which
this
The forms
in
which
monster
may
be denounced are as numerous and various as the sentences in which the word innovation can be placed.
" Here
it
comes
when, to
may
;
continue during
life.
is
" Here
comes
rendered
its
by the suppression of
name.
ef-
Of
fects,
As an instrument
rally
tive kind.
is
gene-
employed
is
144
vation
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
means a bad change, presenting
[C/t. 2.
to the mind,
tliat
a bad change.
Exposure.
All-comprehensiveness of the condemnation passed by this
fallacy.
This
is
in
which
it
is
diffi-
argument more
itself.
glaring than
it is
Whatever reason
mischievous,
ing the
sent.
upon the
to be
proposed measure, be
it
what
it
may, as about
affords the
same reason
for entertain-
To
say
all
new
as
much
as
commencement
or heard
of,
is
there
Whatever
now
He who
sure,
on
this
condemns,
in the
same
breath, whatsoever he
to be thought to disapprove.
He condemns
in the
Commons
of
of a part
in the reign
Henry VI.,
itself in the
House of Commons
Henry HI.,
and
all
Commons; an
Sect. 2.]
I'ALLACIKS OF
DANGKR.
i5
Sect. 2.
has in
trulJi.
tlie
that
it
Sup-
circumstance
is
sufficient
to
attach to
it
a certain
quantity of mischief.
The words
necessary to
com-
it
wliich
if
paid for,
is
compensated by
disseminated by
be, before
at, it
When
it
always must
is
aimed
becomes productive of
Here, then,
is
ulterior vexation
and expense.
so
much unavoidable
mischief, of which
be productive
to this natural
and unavoidable
made
\46
PALLACIES OF DANGER.
;
[Ck.
in
tliis
2.
and
mini-
mum
minimum
of truth with
is
which
suf-
ficient to protect
flat
and
undiscriminating denial.
It is
chief,
con-
narrow bounds.
putation
spect,
in
matter whether
;
^and
only in pro-
viz.
is
insufficient,
here
we
some shape
:
uncompensated
beyond dispute.
so
much
vexation, so
much
mischief
But
in
total
it,
or from
will
the compensation allotted in this case shall be inadequate, not only to the desires, but to the imagined
rights of the party
from
whom
the sacrifice
is
exacted.
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
147
he
of which
deficiency, to
in his
and
in so far as
it vvill
to be displayed,
will
constitute
what
in his
language
be reason., and
all
what
will
other
appear to
exist.
So
far as
is
spe-
character of u reason,
forms
to
a relevant and
si)ecific
argument
;
and,
if
if
any rate
for
adding
to the
to be deficient.
specific
xA.nd in this
in
that of a
argument,
will
man
motive to view,
the alleged
in his
if it
be susceptible of
But when
damage and
it,
own view of
this specific
argument
He
I
will set
hoping by
sinister
watchword
is
whose
and
interest
own
to engajje
them
to say,
to believe,
of the
to
it
number of those
is
not accompa-
L 2
148
FALLACIKS OV DANGER.
[67/.
'J.
Sect. 3.
Ti7Jie
Among
law,
is
tlie
profession of the
his client ap-
when
plied to
him
make men
its
now and
is,
then
met by what
itself is the
may
be termed
counter-fallacy.
Time
arch-innovator.
The inference
is
branded as
it
of innovation,
fact
no change
its
sole effect
back
to the
good
state in
if
which
it
it
formerly was.
termed, has
This counter-fallacy,
such
may be
sequences attached to
cated by that name.
it
as
may
be seen to be indi-
Two
it
circumstances, however,
to the appellation of
concur in giving
fallacy
:
it
a just
title
one
is,
that
may be
set
down
as irrelevant
and
opposed
if
the
it
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
149
mask from
No specific
mischief, as likely
is
alleged
if it
Wiiat
is
alleged
is
among
the
But
this is
then,
it
be to be ranked with
in
arguments,
it
is
one
common
condemnation
present,
measures whatsoit
ever, past,
and
to
come
passes ccftidem-
all
places as well as in
all
times.
an old
woman
beguiling
can be
re-
garded as sincere,
than is^norance.
it
is
But
it
may
laws,
be said, "
My
meaning
all
is
not to coninstitutions,
new
new measures,
is
only
is
violent
and
which
now proposed."
draw
or attempting to
you do by
condemnation on
change
7iezv
on every thing to
ii'hicli
150
applied.
EALLACIF.S OF
DANGER.
[67/. 2.
Draw any
;
such
line,
draw
your
it,
line
but
remember
as begin to
that
or so
much
draw
you give up
this
your argument.
Alive to possible-imaginable
ones,
evils,
dead
to
actual
eagle-eyed
to
blind
and insensible
such
is
the chathis
itself in
the character of
to
To
such a mind,
that,
people,
is
actually
by
force of law
esta-
and that
it is
of such morality as
encouragement of
insincerity,
is
kept together
that to
draw
high situations,
is in
one
man a crime,
while to question
lawful to another;
libel re-
liberty
by the estalimi-
blishment of a licenser
tation,
that under a
show of
a government
shall
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
shall
151
;
be declared wliite
;
miscar-
mortality, health
disgrace, honour
to
evils
boundto be
less in extent
In such a mind,
is
in
which
a
is
seated
is
exposed.
it,
And
the
in proportion as
man
it,
is
afflicted with
he
is
enemy
of
all
good, which,
for
how urgent
soever
n]ay be the
demand
general end,
is
which
this fallacy
has
its
source.
that magician be
borrowed at
whose potent touch the emissaries of his wicked antagonist threw off their several disguises,
instant confession of their real character
and made
and designs;
the
whom
word
in-
and the
be
we should then
am
152
FALLACIES 0 DANGEII.
[C7/. 2.
power
exercise,
who
liave
money enough
oft"
to
am
in
my mouth
and pro-
nounce any
articulate
sound
for
No
sinecures !"
!
am come
to
No
innovation
down
with the
innovators
!"
in
my
blood and
make me
3. I
bought
am my
may
sell
my
votes
and
in re-
and the
am
man
"
"
Sect. [.]
133
the turf,
ill
me
am
detested,
and hearing
to run
it
said
that
if
time
appearance and
tiie
pretence,
have
!"
left
'*
for
a day or two
I" to
!
cry
tiie
of
cry
" Tally-ho
and
Hark forward
"
join in
of "
5.
No
I
Anarchy
"
No
innovation
tifth),
am
a priest (says a
to
the
Pope
whose health has need of exoneration from the burthen of residence and having read, in my
;
edition of the Gospel, that the apostles lived in palaces, whicli innovation
to parsonage-houses,
No
and
No
caster!"
"No
popery!"
No
Lan-
fear
of coming
change,
the
tion
full
!
am
my
voice to
chorus of
"No
Anarchy'"
"No
Innova-
154
FALLACllib or DANGEK.
[Ch,
3.
CHAPTER
III.
Ad
E.vposition,
nietum.
considered as a particular
An
ar-
no prospect presents
itself
of
he has
this resource
In what
he) there
may
it,
pend upon
if
be carried likewise.
Ea:posure.
The
is
too glaring to be
it.
In the
first
place,
it
and
demonstra-
Ch.
3.]
its
FALLACIIS
Ol"
1)ANGF^I{.
cuts
\55
it
don of
from
own
futility,
it
it
up from under
the
yet,
is
endeavouring to
it is
make:
very weakness,
ment a
of
its
By
the monstrosity
of perplexity,
apt to he produced
and so long as
of finding an appro-
priate
it.
is
?
itself nothing,
2.
If
two measures,
G
is
bad,
because
first
enough
and at
view a
man
much
fur-
the
amiss in either
may be
nobody
found amiss
in
some other or
to be
others,
that
knows
of,
for
punishment
applied to persons.
The measure G, which is good, is to be thrown out, we can be sure of, some day or other it may happen to be followed by some other measure B; which njay be a bad one. A man A, agains
because, for aught
156
FALLACIES OF DAMGEK.
there
is
[C/l. 3.
is
whom
to be
we can be
other
sure of,
some
will
may be some
it
man who
have been
guilty.
If on this ground
in
for of
no
fol-
it
may be
lowed by some
may be
thing,
said that
then, the
it
proves
Herod
can be
in
and
the sort of
man by whom an argument of this sort employed, is the sort of man who would have
what
sort of
But
man he must
be
who can
whom
it
on
whom
he can expect
to
make any
disgraceful to himself.
them
that
in effect,)
attempt
it,
distinction
Cti. 3.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
at the suggestion of this or that
157
bad
and when
man
let
man
and
fools, that
adopt them
in
a lump."
Such
is
the compliment
wrapt up
in this sort
of argument.
L58
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
\C//. 4.
CHAPTER
Official
IV.
s Screen.
Malefactor
Ad metum.
"Attack
us,
E.Tposition.
The
is
employed almost
whom,
or
ment
is
The
fallacy con-
to
if
censure as being,
"
Op-
"Bring us
into
Government
contempt
and
anarchy and
quences."
assumes.
Not
or for
ill-grounded^
ot this
it is
most assuredly,
:
is
the alleged
importance
maxim
by
whom
employed,
must be admitted
to be
employed
in
deck-
ing
it
Let but
notion be acceded
to, all
persons
now
partaking, or
who may
at
any time be
likely to par-
Ch. 4.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
and
profit
159
in
of misrule, must,
every one of
its
do without disturbance
all
The most
will
mankind
experience the treatment due to those to whose dissocial or selfish nature the happiness of
man
is
an ob-
Punishment, or at
virtue
Punishment
at this day,
will
let
be,
and so by English
libel-law
it is
but
punishment
it
will be,
who comit.
who complains
in
it,
of
Go-
so long as
better,
contains in
so long, in a word, as
of absolute perfection,
mode
of bringing
clearing
it
it
Government can be
heads:
the conduct of
whom
in
this or that
viduals by
business of
Government
conducted
or the state of
160
lALLACIIvS OF DANGER.
[67/. 4.
But neither
duct of
tlie
in the
system
in question,
must
In
in
in
a greater or
less
degree be produced.
is
effect, this
fallacy
but a
mode
to
of intimating
be reformed
in office,
any
such
office,
member
of parliament,
or judge.
As
maxim,
its
"The
to
the impru-
of the individual monarch on the throne, seek to extend his power, and to screen from censure or scrutiny the
misconduct of
his agents.
office, to
is
But
in the instance
of any other
reprobate
to
expose the
or contempt,
is
to reprobate every
way of
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGKR.
\6\
is
to
expose the
hatred
can be
for re-
form,
office.
If,
how
mode
in
it
of appointment,
mode
in
of remuneration, &c.,
all
persons placed
official
an interest acting
opposition to
duty,
interest, or
such
facility,
contributes,
may
contempt.
its
state of constant
line of his duty
;
to the
his interest to
maintain
viz.
uncertainty,
has at
all
times been
more or
less
an
whom we
the office
hall bench,
it
162 mentioned
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
evils,
[C/l. 4.
is
actually endured by
and unavoidable
of
human
in
nature
are propositions
this
work
propositions of
the truth
of which he
is
he
is
of his
own
But
in these sentiments,
to see enfeebled
and exposed
No
in wishes,
support.
members of Government, or
the business of
preventing their
management of
Go-
arbitrary, the
is
to
lower either
which
effect,
when produced
But so
far is
a high degree,
may
be termed
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIKS OF DAXGEU.
itself,
\6'5
that,
even
in pro-
What
in confor,
all
to exercise these
;
may
be better regulated
not
all,
not
them, no rules at
all
should be
pursued, but that the rules by which they are exercised should be a better set of rules.
All government
is
a trust
ment
to be
is
:
a trust;
it is
in the
cha-
In so doing, do I
?
is
a bad institution
Does
it
me
of so
doing
I
complain of an individual
in
the character of a
effects
of an in-
In so doing,
is
do
agency
in the
a bad thing
of an
among
a bad practice
pecting
me
of so doing?
'2
164
FALLACIES OF DANGEIJ.
[C/i. 4.
this
supposed
itself,
do I say
that
Does
human
being to
suspect
me
so
much
to suppose
and condition
by
of the
so
much
as
by the
fitness
The chief occasions in which obedience on the part of a member of the community in his character of
subject
tual
is
called
upon
to manifest
itself,
payment of
taxes,
:
and submission
of courts of justice
But
is
in neither
any
variain the
offi-
good or
cial
persons by
is
whom
ments
>
Sect, 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
the business of
165
Were
Government
still it is
carried
on ever
it is,
Government
in its several
man
re-
by
own
security,
and not by
his respect
whom
dis-
them
duced.
wish to withhold from them his wish cannot but be altogether inuntil
and
suffi-
cient
each
of them his
own obedience
common
There
is
no freedom of the
press,
no power
it
to
com-
plain, in
Turkey
yet of
all
countries
is
that in
violent.
Here and
there a
man
might be
foolish
enough
to wish to
Were he
ever so strong,
166
his strength,
FALLACIES OP DANGER.
[Ck. 4.
nor
in
one part of
a swifter
in-
and
for the
impending
disasters, let
under a
government.
the comparatively few who, for a source of
Even
not
less
which
their prac-
Be
the
momentary object of
of, is,
his rapacity
what
it
it is
secured
against others.
So
can
far is
it
no good
Government can
Government
are
or the system of
management
lie
act, if the
the system, be
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
\67
can
There being no
sufficient
to the worst-disposed
any
vvish
Government
on
deemed by them
deemed by them
ought to be
its
of the system
disapprobation,
there cannot be a
more unfounded
or grosser
imputation
error,
if it
or viler artifice, if it
be
artifice,
any such
vvish
the
many
honest and
:
skilful
who
would
hands
in
whom,
or the system of
management
in which,
him amiss,
to infer a
Government
168
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch. 4,
in-
in proportion to
community
respect he enjoys
;
is
it
will
sure of en-
independent of
it.
by
whom
is filled,
emolument
is
which happens
But as
it is
with emolument, so
it
is it
with respect.
likely to reless
The
man
is
If this be true,
is
the salary
is
be as small as possible.
If,
it
is
Sect. 2.]
TALLACIES OF DANGER.
were
its
\69
Government
upon the
its
or
existence at each
whom
if this
were
true,
it
official
it,
person indepen-
should be as small
is
how
But while
it is
him
in the
since by
else
any thing
sacrifices in
some shape or
and
in particular in
is
his in-
to
it
at-
tached to
as possible.
170
FALLACIES or DANGER.
in
[Ch. A.
is
And
by his
personal and
office,
be
as
in the, event
good
least
use,
as in that of his
making the
to
best
it.
and the
Such being
situation,
if,
whatsoever be his
official
as
all official
situations,
it
be of such a nature as to
to
it,
have power in
will
his
as above,
all
means
To
this
can be
made
to act with
his
on other
wills,
under-
standing can be
ings.
If,
made
by
will
seldom in any
to compell
considerable degree be in
his
power
men
by
force to bestow
respect,
either by itself or in
of any external
strain
mark or token of
may
re-
men from
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
171
upon him
If,
less respect
man
may
him by
Lord
If a
Chancellor, he
may
whom a disposition
Thus much
will
to attach such
punishments to such
by the influence of
on
will.
What may
laying
official
whom
it is filled,
that
which on
and
is
capable of
being exercised by exertion, consists in the giving utterance and circulation in the most impressive
man-
more
it.
Upon
of,
depends the
dif-
people have, and one in which they have not, a share. In respect of the members of the governing body,
is,
172
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[67/. 4.
be employed
to
some
imputable to them
which
plainly (need
it
be said
?)
an impossible one.
will
Adall
exclude
no help
admit
for
it.
One
which
is
the least
to
to
all
tations,
and thereby
clude
all
just ones.
answer without
is,
difficulty,
the admis-
two
evils.
all
Exclude
unjust imputations,
which
will, until
they arrive
itself will
it
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
173
being
all
make
them
so.
Admit
name.
In respect of motives
in this case,
beyond
all
?
plainants
As
an attack made
as such,
apt
all
stronger
As
far as concerns
means of defence,
is
if
the person
against
whom
the attack
in
manner of hapes,
on
constantly
members of
the
Government,
but
is
advocates.
Let
it
is
a persecution to which
;
an honourable
man ought
not to be exposed
a perit
174
FALLACIES or DANGKfJ.
[C/l. 4.
may
in-
That
censure
is
is
the
it
ABC
of
common
Who
is
there to
whom
is
among
appendages of
office
If
it
were an
office
which
in
men were
pressed,
;
situation
A
is
self-contradiction
is
itself.
The
subject, of
is
which
morbid
predicated,
an honourable man
but to an honour-
man
to
whom
cannot be attributed.
office
will
not
accept an
in
it
shall
ought to be.
The man
to
whom
is
in his heart
a tyrant,
and,
to
become
man
is
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGFJJ.
175
To
man who,
it is
commission,
may
happen
to be unjust,
than to a
man
in the military
by acceptance of a commission
:
and of
it
a military
said, that
office,
be
an honourable
man
will
not accept
it
on
such condition, as of a
an honourable
is
man
will
not accept
it,
conduct
to stand ex-
how
it
man
is
does in truth
On
the part of
men
in office,
contributes to keep
their
to
keep up
in their
On
it
serves to keep
;
the
and,
which
is
how
neces-
176
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
it
;
[Ch. 4.
it is
unprece-
from being
finds
make
When,
in support of
him by
whom
is,
such false
alle-
and
consistently with
and
utility,
punishable;
punishable even
when
more
so
dishonest consciousness.
But by a
sort of law, of
and
man,
whenever
especially if he be a
man
in office, a fact
which has
insi-
of dishonest
is
as-
sumed.
In so
far as public
for the
it is
a useful propensity.
their part,
good behaviour on
and
Sect. 2.]
is
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
177
ill
Render
low to
all
chance of
being; better
al-
Whatsoever
state
facilities the
in
the estimation
if
facilities at least,
not greater,
have
it
its
friends
and supporters
for keeping
and
raising
up.
Under
any
rate, the
existing set of
mana-
no
less necessary
springs of
But
in
what
it
managing hands,
or, in this or
that
of the people
making,
it
would
man's seeking,
on
Government.
More's Observations,
p. 77, 78.
178
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch. 4.
Under
point of fact
constituted,
and
depends, independent of
this
power
is
exercised, unaffected by
this or that
management according
to
which
executed,
constitution at least,
the
more complete
Being as
it
on
at all
of Government,
skill
viz.
point of
tude, probity
but
if
it
depended
act hap-
weak
and per-
any degree of
insufficiency,
insufficient to
any degree of
at another.
Among the peculiar excellencies
stitution,
one
is,
Government,
and even the good conduct of it, depends in a less degree than under any other monarchy upon the personal qualifications of the chief ruler, and upon the
to a
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
degree of perfection,
all
179
certain
On
upon more
that
may
of government
turbance.
still
go on without any
dis-
On
recent occasions, as
if
new and
munity who,
their
in the character
Commons
in
bring
it
and
its
That by the
and as such be
its
resisted, is natural
enough
but as to
being,
exertions, blameable,
tution, dangerous,
or,
surely
here be added.
maor-
sufficient
on
members of
that governing
body have a
sinister
interest separate
to that of the
:
people for
whom
180
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch.
4.
as to those
to
to
and towards
whom
pendent,
they
is
effectual than
would be by acts
of punishable bribery.
if
any alteration
in it
be de-
but
all
those
who
it,
and use
their
endeavours to uphold
Without
is
it
this
produced
in
done by them
in furtherance
of such
or most of them,
lose,
have much to
by any
proposed change.
True,
tion,
it
may
be
it
what
out.
But
is,
what we complain of
Government,
in
w hicli
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
is
181
to,
uch indication
n ot
accompanied.
This we object
as tending
is
sought.
is
To
1.
this,
the answer
as follows
it is
comprise them
will enable a
in
man
what
terms
will
be considered exposed
what exempt
from, censure.
2.
The
cause of irritation
is
effect in question;
is
^the
effect, the
production of which
desire,
on the other of
aversion
non-compliance.
3.
The
position,
which
the many, each taken individually, have in the removal of the imperfection is
little difficulty is
should be
many
to collect
182
FALLACIKS OF DANGER.
[67/. 4.
On
it
many,
commonly but
weak,
it
requires to bring
Strong arguments,
how
ficient
for at the
many whose
force
neis
susceptible, strength
such employed.
expression
is
But
of
it is
effect,
and being
nant, to the interest of the ruling powers addressed, that the simple statement of the considerations which,
in the character of reasons,
a remedy be proposed,
effect.
But the
more
or less consider-
Sect. 2.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
reason to be expected.
183
ought
in
If the imperfection
which the
term abuse
is
wont
all
to
have some or
con-
it.
Even
one, a
quarter at
times,
and
in
In the
first
it it
was not
their design
and
for
which
may happen
to
some
itself
or
all
of them to
feel
;
In
To
that
same extent
their
conduct
determined by a
;
will,
themselves
effect,
and
if,
the promoters of
more
or less considerable
falls into
other hands
and thus
184
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch. 5.
CHAPTER
V.
Accusation-scarers Device.
Ad
metiiin.
Ed'posieioji.
This
tion of purposed
justly at-
made a charge
of mis-
power or influence,
fails
of producing evidence
is,
as far as possi-
to secure
in every shape,
way of accu-
and
in
of those persons
who have
in
the functions of accusers, in case of failure, in addition to disappointment, the prospect of disgrace.
E.rposure.
*'
To
this eflect
Right
Duke
of
York
in his
Commander
in Chief.
Ch.
5.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
this effect
185
has an un-
In principle, insinuation to
limited application,
it
more or
all
less force,
to all criminal
charges in form of
:
to
of a purely non-penal,
nature.
or,
as
it
is
called,
civil
more mischievous
with
the delivery of
it
injustice),
temer'itij
perfectly blameless.
It is
charge
believed to
be well-founded,
e.
purpose of enbringing
gaging a
man
to
do
his
sufficient reasons.
at-
who
forward.
Suppose him
to
to
him
in the cha-
in
186
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
[Ch.
5.
how
is
the person
who
to
blame
What
man
man who
on the part of
to
Mrs. C. states
that the
Duke
stating
on the occasion.
:
is
perfectly
false
how was
is,
it
The tendency
prevent
all
of this fallacy
by intimidation, to
false in
one
particular, or
one occasion,
it
must therefore be
cause
it is
false in toto,
false in respect
spoken
to
there-
nation,
is
no evidence
at all
or at least to be credited
for
human
truth
whom
The
Ch.
5.]
FALLACll'S OF
DANGER.
187
lessening the credit due to the testimony of the witness, this or that instance of falsehood, as indicated
in
speaking
or, if
be
it
does
it
follow that falsehood will on every occain the particular occasion in question
?
sion
will
Under the pressure of terror, the Apostle Peter, when questioned whether he were one of the adherents of Jesus, who at that time was in the situation of a
prisoner just arrested on a capital charge,
denied
his
being so
and
in so doing, uttered
wilful falsehood;
and
-
this
does
what
judge,
who had
from receiving
less
is
whether
it
be at the bar of an
judicatory or at
188
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
is
\Ch. 5.
greater, the
it,
demand
check to
correspon-
dently greater.
On
abused
the check,
in
shapes, so as
vi'hich
it
purposes for
the
That
against a
man who, by
it is
thing wrong,
But
supposition,
it is
not
altogether without
use
the evil
:
produced
is
not
for
by the alarm
check upon
repression of
it,
and contributes
to the prevention or
it.
On
is
as
we have shown
in
In the advan-
and apprized as he
Ch.
.5.]
FALLACIES OF DANGER.
be,
189
is,
ought to
own
fault,
of the
his situation
man, he ought
will
to
own
it,
fault
be,
and
by
it
when
it
comes.
CHAPTER
The Quiet ist,
or,
I.
"
No
Complaint.''
Ad
E.vposition.
quietem.
A NEW
in the
or evil, an objection
lowing effect
" The
is
measure
unnecessary
no-
body complains of disorder in that shape, in which it is the aim of your measure to propose a remedy to it
even when no cause of complaint has been found to
exist, expecially
complaints, men have in general not been slow to complain much less where any just cause of comThe argument amounts to this plaint has existed." complains, therefore nobody suffers. It Nobody
;
:
amounts
to a veto
on
all
measures of precaution or
Ch.
1.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
]91
in legisla-
maxim
opposed
;
to the
of
common
life
till
it
to a bridge
the
universal clamour.
Exposure*
plausibility than
it
at-
tended to
arise
if
who
vexa-
to Par-
commonly be made without adequate expectation of relief. But how can any such expectation be entertained by any one who is in the slightest degree acquainted with the present constitution of Parliament
?
Members who
for
the people, can have very few and very slight motives
attending to complaints,
affect their
would
own
sinister interests.
Again,
how
many complaints
which may prove
complainant
all
is
The most
grievances
is
galling
that complicated
mass of
delay,
evil
which
composed of
vexation
all
the
uncertainty,
expense and
:
in
of
is
this,
clearly
192
factitious
FALLACIES OF DELAY. %
[Ch.
1.
factitious,
as being the
work
;
originally
and
man
of law
latterly,
and
in respect
of a part of
In extent,
its
it
superstructure, of the
is
man
is
of finance.
who
not
it
every
moment of
his
life
exposed to
in
suffer
under
in life,
who,
or other,
the price
upon
justice,
name
some
to
and
whom,
sort of chance,
it is
in their
power
utter ruin,
and even
to the richest,
In comparison of
this
one scourge,
all
:
other politi-
and
in so far
its
as
it
man
of finance for
cause,
tax amounted
an addition to the
tain
it
falls
Ch,
1.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
upon those
193
under
exclusively
affliction,
whom
it
finds labouring
under
is
as
it lasts,
Here, then,
and
;
extreme
complaint there
sinister interest,
is
none
why r
because by unity of
rendered hopeless.
and con-
194
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
[Ch. Q.
CHAPTER
II.
Fallacy of False-consolation.
Ad
E.vposition.
quieteni.
A
some
is,
MEASURE, having
abuse,
i.
for
its
e.
from
it
this
argument
people in
of the people
the abuse,
it
is
is
not so felicitous
in
is
as,
notwithstanding
for
the country in
and
"
which the
measure of reform
"
proposed.
What
is
What would
and there
:
you
have ?"
Look
think
how much
better
o^ you
Your
;
them
your
to imitate.
Assuredly,
it
is
course,
it is
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
it is
195
affix
proposed to
mark of disapprobation.
\yhen a particular
suffering,
produced as
it
appears
himself, or inviting to
his exertions in
it
employs
acknowledged duty
it
is
within
whal soever
it
relief
may be
capable of being
afforded to
then,
becomes
of
a just ground for censure, and the means thus employed present a
fallacies.
title
to
list
E.vposure.
The
ment can
light than
to cha-
racterize
1.
it.
fallacies
upon
this list, it is
nothing
to the purpose.
2.
In his
own
it.
case,
no individual
in his senses
would accept
the orators by
whom
this
argument
whom it passes
for sterling
o 2
]96
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
[C/l. 2.
mouth
one of
coin,
3.
any
own
he accept it?
hand of a
third per-
the
demand
is
What
is
to
more
in point of
magni-
tude
the relief
of the legislator,
commonly sought for at the hands to the relief commonly sought for at
What
is
of
legislative
conformity to
it
No
Were
much
and
soever,
absurdity of
would
in
diminished.
Seriously and pointedly in the character of a bar,
to
any measure of
it
relief,
improvement, can
ever be employed,
Suppose a
bill
Ch.
2.]
in
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
for
19/
brought
where
to
oppose
it
who
r
we
it
have already
No: when
in
in the character
of a serious
employ-
sion;
of
men from
its
the
beauty,
hoped,
may
moment
for
what pur-
198
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
[Ch.
3.
CHAPTER
III.
Procrastinators Argument.
Ad
" Wait a
little, this is
socordiam.
Exposition.
To
may
its
more simple.
relief,
it
To
tion
this
be, at
which
the proposal
made,
is
given, without
such intimation
such
as,
want of
pre-
some
paratory measure.
E.vposure.
This
is
we
and endeavour
to be so.
;
They
forward
pretend, per-
it
but
it
may
man
Ch. 3.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
it
\^^
whose wish
for ever.
was
not, that
it
It is in legislation
the
same
sort of quirk
which
in
judicial procedure
is
It
whose hope
it is
to ob-
and
lassitude.
A serious
refutation
would be
ill
bestowed upon so
" Is
frivolous a pretence.
The
lawful
by Jesus to the
hypocrites.
?
?
Which
is
is
the
Which
the properest
first
day
to
remove a nuisance
day
it:
that a
to
on that day,
To
him, whatsoever
if
is
that to-morrow,
will
be too
late.
True
it is,
that, the
re-
this effect
friend to the
measure
200
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
[Ch. 3.
mour
itself,
to real ones
insensibility,
it
not to the
far
for that, if
were possible,
from being a
fault,
would be a happiness,
but
the cause of
it.
What,
therefore,
may
what
is,
hi-
the fact,
field
and
that,
throughout
that in
of legislation,
of,
not
come
why
effect, the
Ch, 4.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
201
CHAPTER
Ad
"
IV.
Snairs-pace Argument.
socordiam.
One
thing at a time
Not
too fast!
E.vposit'wn.
The
work
at the
same
in
questhis
For more
effectual
recommendation of
commonly added
and tem-
some such
perate
;
whereby
the pace
quick-
immoderate,
vio-
intemperate.
E.vposure.
This
is
neither
a
more nor
less
making out of
202
done an
arguer
injT,
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
indefinite
[Ch. 4.
the
is
ought to be done.
this
what
is
but one
Or, what
is
better,
correction of
some one of
require to be performed
operations,
all
which
must be done
to
and intemperate,
ality,
that of
some one or
shall
be talked
bill
of,
and proposed to be
one, by one
shall be)
nothing more
it
is
to be said
ends.
For
this
will
bear
one of the
the shelf
;
five
for if
assigned for the relinquishment, and not this unmeaning assemblage of three syllables.
suit
which, to do
full
justice to
it,
requires
but
Ch,
six
it
4.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
six days, or six
203
one day, has
weeks, or
minutes
?
in
been
made
then
if
that
liament be
in
humour (which
it is
hoped
it
will not),
;
reduce
it
to four years,
then again
to three years
and
it
if it
may think
themselves well
off,
Justice,
to
which
in
do
hope
up.
You
The
ex-
Some
tenth,
and go on
of extreme danger of innovation need of and circumspection every consequences danger of not a time should be gradual one more occupation time presented no people no complaints heard such mischief
difficulty
the business
of caution
impossibility
foreseeing
all
precipitation
at
thing
thin^v
this is
the
great
at present
wait for
leisure
well satisfied
petitions
^no
has yet
204
taken place
prattle
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
\Ch. 4.
stay
till it
such
is
the
who, understanding
to
among
life,
his auditors
succedaneum
to thought.
and suppose a
man who,
some time
of keeping
six.
To
to
transfer
benefit of
recom-
mend
to
this sort
Spend
by
in
you can
satisfy
:
yourself which
it
will
be established; which
As
cal
all
in physical ones,
in
psychologi-
arguments consists
an improper extension
of.
to
some advocate
system would
let us
if
same language
some physical
of precipitation.
runaway
sail
steeds, a vessel
much
in
a squall,
all
Ch. 4.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
205
will
which
Suppose a dozen
gislative power,
Attack the
may
all
:
than
Possible
Yes
but of probability,
little
can be
said.
To
each branch
its
of the
feeds
and
in the
person
all
abuse,
all
This
is
;
a branch of science
this is
in
which no man
is
ever
to
deficient
what
to
is
understood,
understood
perfection by
him
whom
can be
puelli.
clear,
Hoc
206
FALLACIES OF DELAV.
[Ch. 4.
is
If there be a case in
Iiere
and with
a case in which, without such consent, the whole business would be hopeless.
Under
members,
opened by opulence to
effect
not altogether
no concurrence
one foot
obtained at
all
pace at which
would
take,
whose
lot it
should be to be travel-
and
is
side.
Time
why
because time
is
Sect.
1 .
Lawyers ;
of this fallacy.
In proportion to the magnitude of their respective
shares in the general fund of abuse, the various fraternities interested in the
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
in turning to the best
list
207
account
this
of fallacies.
(if
But
it is
who
they have
ma-
nagement of
this or
management of
it.
under
favour of this association, they have succeeded in establishing a general impression of a sort of proportion
in quantity as well as necessity of
connexion between
in fact,
Not that,
a hun-
dredth part of the established delay has had any origin in a regard for justice; but,
for
want of
sufficient
so circumstanced in
power and
in
his
endeavours to propagate
snail's-pace fallacy
is
indebted,
more than
it
any other
it is,
cause, for
that in
its
dupes.
Be
this as
may, sure
rate of progress,
which
By
little
more than
208
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
[Ch. 4.
afforded.
An
abuse so
which
it
slightest
doubt of the
mischievousness of
ge-
and
at length,
Ch.
5.]
FALLACIES OF DELAY
ii09
CHAPTER
V.
Ad
E.vposition
vereciindiam.
and Exposure.
The
may be
explained by
and application of
it
When
any measure
it
is
count whatsoever
to oppose, at the
its
suits
same time
in consideration
of
undeniable
it
utility,
you
regard
it,
hold
it
up
to view
as,
whether
on the carpet,
Your language,
then,
is
Why Why
mea-
not this?
or this?
it is
to create a
whom you
have
One
case there
is,
in
fal-
argument
and that
measure
is,
first
210
obstacle to
FALLACIES OP DELAY.
some other measure of
and what,
in the
[Ch. 5.
beneficial
more
way of Exposure,
will
be
apply to
this case.
first
proposed
it
is
of
merely be-
cause
it is
adverse to your
own
sinister interest,
you
must
lieu
not susjgest
it,
of
except
argument, every
hopeless
:
mode
of opposition
is
considered as
purpose of forestalling
is
set
however
infe-
rior in degree,
may
made
to serve,
so long as
it
occupy a
sufficient portion
men on whose
measure depends.
troduction to
is,
to
moment
of
its
effectuation as
long as possible.
According
to established usage,
Ch.b.l
tice
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
211
The
intention
When
commencement of
it
the session
If
it
at that period
be not advisable to
delay
it
session closes.
Time
is
for
what you
When
to
you have
first
place,
between operations
Operations
:
and operations
for rejection.
title
a manifest
to preference
so
made
to last, they
accom-
and no
difficulty are
blow the trumpet, and which you need not fear the
not hearing sufficiently echoed.
When
the treasury
some
it.
friend to
oppose
it
you can
find
unless
among
friends,
^212
FALLACIES OF DELAY.
:
[C/l. 5.
Upon
unfortunate or unskilful,
by the counter-measure of
ef-
about, sacrificed.
to perplex,
longer be avoided.
CHAPTER
L
Ad judicium.
Question-begging Appellatives.
Petitio
principii, or
is
known even
who
are not
In answer to
the fallacy
who employs
?
Why
Because
it
soporiferous.
is
one of the
fallacies
enume-
(what
the
it
will
be the object of
chapter to expose)
effect,
mode
and
namely,
by the employ-
ment of a
single appellative.
Among
214
there are
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
some by which
the object
is
[C/l.
1.
presented singly,
With
will
reference to the
two
to
sorts of appellatives
which
be mentioned, appellatives
termed neutral.
addition to
presented
means of which,
in ad-
is
presented
digality,
&c.
*.
dyslogistic or
vituperative
Among
entities,
affections, propensities,
from
:
all,
with appellatives of
but eulogistic
;
three sorts
others,
and
in
dyslogistic cast.
of-Action Table.
given to the
Scarcely,
Ch.
I.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
215
tives, I
mean
tives
thing
may
were
be expressed.
seems reasonable
to think) neutral.
By
itself
some
as the
a dyslogistic, cast.
moral sense
this
(if
may on
growth.
occasion
be
employed) advanced
in
But
lacy,
it
to return.
As
to the
taught
self;
man
falls into it
the less he
jBnds himself
that of shame.
The
sreat difficulty
is
to unlearn
it
in
the case of
this,
as oi so
many
ing
it,
the
to
unteach
it.
in-
man,
he be one
who
is
indifferent to you, of
ill
whom you
of,
thought
if a man whom, on
it is
your object
of your
if
recommend
to favour, especially
man
:
he be
To
it is
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
1.
216
is
the
The
question
is o?'
deserves to be, or
and deserves
to be,
or deserves to be, or
and
The
is
commonly a
But
is
pro-
in the case
fallacious,
one that
is
proved
is
whom
the fallacy
employed
conscious of
its
deceptive tendency,
to the appel-
by means of the
is
cause that to be
not so.
eulogistic
and
dyslogistic terms, so
them
many
eyes, conclusive.
eulogistic terms
1
:
and dignity.
It being
liberality.
(for
among
the virtues
it
has
its
place in
Ch.
J.]
FALLACIES
is
01-
CONFUSION.
217
may,
Aristotle)
in
exercised
be substituted.
4. In the higher parts of all official departments, dig-
nity
word
is
and
see
thence as a cause
of,
depredation.
is
Wherever you
money
of
is
it
and
regarded as insufficient,
all
public
taxes imposed on
ciple of liberality,
it*.
must be found
Exercised at a man's
be, or
own
expense, liberality
may
vir-
may
tue
never
Exercised at a
be accompanied with
it
be accompanied or not
:
at
pure
self-
it
is,
in
is
a word,
depredation
money
or
money's worth
man, respect,
affection, gra-
titude with
its
:
of
all
sorts
in
When
*
condemn,
parties,
as
shown
in the defences of
economy against
218
find out
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
some more general
[Ch.
1.
to
interests
much
that the
name of
it
has become a
bad name.
Take, under
its
for
own name
on any improve-
on
of self-contradiction and
nonsense.
Happily
for
it
means something
Improvenew, indicates
if
which
ment,
is
at the
same time.
it is
and therefore,
it.
However, as the
is
distill
you may
man
With
Ch.
1.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
219
whom
provement
fied
:
not
(it is
tion.
What you
it
want,
is
own
of, for
from
on
this
it.
Of
is
most deplorable.
as the nature of
much
has in any
it
way been
laid before
the public
of
difficulty
of opposing
it
with
in equal degree
mani-
field
upon the
prin-
upon
way
But
in
no small part of
af-
fections,
that by which
is
ex-
are associated
be
it
in question,
person or thing,
be
it
be
the thing a
is
operation or quality,
220
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
same
[Ch.
I.
and
visible representations.
To
tion (for to
do
it
away completely,
all
to
render
all
it,
minds
seems
without exception at
times insensible to
rate,
be a work of
But
in
proportion as
its
effect
on the under-
standing,
conduct of mankind,
By
bad
produced
dyslogistic, prodigious
By a
it
word or two of
!
this
how
it
!
how wide
the range of
how
^
!
full
of mischief, in
all
word
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
221
CHAPTER
Ad
Ej'position.
II.
Impostor Terms.
judicium.
The
fallacy
which consists
in
the
employment of
but
it is
proper
name
to
some
appellative,
some other
in
or at
matin
their vocabulary
zeal
is
the
characterize
all
their actions.
under
its
proper
would be an object
necessary to dis-
it is
(^res
tegenda
;)
The
appellative,
to
deemed
otfensive, or even to
222
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
it
[Ch. 2.
(Tegumen.)
Exposure.
Example.
The
whicli,
crown
is
an object
employed
The
is
By an
to
it
may
to
some eyes be
gallantry
is
placed, per-
The word
employed
may
it
either of
them
In one of
these senses,
to testify
on
all
which
life.
civilized is so strikingly
and happily
in the main,
(as inthat, in
it is,
synonymous
to adultery
synonymous
Having, from the habit of being employed in the other sense, acquired,
in addition to
it
its
which
in this sense
it
is
employed
to present,
in lieu of
its
presented by
man
known
under any
it,
known
to
have performed
he
make use
Ch.
2.]
TALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
223
Corruption,
whom
this species
is
of influence
is
an object of disap-
probation,
is
This, then, by
is
designated,
is
employed.
things,
he
therefore obliged to go
at the
and
find
same time
that
its
is
to call forth,
through the
performed.
whom
it
has been
less impleasant,
casion in which
a term
in the use of
to
it
is
also
employed
to designate.
There
is
to
ated to the commission of such acts: but even this sort of man would
neither be found to say of himself, " I
to
am
have
it is
He is an adulterer." But
that he
a man of gallantry,
this is
what the
sort of
man
in question
224
gistic
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
or at least of the neutral cast
;
[Ch. 2.
to
and
one or
Under
when
the crown
is
con-
of influence
of
it
The
if
other, such,
many
it
would
possible be desirable
and
that,
though con-
would not be
such a degree
to
any
Influence of will on
zvill,
on understanding
in this
may be
on which the
utility
may be
whomsoever
exercised, on
whomsoever
exercised,
left,
Not
may
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
225
it is left
free, disorder
can-
not present
remedy.
The
is,
in
human
reason,
a guide which,
but which
is is
miss
its
course,
susceptible.
Under
crown belongs
and
any person or persons, except by physical force immediately applied, any thing can be done.
To
on
will,
whom
it is
proper persons,
it
is
necessary.
On
it is
all
persons to
whom
influence
necessary
for
considered
mere sug-
word as orders^
in contradistinction to
gestions, or
understanding on understanding,
of any
effect.
far,
can be productive
on
Thus
22(5
will,
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch, 2.
ing'
jection can be
case,
its title
made
In either
is
above
dispute.
The
case
among
title
of the in-
fluence of the
crown
open
to dispute,
the case in
sinister or
(bestowed upon
the bare possession, and without need of reference to the particular use and application which on any particular occasion
may happen
to be
made of
is
it),
is
exercised by
on
will,
it is
the person on
whom on
the occasion in
question
exercised
is
either a
member
of parlia-
by those by
whom
it
is
spoken of with
is
simply
efficient,
this
viz.
that in
is
pronounced
is
him
it
in
whom
:
whom
proceeds
much, that
if,
for
Ch.
2.]
it
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
227
monarchy
solute one,
nor so
it
much
pened
hap-
monarch that
it
should
continue to be.
The
memall
ber of parliament
may
be included, most or
of
and the
in
inquisitorial
of which,
member
:
that pleases
the judicial,
and the
inquisitorial, the
the case
may
be found to require.
To
is
the exercise
of either branch
may
be referred what
done, when,
made by
But
for
Whatever law
acceptable to the
crown,
will be not
is
No
be so
law that
much
as introduced.
accept-
Q 2
228
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 2.
No judgment
No
will
inquiry that
not
acceptable to the
let,
crown
be made; and
in
particular,
on the
all
of then),
misconduct
in
crown
will
ever be
made
will
for their
removal
that
;
is,
no such application
this state
ever be
it
made
at all
for in
of things, supposing
in the instance of
any
remove him, he
w^ill
be removed of course;
nor
in this
extreme case,
the country
supposed,
many men in
by
is
whom
inits
not so
much
as a single one
by
whom
that denomination
influence of
on
will
is
exerted
since
no man
can be
in possession of
is
from which he
removable, without
its
being exerted
on him
him,
exerting himself on
Ch.
2.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
no
act,
229
will
fluence,
no express intimation of
is in
on the
In some
will,
on
crown on a member of
member of
is
the
House
of
Commons composed
is
in
any way
so far as
opera-
whom
this
is
opinion
is
sinister in-
word corruption.
Others there are in whose opinion, or at any
if
rate,
in-
the whole, or
some
ficial,
is
maintenance
state, ab-
and
to this
all
be supposed to belong
whom
this
actually exercising
230
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
\Ch. 3.
CHAPTER
Vague
III.
Generalities.
Ad judicium.
E.vpositio?i.
Vague
generalities
comprehend a numerous
class
An
expression
is
it
de-
signates,
and
ties
if,
in the
employed
of these
The genus comprehended in each the terms may be divided into two species
for
still
The
presumption that he
:
is
en-
gaged
in
if his
attack
is
only
Ch.
3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
231
bad
may
an intention to subvert
all
governments,
But
it is
in
the
way of
to bear.
Propose
improvement of the
large, to
government at
on the
utility
end ? To the end that draw the inference which of your own accord you may
law, or of religion.
it
To what
is
his desire
is
proposed has
judicial to
ral regard.
in its
pre-
one or other or
Of the
it
veyed, had
tion or averment,
naturally have
been looked
for.
By a
prepare him-
self for
something
is
in the
nothing
asserted, nothing
offer-
'23'2
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
Exposure.
1.
[Cli. 3.
Order.
Among
inent,
in this
atmo-
is
in a peculiar degree
;
adapted to
more
;
may have
tolerably
is
still
just as
is
and
institutions.
mere
transitory
if it
be
a tyrannical one, be
word
it.
Suplin-
that by
maintained
for the
worst
order
is
Accordingly, a
Sect. I.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
233
the
the
House of Commons a Lord Castlereagh, or in House of Lords a Lord Sid mouth, to stand up
insist that
and
And who
is
To
of the checks,
plied to tyranny
would be but
at
all
increased.
By
brought to view
by the person by
whom
it
is
employed
to the object
is
Order
is
exists with
is
good order
it is
what
it
may, which
my
wish to
be thought to approve
of.
Take
gula
:
order be applied to
present in
States.
as to the
state of things at
What
By
in the eyes of
it
That which
had been
perhaps
Among
word
social is
employed,
234
society
is
:
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
but a purpose to which
it is
[Ch,
3.
also employed,
no other-
Roman
By name
was
not the
less
a social one.
is
As
made
of the interest
is
many
the
is
it
pronounced
hostile is designated.
By
and
a defalcation
part of the
mass
made
to
flow,
by
emolument
to office,
by
made
to the quantity
emolument,
by every endeavour
trust is certain,
its
ob-
whose
it
hands breach of
due fulfilment of
social order is
stroyed.
Sect. Q.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
235
held
up
is
to
the danger
and inconvenience
to
own
in
Hence
it
is,
when compared
J
xvell-being, is
is
to the single
word hap-
instructive, the
its
danger
authors,
distress-
to
misgovernment, and
its
instruments
still
men
By
cast
upon
it,
is
more intimately
2.
Establishment.
is
a word in
236
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
3.
charging those
who
*.
establishments, or
all
good
establishments
3.
Matchless Constitutioti.
points
;
it
has some
it
radical
and corruption
variety of shape.
in
Now
dation,
in their
own name
oppression,
corruption,
cannot be toasted
!
Depreda-
Corruption for
this
ever
cry,
man may
and does
it.
1.
its
inequahty creating
opposite fauhs
off
The
men
of adventurers
or rendering
2.
men from
it
as
it
ought
be performed.
cultural improvements,
ter
3.
Forms of admission, compelling insincerity, subversive of the As to purely speculative points, no matter which
man
is
embraces, so he be
sincere,
should maintain even the right side (where there happens to be any)
when he
not sincere.
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
instrument of rhetoric, the use
is
237
at least as
Of this
ceipt for
old as Aristotle.
As
it;
old as Aristotle
is
making
may
may
of a Mitford to de?
How
how white
Matchless constitution
there's
!
your sheet-anchor
rally
that
is,
rally
round waste,
rally
tion, rally
round oppression,
rally rally
round corruption,
rally
round imposture;
imposture on
theory,
Connected with
this toasting
and
this boasting is
might be ashamed
in crying out
to the universally
made at reasoning, known and indisof human nature), always may some
The why is
why must
it
convict,
to look at
it
it
other-
our ancestors
of
whom
could so
much
thing before
them
that
First
theoretical supposition,
238
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
their ordinary occupation,
[Ch.
'3.
Wiien from
their order
could steal
now and
money
then a holiday,
how
did they
employ
it?
to get their
this
leaving
habitual
down and
devised
and
setting before
them
the constitution as
1
it
stands,
and may
it
for ever
stand
On
what occasion
on
no-
At what
place
at none.
By whom ? by
body.
At no time? Oh
be Blackstone.
Oh yes,
in
its
Whig,
after
is
that
it
was
perfection,
years before
James
the
Mo-
Rome;
to
:
govern
a state
made by a
Lord
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
it,
9,'30
was kept
Whigs
What
which
is
that theory
?
uniformly confirmed by
in
all
experience
On
end
in
no occasion,
no place,
at
no time, by no
on
own and
that of his
own
his
own
Among men
among
all
of
all
classes,
men
of
all classes,
his
own own
and
factitious, for
vengeance.
In the course of
under
fa-
and that
little
monarch and
his aristo-
210
cracy.
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[67/. 3.
body
at
any time
in
the
at
periods had
in the
and
and above
it
the cor-
ruptive
servants of the
aristocracy,
ter
state of things
will
continue
out disguise.
is
con-
long
Three
states of things
Despotic
sentative
Repre-
own
form.
Sect. S.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
as in every country, the
241
In
this,
Government has
many, or
in
ject
have persuaded
themselves to suffer
to be.
No
no
re-
But
in
a great de-
ihus, that
But
this liberty
it
of the press
is
of
it
contrary to law
press in
by law there
is
no more
liberty of the
En-
Government,
it is
law
for
for
is,
it is
we have we have
to thank
to
it.
it,
It
thank
The
Tories, that
it,
sim-
need of
it.
42
destroy
it,
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
or concur in destroying
it,
[Ch, 3.
tliey
could
pos-
sess that
same comfortable assurance. But it has never been in their power and to that impotence is
:
it
that
we
Without
this
arm they
not, in the
but
would naturally be supposed to be implied in it, is, that the constitution was originally in some one head,
the whole, or the chief part of
it,
the
work of
design.
it
The
evil
the
work of design, would be, that, such a design being infinitely beyond the wisdom and virtue of any man
in the present times, a planner
for in the
most
fruitless
and end-
may be proved
the chathe
from history.
racteristic
The House
vital
first
and
the
man
by
whom
In
momentary sup-
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
243
and hear-
The
practice of seeing
money was
the First
Edward
it.
saw
time
From
this
Henry the
Sixth's,
Henry
the Sixth's
was the
first
House of Commons
till
;
after they
were dissolved
Commons
novation,
was an
in-
then,
(Anno 1450)
part of
House of Commons be a
Parliament
lators
;
there
was none.
yes
deputies of
commons,
petitioners.
Even of
its
carious
occa-
sional reproduction;
would have
oblivion
:
sufficed
into disuse
and
bodies of France
to
and Spain,
lity.
a possibi-
and down
to the time
when
the
R 2
244
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
;
[Ch.
3.
and the
tree
remain a tree
still.
'^
Sixth,
members
pre-
suming
and
to
speak as they
After
the short parliaments produced in the times of James the First, and Charles the First, by profusion and distress,
came
the
first
?
long parliament.
the design
?
the constitution
Where
the
The
them
commons,
the king's
into
commons having
extorted from
momentary
In the time
instru-
As
no
feasible design,
it is
Between Henry the Third, and Henry the Sixth (Anno 1258
*.
to
1422)
true there were frequent acts ordaining annual and even oftener
Still
princes
till
the
never seeing
after
which
their assent
was recorded.
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES Of CONFUSION.
;
245
and
therCy concep-
any such
design scarce in
to
human
nature.
The circumstance
constitution
is in
per-
nicious efficiency,
in
which
true.
was incontrovertibly
off the
the
yoke and
state posit
became independent
in
no
political
it
or approaching
from
this
its
goodness
in
a comparative state,
at
any time be
af-
made
to its intrinsic
ai'e
goodness.
myself
in this obser-
vation, supposing
true,
what reason
is
there for
forbearing to
at present, as I can
much happier
than
my am
This pre-eminence
pose
;
way
to hold
it
up
is,
that
it
is
every day
and
less
so that while
men keep on
sooner or later
it
The
this
supposition always
that
it is
the
same one
day as another.
been
true.
But never
for
246
every day
it
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
\Ch. 3.
:
for
by every day,
been made
tion
some way or
to that matter
efficient
pure despotism
may
to the
end of time
by the same
things
may
be always signified.
But
same
the
;
in use for
The
;
it
to its
made of
it
indifference with
is
wit-
com-
of the security
less.
it
aftbrds,
is
difference in
by the very
the
means of
political
improvement.
Hence
it
was,
Roman
people sat
still,
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
247
was converted
With
the
title
men meeting
all
in the
House of
Commons,
free suf-
be of any use.
But except
in
a small number
of instances,
soever capable
effect,
instead of a
If
it
man whether, instead of the present House of Commons, there should be another House of Lords,
would be
for the affirmative
:
his vote
lusion
and a deal
in those
is
now expended
suffered,
would be saved.
As
to representation,
no
248
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is,
it is
[C//. 3.
said,
a virtual one
and with
this,
those
who
think
it
or act and
If those
who
which
not
real,
would be
other, all
would be well
but
is
The payment
it is
so
much
as pretended to
ex-
a cruel mockery.
4.
Balance of Power.
In general, those by
used, have not
whom
this
it
has
minds.
Should
it
find for
it
be
this
that
which, in
this
powers of
will
of
How,
is
by such arrangement,
evil
easy
ef-
enough
fect
is
to say
one sure
that whatsoever
its
in the
of them contrary to
own
sinister interest,
not
be done
on
tlie
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
249
all
by them
them
it
all,
will
be carried into
effect,
how
plainly soever
terest
may
of the people.
No
be removed
no improvement
in
ever be made.
is,
The
balance
fact
is
that wherever
on
this
mere nonsense.
is
By
the
word balance
import,
meant
a pair of scales.
ellipsis to
In an arithmetical account, by an
it is,
which, harsh as
it is
its
sanction,
employed
to signify that
sum by which
sums
that stand
on one side of
To
the idea which, in the sort of occasion in question, the word balance,
is
employed
in
to
any degree
To
it
any,
seems designed
word should
two bodies
in motion,
be
not
When
is
in
in
such sort
falls,
and yet
one
moment
in question
may
be said to be in equipoise
250
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
3.
weighs exactly as
much
as the other.
But of the
is
not to
such view of
it
to this
purpose there-
any
significant one.
The
en-
it is
bewildered
and
this is
what
wanted.
It is
by a
series of
business of government
actions
:
carried on
by a series of
the
action ceasing,
is
the body
politic, like
body
natural,
at an end.
By a
balance,
if
any
:
thing, is
meant a
which
is
move
it
the
othei*
moves upwards.
All the
is
if
the wish
make
it
exactly equal
to the
or,
what comes
same
which has
The
even
;
balance
now
restored.
The two
scales
hang
the other.
6ec/. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
in view
251
which ought to be
from the machine
motion
is
what
is
the consequence
All
which
at an end.
common
another.
But were
no conclu-
in the expression
in sub-
stance
it
would be
still
Preeminently indeterminate,
fused,
and con-
on every occasion,
is
image of a balance
and on every
it
this
thus
will
be found to be neither
nonsense.
much
Nothing
it
can
it
The fallacy often assumes a more elaborate " The constitution is composed of three forces,
government
ferent
to be carried
shape.
which,
on
in a course
it
which
is dif-
would be carried
is
on
if
and
sults
all,
each one of
to the pro-
them contributing
duction of
it."
same proportion
252
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
forces.
is
[Ch. S.
This image,
free
from the
much
mended by
in
it.
In proportion as
it is
well conducted,
the business of
Government
is
uniformly carried on
the
greatest
in proportion as
all
the
In the
a certain end
take the
direction in which
acts;
ing to the
same exclusively
pose
it
end
will
;
be obtained by
it
it
forces
suppose
same
direction,
the
same end
will
ness,
if
and so again
if
so
little
different
compound
timate end.
But
how
in
is
it
with the
three forces
So
far
from
they tend to
each instance as
[)ossible.
True
it
is,
that
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
253
question
is
produced
is
not
exactly the
same as
that which
But with
complication, what
?
is
the machine
Not
to the only
to
an end not
each
pursuing
its
own
each interest a
little
different
from each of
the two others, and not only different from, but opposite to, that
and
it
much
as
it
can.
does at present.
it
:
But
in its
more,
others
would
find
itself
and thus
it is
that
harmony
which
is
preserved.
Balance of forces.
metaphor,
priety
:
case there
is
in
this
this
image,
may
national relations.
Supposing
attainable,
what
is
is
meant by a balance of
forces or a balance of
power
254
FALLACEF.S OF CONFUSION.
;
[Cli. 3.
a iegitiinate object
an
object,
the effectuation of
which
is
is
What
the ab-
that object
all
It is in
rest,
sence of
of
all
another
is
universal indej)endence.
tion
Here
which
rest
balanced forces
But on the
in its
carried on,
?
is it
:
prosperity that
consequence
No
on the contrary,
of universal
rest, in
in those of the
body
death.
No
Government,
no
no money collected
subsistence,
no
subsistence,
no
service,
no money, no
service,
every thing
falls to pieces,
The metaphor
self plain
question,
is
in
it-
enough
it
presents an image.
is
The metaso,
far
from being
it
To
all
ratively few to
whom
gether with those principles of geometry that are associated with them, are thus far familiar, they present
no conception
at all
Sect. 4.]
lALLACir.s of coNrusioN.
Q55
tract described
is
lelogram,
purpose of ordinary
When
tion, are,
is
employed,
the
Even according
to a third part of
no more than as
would the
promoted
as
to two- thirds
would be
sacrificed.
For example:
the
two other
thirds
and
two confederative
of things
in
a prodigious degree,
it
be than
is
the real
The power
described as
is,
in-
the
Q56
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 3.
5.
Glorious Revolution.
it is
This
bold,
is
a time to look
What?
what
is
a revo-
people
No
but,
so
much
revolution of
1688.
There
is
your revolution
in
a revolu-
No
changing
it.
When
their forefathers of
for
of the
instead
among them.
Whigs
get by
it?
They would
get nothing;
they
little:
unless they really sat and did the business they were
The
an end
Stuarts
to the tyranny,
:
political
and
of the
the
political,
much
as the
show of consenting
:
to
them by deputies
chosen by themselves
the
religious, forcing
men
to
be
true.
But the
Sect. 5.]
in the
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
it
^57
to
was
make
the
amount of
to
a great extent
of other ways.
So
far as
by security given
to all,
and thence, by
But where
security could
was
Freedom of
freedom of
aristocracy, Tories
cluded.
258
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[C/l. 4.
CHAPTER
Ad
Exposition,
IV.
Allegojncal Idols.
imaginationem.
The
in office,
is
is
vague
generalities,
sists
It con-
denomi-
nation the
name of some
fictitious entity,
to
whom,
attri-
Examples
1.
Government ;
2.
for
;
members of the
for
governing body.
3.
The church
churchmen.
is,
The law
for lawyers.
The advantage
obtain-
ing for them more respect than might be bestowed on the class under its proper name.
Exposure.
I.
Government.
In
it
:
its
it
is
true,
and uni-
Laiv
By
this it is that
By
Ch.
4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
259
government,
lawthe
/w, are
therefore brought
As
appear clothed
together.
real
qualities,
But, as presented by
means of
all their
good and
ac-
all their
Under
the
name
own
use the
homage and
it is
offer-
believed,
adapted to the
sinister
purpose here
in question.
From
concrete.
it
From
the system, in
all its
parts taken
together,
s2
260
FALLxlCIES OF CONFUSION.
[C/l
4.
For the
members
that belong to
it,
accordingly, by those
who
it
feel
to account, to the
are gathered
point to this or
up
You
news
are an
enemy
to
government!"
little
in advance, "
!" thus
Your endeavour
to destroy
government
:
anarchist,
and so forth
to the greatest
its institution,
the
who
wish,
deavour to destroy
III.
it.
Church.
to the
This
it
is
adapted
of confusion shared by
adds
The
significations indifare,
1
.
word Churchy
Place
C//. 4.]
I-ALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
26l
ment
ship
4.
^ The
superior officers of
Government by whom
the
inferior, as
The
rules
The
the giving
;
and securing
their
in-
them
in
a branch of learning,
now more
^.
In the
all
as superior to the
list
king.
of
The
sovereignty of the
all
people
the reduction
struck off
who
all
them-
of the sovereignty.
their only rivals,
Against
this
ditiousness in bar.
whom
*
''
252
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 4.
closed as
testants,
much
By Proof Whore of
mother church.
portion of them,
mice
But
in
ingenuity such as
boys"
is
in
composed,
to be
decked out
in
elements of amia-
bility to
any extent.
is
The
genuity
abuses and
official esta-
Monevery
e.
To
of the
official
is
enemy
to the church."
fol-
such questions as
1.
What
official establish-
one
al?
life
would
suffice
to
hear
Does not
this
?
taught to read
Would
it
if
constantly by
him
some of them
Suppose
it
67/. 4.J
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
il63
vices conducive to
much
might be found,
2. in
then go on and
is it
ask,
1,
As
to the
Pay unconditioned
more
3.
effectual
Here more
man
4.
Here, as there,
reward he
is
it ?
5.
The
is
any thing,
necessary to
means
7.
is less
pay,
abundant and
Answer,
state
1.
!
Enemy and,
2.
if
English-bred,
Apo-
existence of bishops?
House of Lords, any good ? 3. Is not non-attendance there more general than even non-residence elsewhere ? 4. In judicially
does any bishop ever attend,
after reading prayers?
5.
who
is
In
where personal
6.
mask of
gratitude?
Such non-attendance,
?
not
felt rather as
a relief
than as a grievance
"
<i6'4
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[C//. 4.
Answer,
1.
" Enemy
to the church
is
In Ireland, what
to Catholics,
whom
they
By such
exemption from
creased
?
3.
By
4.
Is
it
not there a
maxim,
hands
is
?
em?
ployed in securing to
Answer,
" Enemy
it
to the
church
!"
C/i. 5.]
TALLACIES Oi CONFUSION.
Q65
CHAPTER
V.
Sweeping Classifications.
Ad judicium.
E.vposition.
The
fallacy,
device of those
who employ
thing),
in the
way of
sweeping
any properties
is
ranked in the class with that other, by being designated by the same name.
In
its
is
equally applicable to
;
but
it is
more
E.rposure.
Example
Kings
Crimes of Kings.
when
the lot
life
XVI. was
standing between
and death,
among the means employed for bringing about the catastrophe that ensued, was the publication of a multitude of inflammatory pamphlets,
for its title
"
The Crimes
of Kings."
all
men
standing exposed to
are led into
some of them
Q66
titled
:
FALLACIES Of CONFUSION.
and
if
[Ch. 5.
there are
some crimes
to the temptation
of which
men
whom
but
compose out of
;
this
argument;
and Louis
nished.
is
a king
Example
2.
Catholics
cruelties
of Catholics.
Not
is
composed of persons of
predominant
the
title
sect,
a book made
its
appearance under
Of any
with so
many
all
much hope
it,
but
was
to
The
object of
it
was
relief re-
Ch.
5.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
to be administered to the oppressions
:
267
under
mains yet
either
it
had
this object, or it
had
To
any
thing,
it
Of
and of
all
future
and
who
in
former
same
indefinitely
compre-
still
on these
their
namesakes
will,
at the
from the
justifi-
same name.
the barbarities of the
their limits
:
Ca-
had
respect of the
number of intended
to put
victims,
no
limits
Of
the
man who,
an end to the
cruelties of extir-
kings, did
garded
narrow range.
Europe would
268
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 5.
But
after crushing as
his
many
millions of the
vermin
whom
piety
and
his
charity
marked out
of the tiger
in the condition
whom
conclusive argu-
religion,
and consigning
it.
XVI.
By
tune
it
was not
to be able to
some
common
with
James
minations,
viz.
but,
as far as marriage
filiation, is actually
of
that royal
and
tri-
umphant champion of
If,
local orthodoxy.
'"'
Consult
Hume,
Tinelal, Harris,
Henry.
Ch.
5.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
ill-treat all
269
wise to destroy or
fered from them,
and
if
adherence to those dissocial doctrines had appeared in practice, in such case the adherence to such dissocial
doctrines
for whatto
deemed necessary
guard other
men from
such practice.
But by no doctrines of
those
who
dif-
was compelled
to burn
had
dif-
on
this occasion
same persuasion,
in
lesson would
same country
more of the
ill-treatment
l)y
population
is
composed of Catholics, no
memory
of
man
been bestowed
as such
;
Ca-
tholics, as such,
upon Protestants,
while in
the
ill-treatment has
on other
upon the
But
it is, it
may be
is
said,
predominant
religion,
was
270
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
to law,
[C/i. 5.
and
in the
was
at those times
most conspicuous
of no such bar-
barities has
years *,
Even
as-
surance given
me
any offence
if I
may believe
a gentleman of distinction
own
country, by
whom
kingdom was
lately
visited,
C'h. 6,]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
271
CHAPTER
Sham
VI.
Distinctions.
Ad judicium.
Ei'position,
Of
may
be exit.
When
evil in
it
any existing
much
amendment
distin-
nominal
line
its
eulogistic
to yourself the
its
advantage of
without reproach by
dyslogistic
name,
and so
evil,
"vice
&c.
E.vposure.
Example
1.
Liberty
Take
for
The
human
discourse
272
by
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[CIl. 6.
visible signs)
uses, viz.
moral and
it
moral, consisting in
whatsoever check
may
be capable of opposing to
;
misconduct in private
check
it
life
political, in
whatsoever
may
men
by
is
the public
service
opposing,
viz.
whom
such misconduct
more or
less consiill-will
on
it is
is,
whatsoever
is
not included
the prohibitions
and
in
which case, so
power uncontroulable,
are, in
Government happen
and,
is
in-
who would
be led to
application,
is
At the same
Ch.
6.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
273
of giving indication of misconduct that has actually taken place, supposed misconduct that never did actually take place, will to this or that individual be im-
puted.
be
false,
the two
evils be-
im-
come,
and
in
from which,
to arise.
But
to
it
really
is
need
sight
may seem
to be.
;
Let
all
free
from
all
that
sort of controul
On
through
the evil
of
274
infliction
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
6.
there
is
is
Open
to accusation, that
*.
same channel
fore
all
He
there-
who
in the
nature of truth to
give.
That advantage,
done
dence
in
is it
an inconsiderable one?
is
On
is
founded, whatsoever
dicial authority
whatsoever by
if
Meantime,
the door
may be
amount
which
is
liable to result
ones, so
much
the better.
until
of
all
restrictions
on the whole.
shut the door against such imputations as are
it
To
open
at the
same time
and
useful,
same time
just
would require a
"
If
it
by accident be not
evil, for
which
is
Ch.
be,
6.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
9,75
supis
press
To
State
and to
vested.
Of this
been given
of
this appellative
no such
definition
can
definition,
power would be
diced.
While
remains unestablish-
them
advanced.
of
the press
is
whatsoever
or
is
supposed to
prevent.
The
hended.
liber^ty
of the press
is
appre-
No
pense
their
:
at the expense of
Government,
their arbitrary
power,
of
power of misconduct
tions of
power
T 2
276
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 6.
of misgovernment,
own
private interest.
it
Should that
line
is
that licentiousness
liberty
:
may
licentiousness
opposing
liberty. in
what
consists the
It consists in
employing the
as a
mask or
in the licentiousness
upholding by
inflicting
on
disclosures, by
means of which
Example
2.
who speaks
of it,
is
meant
to
case of liberty.
For making
ing out on the object of avowed reprobation the pernicious or excessive species or degree, recourse
therefore be had to epithets or adjuncts
:
must
Ch,
6.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
277
and so
forth.
man
indulges him-
may have
it is
liis
to
you may
in general venture to
conclude
not
real disitself,
extends
itself to
that
is,
would
find a corrective.
all
For, between
that connexion,
between
in
persons
who
see each of
results to
which an advantage
To no one
then,
with
this
suffer,
able to prevent,
to j;ut
it
should
fur
seem
to
on
in
278
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 6.
which
goes by the
species
;
name of reform
fit
one of them a
accord-
such as
To
will,
same
time, attach
Thus, then,
in profession
and
to appearance, there
opposite species of reform, to one of which his approbation, to the other his disapprobation,
is
is
attached.
to
which
his
approbation
attached
an empty species,
The
is,
is
attached
species, a receptacle in
of
the genus
Ch.
7.]
FALtAClRS or CONFUSION.
279
CHAPTER
VII.
Popular Corruption.
Ad
E.vposition.
superbiam.
The
pressed
:
ment here
the people
in the
minds of
is
that
removing
it^.
Exposure.
This fallacy consists
tion,
in giving to the
word corrup-
when applied
to the people,
a sense altogether
re-
form by William
insisted
Windham
in the
House of Commons, and by him This man was among the disciples,
Burke with
whom
the subject
is
that
is,
those
who were immediately about them, at any rate such of them as class, many of these men, many of these haters and
;
but, seduced
by
possessed by
them
in
common,
they enit
upon the most extensive scale. If, while thus encouraging himself in the hating and contemning the people, a man of this cast finds himself hated by them, the fault is surely more in him than them;
and, whatever
to
it
may
hapi)cn to
him
to suffer
from
it,
be has himsell
thank
for
it.
1280
FALLACIRS OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 1.
all tliat is
indeterminate,
a sense
is
in
and by which
distinctly expressed
them
it.
In the case of a parliamentary election, each elector acts as a trustee for iiimsclf
and for
all
the other
members of
branch of
the
community
power here
is
in
political
in question.
by the
is
manner
moting
in
which
his vote
own
moting by such
interest
:
and
for
doing
this,
power attached
who
is
likely to render
most service
Now, how
this his
inconsiderable soever
may
be in his eyes
still it
will
be
where there
is
nothing in
in
the
mode
endeavoured at
certainty
it
accomplished, as to so complete a
If then, to continue the alhision,
may
be.
Ch.7.']
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
281
aversion to labour,
give his vote,
likely to
it
he
the
and
:
to that candidate
who,
in
his eyes, is
if
do most service
will
do no good
do no
harm
tion
to
it.
Thus
it
is
that,
elec-
the account of
of
men
will,
on
this occasion,
render as
much
service
:
most benevolent
is
the
corrupt
and
if
that
is
to
determi-
meant.
On
tion
is
the other hand, in so far as the system of elecso ordered, that by the
manner
in
which he
man
is
own
that
is
the shape of
whom
was applied,
tlie
282
application;
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch, 7.
application
all
in
of
it is
day. Pretending to be
ject
many,
in
chosen
in fact,
them
that manner,
the
by one another,
they
many,
many
in constant
things their
own
particular
sacrito-
and
fice
gether with that of the ruling few, composes and constitutes the universal interest.
Corruj)t, corruption,
to these
in-
A
liar
a sort of ob-
scure reference
made by
it
com-
faith,
termed the 39
make any
inquiry.
politics
;
The
field
here in question
is
the field of
and applied
Ch.
7.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
283
not only to
but to
all
other remedies
pnd
affection,
which
is
essential to
man's
existence, but
which
and preservation
it,
of
political society,
and thence
requires
to be
checked
checked by a
;
force formed
within
itself.
and
to
in particular
of
all
penal laws
is
for
if,
for
remedy
what
is
amiss, nothing
to
be attempted by arrangerelative
to the principle
them no punishment,
no
infliction,
how much
aflflictive
less
as those
By
the
employment given
it
emanti-
ployer of
own
to his ar-
supplied
same appetite
to
bound
of sinister interest.
Out of
drawn
:
not only
declared, but
mankind
in at least
284
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 7.
:
in themselves,
Of
;
of
make
no
what
it
If
it
worth
it
true nature in
some measure
wrapped
itself.
or,
to
speak
less
virtue,
how then
That
in
most
vice
own
private
and
expense
and
in so
effect of
making instruments
ruption
That
least of vice
left free to
a personal interest
sally
in giving to their
beneficial
Ch. 7]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
285
in
the
way of having
that
Nearly akin
" In
let
is
most
excellent,
each
man reform
himself
let
him look
is
at
home, he
power,
out of
enough
to do,
and what
in his
is
Language
to this effect
may at all
manifests, ac-
companied with an
superior
air
of triumph,
the triumph of
arroit
gance.
One
that,
from the
ration
than
it
Certain
exclusively
that
if
is
employed
own
be employed
286
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
7.
torments of those
forts of those
who
suffer
who
profit
by them
which
is
exactly
what
is
wanted.
Ch.
8.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
287
CHAPTER
In
VIII.
uniformly the
same, and
gene-
but argument of
pratereaqiie
nihil.
To
word
obliged to
make an
as-
till
he comes to a word by
is
whose import he
enabled, so
defend with a chance of success an object of the defence of which there would under
liar
its
name be no
hope.
viz.
When
cific
of two terms,
it,
proper,
e.
which
to
it
enters, true
if
substituted
it, is
if
the effect
288
of
it is
FALLACIF'S
01-
CONFUSION.
is
[67/. 8.
error
and de-
ception.
Opposite
to this aerial
mode
already
In proportion as a man's
close,
(always supposing his intention honest,) for the designation of every object which he has occasion to bring
to view,
he employs
in preference the
:
most particular
is
that
which
best adapted
which
his
endeavour
In proportion as a
man
is
desirous of contributing
on every occasion
community,
that
and
at the
same time
skilled in the
to the
means
most
directly
attainment of that
end, he
by him
in the designation of
conduciveness or
which on account of adverseness general meet discouragement, and of punishment, not content with
Thus,
their
in regard to ofiences
acts
to the
for
for
prohibition,
in
case
necessity, for
Ch.
8.]
FALTAcnis or confusion.
281?
particular, that
mode
common
nature indicated
to
view, to the
common
it
it
oc-
and assign
to
it
of the mode
to the ge-
neral welfare
1.
self,
individuals,
2.
Against a
man's
3.
Against
4.
this or
of the community.
without distinction.
In the case of individuals; offences against person,
against reputation, against property, against condition
in life
;
and
and
designated^.
in
proportion as without
man
own
personal or
he
will
on the occasion of
employed
i.
p. 172.
290
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch.
8.
rendered
as difof.
ment which
till
denomi-
Treasons, felopremunires,
unclergyable,
felonies
clergyable,
misdemeanors.
By the
four
is,
first
is
designated,
not the
:
ment given
in the
way
on
of punishment
much
as even that
only
is
treated
made pu-
it
is
To what
tion
be ascribed
Its creation
may
its
conan-
tinuance to another.
tiquity,) the
For
its
creation, (such
is its
intellect, presents
an adequate cause.
Of
terms
Ch.
8.j
FALLACIKS OF f'ONFUSTOX.
291
imported at the
Norman
the origin
is
lost
hard and long labour to the distinction between clergyable and unclergyable.
version
gave
III.
birth
to
premunires
in
the reign
of
Edward
To
whose
interest
it
is
that
misrule in
might be
flight,
should as long as
more
service-
Under
these de-
nominations
acts of
in general,
and
in particular
under felony,
impropriety
and
evei*y
been
created,
and
still
continue in existence,
convenient
abundance.
By
ledlegislator,
The
U 2
292
of the old
:
FALLACIES OF CONFUSIOX.
\Ch.
8.
Analogous
corre-
effect itself,
and as
to its cause,
is
Germany.
all
Faute, contravention,
in
dilit,
crime,
se-
classes, rising
verity,
a climax of
of thein designative
how
indeterminately
hands
is
much
it
had
is
thought
may
this
confusion in the
man of law
that
that
purpose he
may
in his state
in his state
life,
of judge,
life
and
itself,
little
odium and
suspicion as
This
is
Ch.
8.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
always
:
29S
which
it
lias
perpetuate
therto
it
and
this
man
of law
is
is
not the
subject
est to
is,
is
it
that which
it is
his inter-
in all parts)
is
of the subject,
what
what,
in
a word, the
law
oui2:ht to be.
ample enough of
itself to
no
generalities af-
To
question under a
to
they provide a
ascending
in set
to a superior
of denominations so
boundless
in their extent,
as to be capable without
FALLACIKS or CONFUSION.
which
it
[C/i. 8.
fac-
Noxiousness to other
indivi-
himself
in this or that
way
noxiousness
in this
it is
to a particu-
community
or that
way
power
way,
not
in the
performed by, to
may,
it is
Here then
the
are so
many
man
is
in
which
at
its
employed
for the
tion,
proper
rightly
denominated,
to be
true light.
Ch.
9.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
295
CHAPTER
Ad
Ea^position.
IX.
Anti-rational Fallacies.
verecundiam.
When
reason
is
found or supposed to be
in
op-
itself
from
it
So long
Government contains
in it
any
sort
Members of
the
Government
or any of them, derive in any shape a profit, and in the continuance of which, they possess a proportionable interest, reason being against them, persons so
circumstanced
will
Instead of reason
we might here
say thought
Reason
is
But
sooner than
figures of
fail
of
its
object,
as
if
incompatible
person's interest,
:
is
without more
this obser-
and by
29^
[CIl. 9tit
objection
to the
means,
is
To
tiie
number more or
less
synonymous
to
and
to
one another, as
to be
:
it
is
synonymous
rical,
viz. theoretical,
romantic, Utopian.
2.
Sometimes a distmction
is
a concession made.
it
The
its
plan
i.
good
its
in theory,
but
would be had
in practice,
being good in
Sometimes, as
if in
consequence of a further
is
progress
made
to
in the art
pronounced
and
its
is
its
being bad
is
in practice.
In short, such
at length arrived,
warrant
its
being lejected
tred, at
to the million,
commonly
House
felt still
more
galling
with contenipt.
" Looking at the
of
Commons
with these
Reform,)
lects,
my
its
chief deone.
and
to attempt the
Ch.
9-]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
Jio
y
297
To
propose no system^
name
duce
in
men proposed to be addressed Anno 1810, by Mr. Brougham: in this strain were they addressed Anno 8 19 by Sir James
were these
J
Mackintosh,
laws.
in
moving
for a
To
give a
with them, in this same way they have ever been addressed, and must ever be addressed,
till
by radical
the house
reform (for
shall
it
less)
whom
the
of every element
is
an essential characteristic.
Oh
what a picture
How
cutting, yet
how
haps intended
To
sham
comprehensive
acquaintance with
the
When
idolatry in
all its
the time about June 1810. Reference is Government periodical called the Satirist (by Manners), June 1810, No. 33. p. 570. But that wretched performance is now
*
:
made
298
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[C/l. 9-
but a by- word, with what scorn will not ancestors such
as these be looked back
upon by
their posterity
all
Intimate as
is
these con-
trivances, there
however enough of
distinction to
&c.
On
what
lacy,
It
sitions of
will
is,
not the use of them, but merely the abuse. be placed to the account of abuse^ as often
may
bestow-
by
What
is
is,
that
many
this
to
which
justly
applicable.
view, there
is
bad
in
it,
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSlON^.
to hold out, as
299
which
is
The
those
i.
dation in reason.
There
is
a general propensity in
who adopt
push
it
too far:
e. to set
is
not true
set
it
it
and
to
to pursue
thence, pro
tantOj in cases in
which
it
is
false, fallacious,
repug-
utility.
is
The
ac-
knowledged
But what
Not
that theoreti-
cal propositions,
tent,
e.
false in toto
may
an ex-
is,
of
tiie
own mind
words,
of his knowledge.
If,
300
FALLACIES OF CONTUSION.
extensive, he
is
[Ch. 9-
the
more deeply
being theofalsehood
is
its
its
inferred as if
as
much
reason as
it
were
speaks must be
false.
One would
tliing
were some-
"
am
not given
to speculation."
culation, theory,
am no
is it
friend to theories."
Spe-
what
but thinking?
Can a man
disclaiming thought
?
;
If they
for
they
mean nothing
unless
be a
little
more
no-
mean
To
struction to mankind,
man must
disclaim every
level of a beast.
;
A
right,
man means,
Would
not what he
little
says have
be a
it
more
common
sense
that
it
with
common
theoretical
than
saying of
?
is
that
speculative
5tC/. 2.]
ALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
301
Sect. 2.
Utopian.
it is
As
to the epithet
rightly applied
seems
found in
In Sir
it.
the
of
may
be
suffi-
spoken of by him
them
altogether, very
is
little
tendency to produce
it.
Such, in general,
likely
enough
romance
any
and thus
romantic
is
likely
in
employed.
of this
Causes and
command
event
is
staiices, or
even
to obstacles, as to causes.
If the established
state
abuse which
in so
many shapes
interwoven in
it,
like
SOa
fenders of
fection,
it
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
represent
tliis
it
[C/l. 9-
in
ascribed to
it,)
an Utopia
having
effects,
it
in their nature to
it
but having
effects.
in their
of contrary
In every department of Government, say the advocates of reform, abuses and imperfections are abun-
dant
Goarti-
own
partly
shape
is
Under
these circumstances,
if
really entertained,
any conside-
mass of abuse
be made,
to
without a cause.
But
in that
all
along been
preserved,^
every
now and
much
more or
less
SeCi. S.]
rulers.
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
303
is
nothing of utopianism
BOtorious fact
;
for
it is
matter of universally
and
in this faculty
many of
in
this faculty
by
those
who
profit
in this invaluable,
and,
rests the
Sect. 3.
Good
in theory ^
bad
in pi^actice.
it is
Even
almost
the existence of so
many
institutions,
of the greatest number, are maintained, because favourable to the interests of the ruling few.
Custom, blind
and
sinister interest,
is
In so far as the
many
own
separate interests, in
it it
has ap-
has been,
One consequence
is,
that
in the
304
to, if
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 9-
man
alike
make of
if it
it
its
goodness,
be good,
its
badness,
be bad, are
removed out of
end
tlie
If
it
been used
to,
is
department
in question, is the
be presented, and whether the particular plan in question be conducive to that end.
What
he has been
used
it
to, is, lo
gree unlike,
conducive to the
in
proper end
sort that
in
such
preponderant ones, he
will
it
be afraid so far to
commit
he be
to
it
himself as to pronounce
a bad one.
to
By way of comit
show
will
his candour, if
perhaps admit
be
be-
theory.
But
this
concession made,
is
one thing
will
Sect. 3.]
tAllacies of confusion.
for his concession,
3o5
pay him
that
it is
it is
in
a word, that
good
bad
in practice.
in
abundance which
in
practice, is
the judgment of
some of
the persons by
whom
they
is
What
which
is
is
is,
that a plan
proving good in
practice can
theory.
the
is
expected from
it,
be defective in practice
and
if
the dis-
advantageous
When
by gas-lights was
by the person
wiio considered himself or gave himself out for the inventor, one of the items in the article of expense
one capital
306
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
the supposition that the pipes might
lliat in
[Ch. 9all
On
of them
under-
If,
on
were
on the side of
profit,
But whatever
it
it
cannot but
and
such
trial
losses,
any item
is,
is
loss omitted,
loss,
in
a bad one,
how advantageous
the result
the whole.
In
to indivi-
But
if
it is
because
of profit and
loss,
some circumstance
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
way of addition
to capital
507
either in the
by other means,
or in the
Of the
hand
to hand,
and
commonly with a
loss
Sect. 4.
Too good
in
to be practicable.
There
plan
is
one case
may
where,
shape of personal
accomplishment that
some
a
terest
made
of the whole.
Where
it is
some one
number of
indivi-
of moral possibility
tion of this sort,
though extremely
:
not altofears,
by
religious
hopes and
But when
it is
on
is
reckoned
upon, then
Utopian
it is
may
In
this case,
X 2
308
bility,
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[CIl. 9-
on the mere consideration of the nature of the results the production of which is aimed at by the
plan,
it
But
it is
whose mouths
by
observation
is
most
in
use,
is
meant to be conveyed.
The
description of persons
it
whom
chiefly, if
not exclusively,
is
employed,
it
on the ground of
of an
have recourse to
who might
it
otherwise have
been disposed.
It is
drawn
speak of
it
as impracticable.
of
its
conduciveness to the
together) they
community taken
it
it is
not, therefore, in
it
whom
it
Under favour of such observation as may have been made of the instances in which plans, the goodness
effect,
has been
beyond dispute,
have
failed
Sect, 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
309
at
is
that so
marks may, as
inducing a
it
signal,
effect of
man
to turn aside
whether
the
in the
way of
way of active
opposition, to bestow on
the
same
Upon
the face of
it,
it
bility that, if
of your attention
upon
it.
you would
find that, as
with
much,
practicability
would at
be wanting to
it.
To
you can
think no
and
There
cious triumph
grin of mali-
grin
made up
of malicious triumph
accompaniment
all his
310
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
difficulty
[C/l. 9-
Proportioned to the
of persuading
men
to
is
the need of
all
such arguments
them
to
regard
it
as impracticable
and according
to the sort
it
of
to deal with,
you accompany
with
lamentation.
There
is
object of which
to contribute to their
plishment
and
in the
number of them
is
When
objections on the
made
the
most
still
of,
by these, men
may
who
be turned
to
that of one
a well-
his eyes,
it
will
not
be easy for a
man who
is
made
the ob-
improbity
capable of soaring:
how
completely,
when an opportunity
itself,
the
mask
will
sometimes be taken
is
off:
what
in the complicity, or in
a good thing
is
nugatory,
and as such,
foolish language,
what
shall
we say of
Sect.
4:.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
says, to
311
at doing
aim
a bad thing?
In so
many
words,
it
may be
questioned whether
:
but what
is
absoin
it,
and
and over.
To aim To
at perfection has
been pronounced
either at
to be utter folly or
wickedness
say that
and both or
the extreme.
7?iau)
man
has so
much
this
has been
speculation: propositions or
down
as a
Priestley an observation to
By
Godwin an
Frenchman
for the
By Condorcet,
or
some other
Frenchmen of
By
this
men
if
and
you
too,
whosoever you
are,
you dare
to
maintain
enemy
if
to
mankind."
official
offi-
he be an
man,
cial
Sir,
like yourself,
was an
this tendency,
and written a
312
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
to end,
is
[Ch. 9-
a demonstration
:
neither a
madman
he
call
himself
and to you
even as
if
perfect,
in so
our Father
heaven
is
perfect
;"
and
doing has
it
commanded
to
its
By
in question be
perhaps for
To
those
who
is
in
To
all idle
men
all
haters of business
a con-
is
where
electors' votes
appearare
money
among
2. All ignorant
men
all
who
its
for
own
saving grounds.
3.
men
in
whose
instance, in-
Sect. 4.]
I'ALLACirs or confusion.
313
formation
readingsuch
its
mine a question on
own
merits.
When
gument
is
a train of argument
when but
a single ar-
an operalevel-
tion so troublesome
an expression of scorn
as far as
it
goes, a just,
Under the name of theory, &c. what is it that to men of this description is so odious ? what but refe:
to that
in question,
is,
the end
pursued
?
and
refe-
(how often
must
it,
and ever
But were
made
to this
end
every
thing almost
would stand
r
condemned.
What
:
then
be the standard
Custom-^Custom
situations,
Custom
being their
tice
of
own men in
the
same
put in motion
sinister interests.
314
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ck, 10.
CHAPTER
X.
Paradoxical Assertion.
Ad judicium.
I.
of
Classification.
Simplification.
2.
Use-
3.
Mischievousness of
4.
Disinterestedness,
a mark of
profligacy.
Exposition.
When
utility is
whose
inter-
some
instances in a sort of
of desperation
made
this at-
tack
upon
it
commonly employed
specific objection,
with-
by any
he has assailed
it
with
strain of invective^ in
folly
of
it
were undeniable.
Exposure
in question
is
is
scarce susceptible
may have
its
use.
sincerity.
By a
verbal warfare,
Sect. 1.]
FALLACIES OF COXFUSION.
by any
315
man
:
laying claim to
yet so
it is.
As
to utility.
whom
the principle
of
utility
book
* Lord Loughborough, when Attorney-General*. The observation made by him in the year 1789, was reported to me presently after it was made. Not till many years after some time, as I perceive, after what is in the text was written, was the true import perceived by me. The charac-
ter in
which
:
at the time
its
it
presented itself to
absurdity
true character
By
the prinstates
ciple of utility,
what
understood, was
that principle
my
which
the greatest
I
still
By
whose
it
desire
it
attained,
endeavour to attain
Government
that
it is
know
ness of the ruling few, and not that of the greatest number, that
the end pursued on each occasion by the ruling few.
the interest which, on that occasion, as
What
if
then was
on
all
occasions, that
member
But
of Go-
not exclusive-
mind
It
field
vernment, in a
number
to the extent of the competition, called for sacrifices to be interests of the class to
made of the
object of his solicitude, could not but, in his eyes, be a dangerous one.
in high situa-
employed about December 1809 by minister Percival, then Attorney-General, in calling down the vengeance of the law on
I forget
316
Fi\LLAClES OF CONFUSION.
[C//. 10.
*,
the
:
principle of utility
the principle
itself,
investigation in
which
to the
is
purposes of legislation or
to
common
of it.
is,
life,
application
be
made
it,
that to
make a right
comeach
patience^, sincerity;
it,
decisions in the
Not
apply
it,
that,
promises to
himself a capacity to
ever
make
use of
It is only
when,
if
consulted,
feels
that he ever
to prove
takes
upon him
to
do without
it
and
any
it
sufficient for
him-
On
the
same occasion
in
By
oJi
the picture
it
seemed
to give
of
who
bore a part in
my
mind.
Sect. 2.]
F.\LLACIES OF CONFUSION.
317
in discourse
which goes by
name
good
classification,
or,
simply, classification.
When
is
the subject a
man
to
man
it
have been
cast.
1 .
If for example,
snow and
name and
known by
that
name were
2.
found in answering
if
it
either
by a yes or no.
And
of lead were to be used in a pudding instead of any of the sort of sugar usually applied to that purpose,
practical
inconveniences
v/hich
you please.
'
by
flour
''
was one, white lead was employed instead of some recovered, and some died.
In a book written
Anno
1781, published
Anno
title
SI8
FALLACIES OP CONFUSION.
[Ch. 10.
classes,
as a
fruit,
test
one denomination by
the
names
the
On
likewise given,
among
English lawyers,
no such
fair
might
all
of com-
mon
be ascribed.
interest
ought
is in
an extreme degree
system of law
and an implied
invitation to those, if
in the sub-
to see
it
well adapted to
professed purposes, to
show
was
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
bad one
it
319
to be, or
radically
else to take
better.
is
But
it
be-
who
most conversant
with this subject, that the whole system, instead of being as good as
it
those
who
live
under
will
endure to see
it,
the invi-
Medicine,
Chemistry,
Natural History
in
all
its
made
acknowledged
fect
to be
commensurate
and at once
ef-
and cause
made
in the
art of classification:
nor
in
of science, would
dividual by
it,
whom
would
Why
this difference ?
Beis
is
opposed
advancement of the
;
art of legisla-
not opposed
is
not, either
immediately de-
3.
Simplification.
By
law
"
320
vated*.
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
Consequently, to every one by
[C/l. 10.
whom any
wish
is
law
On
be
trusted, a
enough
such
it
to stand
up and rank
may
be called,
among
the
use of
it
evidence of the
circumstantial kind
sive.
are, at
and
if
none such
really
were percep-
go a thorough change,
4. Disinterestedness
a mark of profligacy.
up
official
emolument,
is
nounced,
in
so
many
:
basest profligacy
On somewhat more
mark
as ever
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
321
most
was
shameless profligacy.
An
assumption contained
to
in
it,
numerous
man
is
there
is
value
nothing
that
power are
human
heart.
is this
So opposite
engagement
money which,
it, is
content to accept,
since
a proof
of
it*^.
exclamation,
madman, than whom none perhaps was ever more mischievous, this incendiary, who contributed so much
to light
whom,
et
des Recompenses
Rose,
322
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 10.
bow
the knee.
Not
to
that of jus-
of the peace,
before
whom
he was
bal
falls
filth
from
official
heads,
How
to
To
let off
success,
of a party.
you
are,
staring at you,
men
is
will
no laughing
at
Moreover a thing of
in a speech, than in
much
better
that, for
several reasons.
The use of a speech is to carry the measure of the moment and if the measure be but carried, no matThe measure being carried, the ter for the means.
:
paradox
than
is
it is is
strange
no matter
the measure
is
carried.
War
off.
Peace you
in
Sect. 5.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
the paradox has had
its effect.
323
the
mean time
:
A law
has passed
one.
Some day
:
may
receive a
remedy
may
In a speech too,
it is all
profit,
:
no
loss.
Your
point
may be gained,
where
it
or not gained
It is
was.
is
whichever
notion of
to B,
most convenient.
To
its
it, it is
your speech;
it is
who, because
yours, or because
it,
an ab-
it is
not your
one
this is exactly
is
what
it,
is
wanted.
to
is
Ay who on your
it
credit
ready to take
suits
and
adopt
in the noxious
one which
it
your purpose,
some
it
would be
weak indeed
and swears
for
you
to
belabours poor
If in the choice
* Till lately,
the cause
men cannot
Y 2
324
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 10.
of reason be ascribed to
advantage: but
disavow, that
very words
:
you thus
lose part of
to
still
you; you
is
as
it
should be.
Thus
it is
spoken
and unmisort of
nuted speeches
is
advantage as
is
(which, in so far as
by judges, and
lawyers
:
called
all
thundering
who have
to
it
mean-
ing.
To
please.
The
law,
had had a
set,
But
in the
speech
to writing, or if they
the speech-maker
as safe as
if
he had
whom,
in
endeavoured
to
be practised
in this
in the state
of ser-
Sect. 5.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
35
vitude in
shackles of authority*,
success,
may
which
this species
In pro-
portion as intellect
less
and
less
hold upon
authority, fortified
by the
in this
way
mention
it
in this
way
and
when adflagrant
the more
its
persua-
force.
Why?
because
ground, a persuasion
so strong a persuasion, of
formed.
When
is
the source,
it,
the
made
for the
in
Hence
of faith not go
that
most magnanimous of
est.
conclusions,
Higher than
can;
by
is
attained
See
1.
Vciccundiaiii,(l\\.
1.
Fallacv
ot
Authority.
326
FALLACIES or CONFUSION,
is
\Cfl. 10.
of failure.
Be
the nature of
man
is
considered, and
how absolute
exercised over
and hope,
won-
be
it
by the most
irresistible
of the passions
is
The understanding
itself
is
of
no spring of action
the understanding
will
is
:
is
but an
it is
by hopes and
;
end of action
to find
determined
all
that
reason does,
is
But where,
at the
mere suggestion of a
of
men
we
see
men
living
and
act-
virtue to
;
metamorphose
here
it is
of usurpation
con-
is
the understanding
deluded '^
a ground for decision, a judge asserts as true, some fact
'
To form
to his
if,
which
which,
knowledge
is
not true
some
tection the
power of a judge, a
this
man
he would by
famy.
in-
To
screen
to
it,
this He,
exceeding
in wickedness the
into view
in the
same
appellation, fie-
Sect, 5.]
Hon, which
is
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
327
which we are indebted to the poetic gehad you lie in your mouth ?
power
do
it
without the
Your
lie is
a foolish one.
this
Have you
laid
no such power?
It is
a flagitious one.
In
328
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 11
CHAPTER
Non-causa pro causa
:
XI.
obstacle con-
or,
Cause and
Jounded.
Ad judicium.
Rxpositmi.
When
have a
in
it
;
you
set of abuses, or
any of them
to
defend
after
in-
more or
good
effects the
existence of which
you have
(collectively
them ascribe
Cum
In every
system which
is
of long standing,
in
and
di-
predominance of
may
it,
which
at
result of
among
may be observed
to
as having
place in
distinction
have operated
in
Ch. 11.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
;
3^9
others,
results observable in
tliese
have found,
in
many
efficient or
many
ob-
stacles or preventives.
Meantime,
if
which
it is
duce.
cause them
some connexion
At any
rate,
you
will,
as far as
for
will
whereupon, no sooner
is
330
[Ch.
U.
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
than
be apt to occur
this ?
Well, and
To
this ?
which no answer
is
causes,
:
obstacles,
stances
these, therefore,
Example
Good Government
sented as a cause,
the
Obstacle
repre-
influence
of the Croxvn.
compared with
all
absolute or
is distin-
guished from
is,
the people,
it
SecL
}.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
if
331
be seen to
with pro-
and on many,
may
cannot
it.
In point of
fact,
the
Commons, some
the king,
really,
in supposition,
nominees
ment,
with
viz.
the
members of
viz. to
the pur-
inflicted
under the
name of punishment,
efficient influence
destroyed
the nominees
332
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
\Cll. 11.
an obstacle.
In uhat
structive
way
it
same
so
effect,
it
much
as attempted to be
shown
it
has been on
this,
on no
cir-
being a concomitant
cumstance.
Example
2.
Effect,
good Government
represented as a
cause.,
Obstacle
in
station
of the bishops
To good
tributory,
government, neither
in the situation
of a
man
is
be conin
it.
carried
on
in the
part
debates
his
and gives
upon an
average scarce so
many
:
and give
votes
and as
when any
sets
instance of
a-staring
happens
to take
if it
place,
it
men
vote,
and talking as
it
were a phenomenon.
those
How
comes
that the
number of
who
Sect, 2.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
333
?
so small
Betem-
And why
1.
not suitable
in that
Because
war of
personalities in which, in
man of this class is in a peculiar degree vulnerable. The Apostles, did they bear any part in, had they any seat in, the Roman Senate, or so much as in the Common-council of the city of
House
consist, a
Jerusalem
Was
it
Peter,
was
it
James, was
it
John,
was
it
to
clothe himself in
to place
If yours were
like
them
Because there
in
is
a general
feeling,
though not
expressed
and
fit
not a
man who
is
he thinks
by
Old or New.
So many things of which, however improbable, he
is
bound
334
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ck. 11.
Matter of duty
to be,
to
him
to be,
So many vulnerable
rassed,
embarnot em-
is
barrassed.
is
not shackled.
it
man whose
a
misfortune should
it
be to hear a word
listen to
it.
or two of reason,
would be
his
duty not to
To
man
and indecorous
it
would be as
if
man
said
is
to
be ex-
By answers
is
of this sort,
established,
is
im-
moveable, and not susceptible of experiencing diminution from any objections, or increase from any
answers.
Example
3.
Ob-
stacle stated as
On
with relation to
more
Sect. 3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
335
much need
made
into a
might be made by a history of the treatment experienced from this quarter by the inventions of the
quaker Lancaster.
would there be
it,
first
rudiments of
an ob-
make
converts,
what
is
that
no school
and
since, in so far as
mentary parts
he experienced the
in
knowledge of
was
was
theirs to
confine and
stifle it.
Montezuma
outshines, as every
body
knows,
all
Common-
Where
(said
336
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is it
[67/. 11.
that
we
"
are to
Look
for
it
!"
pontiff,)
Where
blind sceptic,
but in the
down
the altafs
of the great
God ?"
in full
convocation and
full
chorus
the doctors,
" Yes, in the copiousness of the streams in which the sweet and precious blood of innocents flows daily
down
God."
;
Example
Effect^
national virtue
Obstacle re-
it
that,
what
it
may,
so far as
money
or in
is,
in the cha-
cause,
employed
it,
in the
view or
efii--
what degree of
made of
its
the
much upon
magnitude
Anno
1817.
Sect. 4.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
in which,
5^7
with which,
as
and the
skill
it is
and
instrument
possible,
is
no
less
and
it
some
cases
much more
frequent, so
to apply
that when,
working, a
man
is
paid alike
whether
he
from him
is
it,
mere mockery
which no
is
necessary),
fit
is
necessary to
it,
every
to afford
him means
Now
man
:
if this
it
be true of
is
all
men,
it
is
true of every
and
it
false.
is
It is a proposition that, be
ever so true,
not
evident,
but
requires argument
it
perience to render
so,
any degree
promoted
It is
a proposition that, be
is
it
to a certain extent
ever so true,
true,
money
S38
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
[C/l.
11.
necessary.
For without a
particle
this
viz.
rendered by
men one
towards another,
:
among
Quakers
and
if
this sort is
is
rendered,
done,
who
work of
upon him
dis-
to
Church of England.
It is another proposition that
still
remains to be
to the
whole extent
wanted,
in
duction of virtue
is
it is
money
necessary,
it
quantity,
money should by
the power of
Government
Ch. 12.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION".
339
CHAPTER
XII.
Partiality-preachers Argument.
Ad judicium.
From
the abuse, argue not against the use,
Exposition,
From
The
of
itj
abuse
it is
an error
(it
turn that
may be
exposure of
it
it.
Be
the institution
what
these con:
what-
soever
ill
effects
it,
these, in so far
at least as they
Thus
as to past results
Exposure.
Now
ivhich
1
.
then
come
it
340
tion,
FALtACIES OF CONFUSION.
you ought
all
[Ch. 12.
effects
to set
down
all
the
good
and
omit
This
it
is
capable
of being applied
it.
this
needs not
much
to
be said of
2.
insti-
tution
it
to argue against
on the supposition that the sum of the bad ones is greater than the sum of the good ones, merely from
the circumstance that
gether, there are
among
all its
some
bad side of
the account.
In
such
is
maxim that nothing can be said against the truth of As an instruction, it is too obvious to be of any it. use in the way of warning, it cannot by possibility do
:
is it
may have
to
use.
affairs it
amounts
viz.
Ch,
\3.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
341
CHAPTER
The
XIII.
the Means.
End justifies
Ad judicium.
In
exposure.
The
in the
Courier
Newspaper of
the 28th
a.
the
Morning Chronicle of
The end
has place.
1.
justifies
the means.
failing,
Yes
but on three
justification
no such
One
is,
2.
or
if evil,
is
there
is,
spoken of as enjoying
1
favour of the
to
have
The
which
that
manifested
in
paper are the principles entertained and acted upon by that royal
arbiter of our fate, in
whose
Asia,
if
are
placed.
VVithout deigning to
received, to
342
3.
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
That they have more of good
as the case
in
[Ck. 13.
them, or less
others,
of
evil,
may
be, than
any
by the
at-
restrictions,
note the
am
at.
The
goodness of
it is
indisputable.
If by the goodness of
may
give a
pound
for
prudence.
it,
may
for nothing
justification
what
is
In the
it
station
among
the ins,
will
whom power
in
may
at
any time
find
a pleasure
is
com-
whom power
exercised, for
Regent by one letter dated August 1819 bestows his approbation upon the conduct maintained by the Manchester Magistrates, on
the occasion of the slaughter committed by their officers
:
by the armed yeomanry on an vmarmed multitude and by another, dated the same month, upon Sir John Bing, the General Commander
of the Regulars, for the support given by him to
say of this ? Let prudence give the answer.
to serve such a Sovereign
:
it.
What
is
shall
we
by
The
is
Secretary
worthy
the Sovereign
worthy
to be served
such a Secretary.
ful servant
to his
own
A com-
Ch.
13.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
'Z4i^
power of
cruelties.
The
cities,
commit
atro-
spur,
never suffered to be
it
idle.
this
fallacy, in so far as
The OUTS,
same
and continually
still
for the
same
fallacy,
it
though the
but rarely
The oracular party adage- invented by the Whigs Not men but measures, or Not measures but men
for according as
it
may word
sent.
either way,
This
fit
men
in ques-
which
it
can be attained,
344
FALLAClliS OF CONFUSION.
[C/l.
14
CHAPTER
Oppostr-Generats Justijlcation
XIV.
:
Not measures
but
men;
or,
Not men
but measures.
Ad
invidiam.
According
ticular
to the notions
commonly
entertained
consists in
man
to
own
opiit
nion
; \yhen
his opinion is so
in so
and
so, to profess
to
mind
embrace
That,
it is
to be,
in his opinion,
it
endeavours to have
thought
and treated as
sucii
by the House
side,
and so again,
it is
it
to be
make
'
Ch. 14.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
345
All aphorism, said to have been a favourite one with the late
is
head of
Not men
but measures
or,
in either
aphorism
! is
Not
rism
is
7neasures but
it
men
the
marked out
opposite.
Not men
but measures
If
you look
to speeches, then
what were
it
the
The words
who is speaking of it, and more particularly of him who spoke it, that it should be. But on one occasion we have the aphorism from
pose of him
the pen of Charles
then, if applied
it
found to have no direct bearing on it. " Are to be attended to,'' are the words employed
this occasion to
on
"
How
vain,
in his
how
idle,
how presumptuous
the o[)inion
men, are
to be attended to
Weak enough
as thub expressed,
it
niust be con-
'316
F7\LLAClS OF CONFUSION.
:
[Ck. 14.
fessed
to be
by a statesman
As
if
any one
tended to
and as
if,
even
in
'^
fit
What must
be confessed
is,
that to a
bad
set,
conducting the
of
this or that
it
goes be-
tation of
which one
eftect
may
be to confirm them in
their seat.
to
have been
that
it is
by the badness of
their
meathe
men
if
men can be grounded are really the bad men they are supposed a little patience, and they will come out
appellation of bad
that
they
to be, have
with
some
it
may
attacks
if
rather
man
be the alternative
their
to sec a set of
seat,
men
fixed
in
this
all-commanding
Ch. 14.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
and pernicious use of
is
it
;
347
or,
ally extensive
for the
to be
had of pre-
make
tlie
House and
the pubutility
of which he
himself satisfied.
Under
this system,
when
has a determined patron on the throne, and that patron has got a set of ministers that suit this ruling
purpose, misrule
may swell
this is
out any one measure in such sort bad that you can
fix
upon
it
and say
sufficient
ground
for
pu-
may
be at
noxious of
itself,
the people, by
some erroneous
ministry
opi-
to the
be turned
alternative.
short,
and
no such
alterrid-
The chance of
renewed continually.
tried
The
question supposed to be
tried
348
tion tried
is
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
but one and the same,
it
[Ch. 14.
viz.
nistry or shall
not continue
The
is
like the
wager
con-
in a feigned issue, a
mere
farce, which,
but for
its
trying,
Ch. 15.]
fALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
349
CHAPTER
XV.
Ad judicium.
E.vposition.
This
presented in the
more
convenience, alleged
be
In either case
mediable.
If at the
it
will
be either remediable or
irre-
then
it is,
same time irremediable and preponderant, and then only, that in the character of an obof
in
itself conclusive.
jection
it is
By him
cernment there be a
failure,
it
will not
be
felt
if in re-
will
have been
felt,
but
it
The
afforded for
350
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
is
[Ch. 15.
keeping
limits
down
the
quantum of
it
by
their creation,
to all
there
is
and
of the crown,
in the character
of peremptory bars to
Exposure,
The groimd on which an objection of this stamp may with propriety be considered and spoken of under
the denomination of a fallacy,
the proposed
is
where the
is left
utility
of
new establishment
unimj)eached,
proposed to be
whom
a
any ob-
on them amounts
utility
to
virtual ac-
knowledgement of the
tablishment
:
of the proposed
new
es-
inasmuch as
in
ra-
of the statement
at least,
more unnatural,
tiian that if
Ch. \5.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
find
551
to
a man could
the particular establishment in question in contradistinction to all others, he should confine himself to
all
existing
that
is,
to almost the
whole frame of
Such
is
common-place ob-
to specific ones,
an objection
any overpaid
exempted
At any
rate,
wherever
it
him
in the
House
in the
it
another person
who
office, it
answer
be
When
you were
in office, there
these
to abolish, notwith-
yet now,
when a
set
of offices
that there
is
is .so?)ie
352
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[C'/f.
15.
No
completely
in equilibrio,
advantage
in the
shape of
new
in the
shape of
expense of the
emolument proposed
to
be attached to
than that of
them on the
would
other,
a weight
much
less
the mischief from the increase of sinister influence,suffice to turn the scale.
Take
Suppose
(wliat
is
new
offices is
Suppose on the
may
with sufficient
on
(what
is
were with
sufficient precision
capable of stand-
this
on the
side of disadvantage.
Here would be a
sufficient
reason for
tlie
rejection
Ch.
15.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
field
is.
S53
the argument in
common-place as
any
it
But
in regard to
it
rate,
is
how
far
is
from
Upon
that
it
would
crown,
may be
is
may be
entide
set
down
It
is
surdy
suf-
ficient to
to be considered
it
by
itself.
The
the
of Parliament.
But
to that
eflfec-
number of
found
offices,
or preservation
of which so
:
much
as a plausible reason
it
could be
and were
remedy
any new
it
354
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Cll.
15.
properly
'wears out
for,
this
fallacy
is
wont
to be applied,
is
mere observation of a
profit as likely
grounded, pronouncing
it
dijob.
The
is
made
that there
is
no way of
dividuals
;
by benefiting
in-
and
come home
is
to the
bosom of
at least
some one
individual,
to that
is
not entitled
name.
from constituting an argument
in dis-
So
far then
goes, an
argument
in favour of the
measure.
In no case whatsoever
sition
on
can
this consideration
measure.
supposition
In no case whatsoever
on no imaginable
goes,
fail
can
it,
so far as
it
of serving
Ch, 15.]
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
S55
in fa-
Is the
measure good
Is the
It
adds
mass of
its
advantages.
?
It subtracts,
amount of
it,
from the
real
amount of
At
the
same time
is
in practice, there is
no argument,
any
perhaps, which
which more
if
the character of an
:
argument
a proposed measure
itself, is
no
ar-
with more
To what
cause
is
Two
1
.
character
It is apt to
the measure, or
who
any
way
In
ought to be ascribed.
this character, to the justness
of the conclusion
in
which the
shown
A 2
S56
rALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[C/l. 15.
and the
numin its
good cause.
The
envy.
other cause
is
To
the
man
to
whom
is
it is
an object of envy,
man
is
evil
to himself.
By
the
writer, the
supposed advantage
in the character
:
denounced
of
an
evil,
to the
is
as
fallacious argument,
and of
re-
man from
the
employment of
it
is
not
meant
one
So
it is
far
considered, the
more
;
closely
it
will
be seen to be
salutary, at
salutary
least in
realized, but so
society
See Part
2.
Personalities.
Ch.
15.]
TALLACJES OF CONFUSION.
357
The
legislator
who
social motives,
his
vocabulary pass under the denomination of pure motives, will find his
no prosecutors who
the pre-
composed of
fees,
and may
sitting
of
to
what was
at the
same time
dence.
The
practical inference
is
that, if
he would avoid
measure he
is
opposing, a
nrian
employing
this
argument
since, in as far as
he employs
he
is
employing
in
it
in that character
may
na-
employer
which
is
to silence),
itself sus-
he
is
employing another
fallacy,
of
and conclusive.
the
same psychological
in
good and
Those
358
FALLACIES OF CONFUSION.
[Ch. 15.
may
social
engage
in his service,
at
to
any
in action or likely
come
he can muster, to
his
own
social purposes.
Upon
which appertain
common
in
with relation to
2.
irrelevant.
They
are
all
To
all
of them un-
necessary.
4.
They
are
all
to
bad purposes
all
viz. to
the ob-
removal of the
discernible in the
By means
all
of them
350
6.
CHARACTER COMMON.
By
-[Ch.
1.
which
them,
in
a degree
more or
but, in a
more
particular
some
is
instances
continually
of business.
7.
On
to operate.
On
whom
they operate,
:
and on
whom
shape of insincerity.
The
practical conclusion
is,
that in proportion as
them can
Ch.
2.]
MISCHIEF PRODUCIBLE.
361
CHAPTER
11.
Of the mischief producible by Fallacies, The first division that presents itself in relation
the mischief of a fallacy,
to
may be
expressed by the
words
specific
and general.
of a fallacy, consists in the
The
specific mischief
it
tendency which
The
tellectual depravation
false
this
mischief
may
again
doors.
is
Under
which has
its
seat in the
the
supreme
legislative
body.
Under
all
seat in the
among
362
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
[C/l. 3.
CHAPTER
The
it
III.
Sinister interest
terest.
self-conscious
sinister
in-
2. 3.
Interest-begotten-prejudice.
Authority-begotten-prejudice.
i.
4. Self-defence,
e.
self-
affected by
conscious.
is
The mind
of every public
man
subject at
;
all
times
to the operation of
two
distinct interests
is
a public and
is
a private one.
that which
part of
it:
some portion of
:
community
less
of which
is
that
which
is
composed of
interest.
his
own
individual
personal
his
own
inter-
and that to
Ch.
3.]
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
if
363
Take
public
for
example pecuniary
interest
It is the per-
money
is
com-
munity
a share as possible,
and
his
if
own
use
it is
at the
same time
own
possible
no
part at
all,
life
human
any public
as depends
interest
not in so far
upon
own
personal interest.
Towards
the
advancement of
public-spirited,
the public
most
which
is
as
is
much
to
as to say the
can do,
his
own
personal
amounting
Were
there ever so
much
is
it,
interest,
less
nor would
it
be the
incumbent on the
findf
legislator,
364
it
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
[Ch.
3.
and shape
his
measures accordingly.
But the more correct and complete a man's conception of the subject
is,
the
more
of personal,
is
no just cause
Why ?
Because upon
to
it.
moment
in
himself
and
and destructive
in reality.
strain of legislation,
no
supposition inconsistent with this only true and rational one, is acted upon.
built
On
in the
this supposition is
whatsoever
is
done
application
made
sup-
The
whose
by
:
conduct
interest,
it is
thus endeavoured to
and
interest,
it is
the
what
Ch. 3.]
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
SGS
evil
be wasted
its
sanction, for
compliance)
advice and
recommendation
Thence
class of
it
it is
of any
men, the
state of the
law
is
such as to make
the interest of
men
rise
may
be
made
with
full asis,
surance
its
is,
of
several
exceptions, will
if
accordingly,
how
inconsistent
A common
among
all
the virtues
To
the
word
in
less true.
Among
abuses in government,
the
logical
the
common denomi-
commune vinculum
sinister interest in
and
men who
are
members of a government so
36G
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
as any
[Ch. 3.
So long then
ticle
man
so long
has he an
man who
like kind.
the
same
situation has
an interest of the
attack
all
;
and
in
common
he
is
prepared
were
his ovin.
it
But
it is
one of the
by
fallacy.
It
is,
the con-
the
human mind
it
render
Abuses, that
and
it
at
all,
If
the
character
pertain.
in
Ch. 3]
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
^67
No
was
in force,
ma-
But
this principle
has
now
The
the preservation of
:
them
all
it is
to this
work that
some
favour-
many
some favourable
and
many
is
com-
posed.
He who
and without
To
still
:
and
do continue
to
whom
is
practised,
it is
and
to the
intellect
many by whom
which
endured.
all
good govern-
ment,
viz. that
states as being
on every occa-
sion the proper, and the only proper end in view and object of pursuit, the greatest happiness of the greatest
368
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
set
[Ch. 3,
up as the mark
would
be,
particular question
means can
be
to
field
of legislation, be
common
abuses
continues
unremedied,
so
long
in-
and to
whom
correction, but
it is
every
other
beneficial measure,
in so far as
same way.
It
is
still
existing state of
things,
the
and definable
right
:
Whatever
is, is
every
at
it
should be.
These are
his favourite
Ch.
3.]
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
369
no opportu-
maxims
maxims which he
beneficial to
and necessary to
Of
these,
his interest,
he
will
is
main-
common enemy
members of
and
properties of the
ral, his
the
community in gene-
own
sible protected
mies
of common malefactors.
it is
But
that such
protection has
been provided.
for his purpose.
Custom,
Cus-
tom
is
will
be his endeavour
Referred to general
to be conformable to
to the case, they
utility as their
it
shown
370
indeed,
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
on firmer ground
tlie
[Ch.
3.
tlian at present.
utility,
But by
placing them on
ground of
by the applica-
from
it.
The
principle
of general
utility
he
will
accord-
dangerous principled
for
so
him and
in-
the leading
mem-
Government,
in
Government, and
members of
all
of Protestants
his subordi-
and
Pope and
nates had
change known
formation.
At
fire
human reason was conducted by At present, the war against these powers can not be completely carried on by the same
and sword.
engines.
Fallacies, therefore, applied principally to the pur-
who
Sect. 1.]
CAUSES or utterance.
utility
371
this
on
ground,
in universal use
and
re-
to this
less
in prodigious variety,
and
reserve.
2 B 2
372
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
[Ch. 4.
CHAPTER
IV.
Second Cause.
Interest-begotten Prejudice.
If by interest
in
some shape or
other,
that
is
by a
will
is
produced, so diintellectual
faculty
terest,
though
of the in-
neither so perceptible
nor
But how
motive a
may
be asked)
is
it
man
is
is
Nothing
more easy
nothing
it.
more
frequent.
In-
is,
the
not, that of a
The
culties
:
is
not without
its diffi-
Not
sess
unfrequently, as between
two persons
living
may pos-
Ch.
4.]
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
373
own mind
is
governed.
Many
rect
woman
The a man
cause of this
is
is
By
interest,
continually prompted to
make himself
as
determined on
whom he
life.
is
more or
less
dependent for
But by
interest he is at the
he
any
source of enjoyment.
The
purely social
semi-social motives
men
it is
by the sup-
S7i
in
CAUSES or UTTERANCE.
[Ch. 4
which every
man
is
some monthly
their ene-
among
into the
mechanism
own mind,
duced he
finds referable to
him towards
from
it.
this
study, he finds
much
to repel
him
it is
in intellectual
seek for
it.
" All
men who
are fools
are actuated
;
by regard
for
self,
those only,
I
whose regard
the
confined to
self,
are wise.
am
of
number of
the wise."
is
Perhaps he
man
with
whom
a large proportion
with
may be mixed up
he do
?
What
it
In
in
vvill
the
first
instance set
it,
to the
in
a word,
own
Ch. 4.]
CAUSES or utterance.
will
'375
first step,
mental physiology,
this will
always be his
and
commonly be
his last.
Why
should he look
?
further
Why
Wliy undewould
ceive himself,
truth, that
flatters
him
The
cial class
have
in the
irksome
it
seems evident
vvill
of psychological self-anatomy
is
be.
The
view
pleasing
is
the
more pleasing
man
But the
less
is,
the greater, if
man's progress
in
it.
376
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
[Ch. 5.
CHAPTER
Third Cause.
V.
the
opinion of any
as having been
:
embraced without
sufficient
examination
it is
a judgis,
Now,
and by de-
some one
service,
to
whom
is it
it
would rather be
a
do
what
man
to
?
exami-
nation
One cause
is
of examination
true,
to
Of
upon
the universality
is
servation.
tions,
it
Pernicious as
its
it is
some of
its
applica-
has
the
human mind.
possible for
him
on the ground
bears
but a
Ch.
5.]
CAUSES OF UTTEKANCE.
377
be passes upon
it,
composed of the
like
judg-
it is
possible
if
any opinion
at all be
been imported.
But
in the case
name of
fal-
These
more or
less
concerned.
Where
which
sinister interest
may
also have
its
share.
its
root
immediately
terest,
obtains,
upon the
among
acceptors in any
multitude.
it
Having thus
becomes
consti-
men
in general the
erroneous
378
2.
CAUSES or utterance.
Having received the prejudice
at the
[C/i. 5,
hands of
whose adherence
sinister interest
ope-
him
to bestow
on
it,
in the
stowed on
it
he
fixes,
all considerations,
to procure
for
all
it
threatened.
Ch.
6.]
CAUSES OF UTTEllANCE.
379
CHAPTER
VI.
Fourth Cause.
Self-defence against counter Fallacies.
The
posed
may be
their sup-
sometimes driven
utility as
is
employ
fallacies,
from
an answer to counter
fallacies.
" Such
the nature of
men
(they
may
say), that
these arguments,
as they arc,
whom
a most
make
the strongest
is
and most
effectual impression
:
the measure
mischievous one
it
defeat.
It
is
the weakness of
in
the defence
not as sub-
and direct
ones.
But
if
employed
made of them
seem
i&
not in-
requisite.
That arguments of
380
be placed
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
in the front
[Ol. 6.
to the
proposed mea-
fallacies
in question,
and
in question
the obligation of
in
opposition to a measure
On
the occasion
man would
their true character. Yet he make this avowal. Why ? Because he forethat, on some other occasion or occasions, argu-
ments of
The more
verted
to,
the stronger
be seen
whom
ployed
of imbecility of mind,
really failed of
if,
if
arguments has
of improbity,
their
becoming
him
intellectual
as are
swayed
Ch.
by
6.1
CAUSES OF UTTERANCE.
gives currency to
381
them, he
Is
it
them unaccompanied
by such warning.
of the one or of the other species of imperfecof a mixture of both, that such deccptious
is
tion, or
argumentation
others, the
it
evidentiary
is
On this occasion,
as
on
is
answer
so constantly and
but the
On many
it
this
for sterling
in
but
if
you see
bur-
and held up
man
of strong as well as
of the mint
liim,
brilliant talents
by a very master
fear of injuring
set
upon the
list
who
to plead
382
USE OF FALLACIES.
[C/l. 7.
CHAPTER
U^e of these
them.
VII.
and acceptors of
Being
absurdity
all
a question
?
that naturally
])re-
how
it
how
it
is
tliat
so
much
Is
of them.
it
credible
(it
may
whom
Is
it
credible,
ceed
?
it is
No,
not credible
is
by
whom
the fallacy
conduct
is
grounded,
it
has presented
itself in
its
genuine colours.
But
in all
To
of arguments here
in
question are in
Ch.
7.]
USE OF FALLACIES.
:
383
to the situation
efficient the
1.
As
the
that
made
to him.
pendence
wisdom
su;
periority in
of
all
these qualities,
the reputation
matter of convenience to a
is
man
and
of
all
by these argu-
ments promised
1
.
made
:
secure.
As
to
independence
when a man
stands up to
to the vote
men
re-
the nature
accom-
it.
Though
in
fact directed
will
is
it is
governed, decency
is
under-
from
his
own
understanding,
own
its
direc-
tion.
But
it
is
matter of reward
it
is
it is
it is
by something of the
derstandino-
is
To
show,
384
then, that
it is
USE OF FALLACIES.
by the determination of
is
[Ch. 7.
his
own judgin
ment
determined,
it is
deemed adthe
visable to produce
and active
faculty,
is
The argument
exhibit, the
esta-
To
logue
this
purpose every
with
article in the
less effect
preceding cata-
may
more or
be made to serve,
Next, as to superiority
running over the
list,
on
in the scale of
wisdom
Some
special
se-
timidity attached to
is
commanding mind.
referred the arguments
To
this
class
may be
ad
system
is
the
who, beholding
in
ancestry, in authority, in
and
sizes, in
precedents of
all
sorts,
in
Ch.
7.]
use OF FALLACIES.
385
living,
many
tyrants to
whose
classes,
may by
apt ce-
prostration, in the
finding
followed by
much and
more devout
inferior idola-
crew of
whose
are,
in
the
compre-
his adroit-
which
:
it
had recommended
it
itself to
he pronounces
:
speculative,
romantic, visionary
it
it
may
:
be good in
too good
theory, but
would be bad
in practice
it is
to be practicable, the
goodness which
is
glitters
on the
con-
outside
is
sufficient proof,
evidence, and
:
tliat
its
appa-
it
to
be impracticable.
tiie
The confidence of
conveyed,
is
decision
is
and the
sufficient evi-
command which
By
the glance of
in all
moment
sufficed to give
bearings and
his situation
dependences.
the experience
which
make of
2 C
386
USE OF FALLACIES.
up
at
[Ch.
7.
By
the
in the
same
tone,
superiority of rank
superiority of talent.
much
to
it, is
stituted or
accompanied by the
The
hand,
is
to the set of
whom
honour with
his conversation
and
is
his
countenance.
this,
By
his rank
and opulence he
enabled in
is
as in
most congenial
By
the royal
to the
same
use.
The
hand.
The
wisdom
is
is
always
in-
but neither
the receiver,
so he but
his praise.
make due
profit of
what he
receives, without
The advantage he
is,
that
or
is
supposed
to be, in
him.
rsi-:
Ch.
7.
OF FALLACIES.
in
:3S7
In some circumstances
serve a man,
it
not
will,
and
to a certainty,
be construed
is
that
is
what he
ijives
men
to understand to be
;
his opinion,
posed
facts,
form an
not true.
By
tion,
may be supposed
on
his
that,
how
little
it, it
soever
may
be the
mind
in the character
of a reason.
is all
means
wisdom
exposed
to suffer
Thus,
of base argument, as
sometimes
it
man
passes
off
upon
of
its
vvorthlessness
not so much
its
vvorthlessness
but
not insensible of
worthlessness,
may
it
may
the character of
is,
the greater
is
388
USE OF FALLACIES.
[Ch. 7.
man cannot be
tied
he be but
satis-
of
its
by others.
Ch.
8.]
PARTICULAR DEMAND.
389
CHAPTER
VIII.
Two
but
it
appa-
for falla-
cies,
be to be matched elsewhere.
1.
In the
first
ence of the
free.
demand
Where
and publishing or
of
its
debates,
nor
the medium of the press, there is, consequently, no demand for fallacies- Fallacy is fraud, and fraud is useless when every thing may be done by force.
The
Anglo-American
States.
fal-
390
PARTICULAR DEMAND.
is
\Ch.
8.
demand
for fallacies
is
abundant.
On
demand
for fallacies
;
its
mag-
and
its
variety
upon the
On
crossing the
water,
fortune gave
to
;
British
America
were
of the
a part
behind.
:
No
no
blind sur-
no non-registering
registrars of
:
no
is
by
whom
no money
is
which
own
pockets
no judge acting as
pocketing 7000/.
under himself:
no judge
which
men
are forced to
No judge,
sits in
who,
in the
character
storms of fallacy and fury, the extortions and oppressions habitually committed in another
:
no
tithe-
gatherers exacting
immense
With
upon
authority, precedent,
many
others, oc-
be,
by
whom what
is
to
Ch.
8.]
PARTICULAR DEMAND.
391
them
it
will
readily occur,
that in the
is
American
not likely
>92
[Ch. 9-
CHAPTER
The demand for
IX.
Political Fallacies
how created by
number
In
which
fallacies will,
in the greatest
it
will
be neces-
still
and
must here
positions which,
if
not imme-
any
rate,
even by tho^
whom
1.
be allowed to possess
The end
litical
to be directed,
is
the greatinter-
number of persons
ested in
2.
it,
and
virtually
piness of the
many
In every
human
breast,
rare
and
short-lived
ebullitions,
the result of
C//.
9]
3^3
Stimulus
terest is
each per-
son's
own
interests of all
if
own
whom
he
is
con-
community
any
to
which he belongs
is
composed.
indi-
5. If in
political
viduals by
whom,
members put together, are preferred to the interest composed of their own individual interest, and
the other
the
to distinguish
from the
rest, that to
any practical
6.
when
for
than of contestation
this
it
will
predominance, no such species as that which we belong to could have existence: and that, supposing it,
if possible,
done away,
in so
much
391
persons,
[Ch. 9.
interest
was
whole of
such
their
more
own,
within a very
become
it
extinct.
If this be true,
follows,
by the unchangeable
constitution of
human
members of the community is shared, the interest of the many over whom the power is exercised, will, on every occasion, in case of comall
the other
petition,
whom
the
power
is
interest of
the
many
may, with
unquestionable propriety,
bad arrangement
rangement
those excepted,
is
both parties
9.
sacrificed.
or
may be
is
termed, an
seen, or supposed
many, being
in
act or in endeavour
Ch.
9]
395
any rate such
at
it is
so
is
vour to preserve,
is
but
such
profit.
would be found
to ap-
do derive
and particular
all
profit.
Thus
or,
it is,
that in every
community
in the
men
in
power,
in
maintenance of abuse
it
in every
shape
in
which
they find
12.
established.
in possession, the
Outs have
is
expectancy.
Thus
far,
therefore, there
no
distinction
between the
sinister interests
of the
13.
Thus far
in
which
mode
This
is
own
396
[C/l. 9-
modes
the
own, and
successful rivals.
14. In addition to that particular
terest
and
sinister in-
which belongs
to
them
in their quality
of ruling
members,
interest
tliese rivals
in the universal
their quality of
members of
community
at large.
In
this quality,
for the
maintenance of the
universal interest;
own
seem
and also
for
in
which
is
common
to
them with
all
the other
members
members which
is
peculiar to
themselves.
15.
tation to themselves,
and thus
raise themselves to
a
it
to prevent
but
if
possible,
and as
as
possible,
to
Hence on
Outs there
exists a constant
tendency to oppose
Ch.
9.]
Ins.
^97
better
by the
an arbe
rangement really
thought to be
;
the better
it
will generally
it is
its
supporters be raised
in their
by
it.
In so
far,
therefore, as
it is
power, the
is,
better a
the Ins
the
stronger
to
oppose
bly good
it is
when considered
in itself,
the
more
in-
capable
it is
way
be
and hence
mass of
political fallacies,
may
which
is
employed
by the Outs.
bene:
and
thus, supposing
made
On
in
of the
which
their eyes
vantage
them by the
rise
by the elevation given to themselves, and the depression caused to their adversaries.
in
a Constitution such as
398
DEMAND HOW
made by
tiie
CUEATIiD.
[Ch. 9.
Outs
:
to
good one.
is
much more, of course, to a Hence it is, that when the arrangewith any prospect of success
ment
in itself good, if
have nothing
they
by their sinister interest the Ins stand engaged to promote, and in the promotion of which the Outs
have, as above, a
community of
success,
interest,
is
the part
a curious and
one.
sinister
By
mass of
antagonists
in
theirs
in
expectancy.
They
this
make between
them
little
At
the
same
time,
seeing
that
to propose in the situation of Outs, they could not without loss of reputation, unless
some
hence
it is,
Ch.
.9.]
399
upon them-
be either spurious
:
and
inadequate,
and by
volved in
leaves untouched.
400
PARTS BEARABLE.
[Ch. 10.
CHAPTER
Diff'erent parts
Fallacies.
X.
to
As
in the case
many
dif-
who
\'s,
fabricator
it
would not
is
make
an
its
appearance.
But
for
utterer, there
may
one of
whom
was
fabricator.
mind
is,
it
becomes
Roman
thence
Roman and
blameable ignorance
2. temerity,
one word,
culpa,
(in
the
:
sometimes temeritas)
Ch.
3.
10.]
PARTS BEARABLE.
;
401
which, notwithstanding
was
free of
blame
by
many
is in
charge of evil-consciousness
may
with propriety be
of, is,
is
conscious
the bad-
in the case
mind
is
least apt to
of evil-consciousness. Be
it
the
will
and
in the expectation of
certain
in the instance
bad argument,
is
more or
less
was known
bad-
and understood.
by the
may
bad argument
may have
it
to
bad purposes.
reason there
But
in general,
the
sinister interest,
for charging
"-Z
him with
402
ness, supposing
sinister interest.
PARTS BEARABLE.
him
to be
[Ch. 10.
However
may
man no more
than what
lies
is
perceives
what
is
passing in his
:
own
passing in
hiin,
other minds
the
book that
open before
though
it
be ever so
much
it
in
may
even
upon
it
according as
The
immediate or un-immediate.
Immediate
ceived
:
it
un-immediate
it
been unperceived.
Sinister interest has
it
usually operates.
and autho-
rity-begotten prejudice.
its
its
not,
terance,
perceived,
has for
its
immediate parent
Of
viz.
two
Cll. 10.]
PARTS BEARABLE.
is
403
to acceptance,
their
accompaniment
obvious.
As
accompanied with
may be distinguished into interior and exterior. Where the opinion, how false soever, is really believed
It
to be true
by the person
to
whom
it
it
ed,
the
:
acceptance given to
may be termed
ternal
having experienced an
is,
hands
with
or without
;
in
may
it
hands
an external acceptance.
In the natural state of things, both these modes of
upon the
internal,
mode
is,
Either of them
may appear
as if I
had not
it,
felt it:
I
not having
as
reif
may appear
less strength,
suits
my
purpose.
evil-
sufficiently
manifest that
consciousness
may
is
the
often as
accompaniment
the inter-
justly applicable to
it,
whatsoever part
is
404
borne
PARTS BEARABLE.
in relation to
it,
\Ch. 10.
utterance, or
viz. fabrication,
enough
ed, or a
when an argument
repre-
mind,
is
in
it
amount
more
considerable.
Thus, a
man who
of
it
not absolutely
is
but
exaggerated, and
this
exaggeration
a species
of falsehood.
The more
in its
his
is
mind
apt to
make from
that
is,
imbecility
It is said
of
gam-
thieves: in
craft
A phenomenon,
uot of dispute,
is
that of a liar
wiiom a
lie
of his
Ch.
10.]
PARTS BEARABLE.
405
own
length
has
come
is
to be
himself.
But
if
such
manifest contradiction to
some determinate
easily,
it
truth,
may be imagined how much more consequendy how much more frequently,
to
and
may come
pression
made by
this or that
instrument of persuasion,
is
susceptible of innu-
tokens,
in
otherwise.
If substitution of irrelevant arguments to relevant
ones
is
much more
to the will,
:
is
the
of application made
to the
to ap-
made
understanding
of the matter
Arguments addressed
if
to the understanding,
;
may,
fallacious,
be answered
will
those
is
without
remedv.
406
USES OF EXPOSURE.
[67/. II.
CHAPTER XL
Uses oftheprtceding E.vposure.
But
it
may be
The
in the
use
it
may
be
power of reason
practice of
In proportion
and ve:
is
held in abhorrence
the more generally and intimately the public in general are satisfied
of the insincerity of
him by whom
the
arguments
in
same
which a man
is
these arguments.
who employs them, in such sort held up to view as to find the minds of men sufficiently sensible of it; and
suppose that
in the public
is
mind
in general,
virtue in
in
and contempt,
Ch. ll.j
USKS OF EXPOSURE.
407
become
to
which the
is in
same
moral power,
same
If,
force.
on
this occasion,
guments, the ex})osure thus given of the mental character of the persons by
whom
title
to this purpose.
Be
the
whom
are,
these arguments
are exactly
what they
as a
worse.
To employ
him by
medium of proof
is
demon-
whom
an expedient
which stands
in the
itself
upon the
Xisioifallacies,
and which
supposed
those
to be sufficiently
on other, and
unexceptionable,
to
grounds
now
is,
determine by
may
in the
completest
and most
Now,
is
not so
much
408
USES OF EXPOSURE.
It is the reception of
[Ch. 11.
them
in the
To
the object of
therefore,
them
of
Hjust,
ulterior
object
them
ashamed as
them,
to see or hear
ashamed
But
a
to be
known
to turn tovi^ards
man ought
ashamed
of,
so
is
the practice of
to
giving encouragement to
of forbearing
:
oppose
dis-
couragement
to that vice
and
to this
same desirable
contribute,
is
and
man most
by
whom
held up to
Nor, upon
hopeless as at
reflection,
first
will
In the
whom,
in the
well-bred fe-
And
this
if
the
be drawn
down
branch
upon the
ofll^ender
by an offence against
If,
Ch.
11.]
USES OF EXPOSURE.
whosoever he
be,
409
lawful and
really pernicious,
who by
will
But whosoever he
be,
who
his
power
it
lies
completely to render
tl)is
good
service.
In any printed report of the debates of the assembly in question, supposing any such instruments of de-
such instrument
is
of the page, by the help of the usual marks of reference, give intimation of
if it
it
:
describing
it,
for instance,
the present
it
stands declearly
it.
signated in this
or by any
The want
when
in
carried on orally in a
To
remedy.
men of the class of those who read, whose memory Goldsmith's delightful novel, the
is
Vicar of Wakefield,
not more
or less present.
Amono; the
disasters into
is
410
the craft of
self into the
USES OF EXPOSUllE.
\Ch. 11.
Ephraim Jenkins.
extem-
which, in the
character of the suhject, the cosmogony, and in the character of one of the historians, Sanchoniathon, were
the principal figures.
On one
on which
it
and triumphant.
cloven foot,
But at
last,
as
a fresh dis-
some persons to whose lot it had fallen to receive the same proof of recondite learning, word lor word. " Your serImmediately the chamber rings, with
to
vant,
more
is
it
hand, so shall
it
who
phen's or in any other mansion, higher or lower, of similar design and use, shall be so far
craft or simplicity to let
oflf
his
guard as through
and
of,
at
and instead
Order
Order
if
"
Ch. n.]
USES OF KXPOSUHE.
411
The
Decep-
" Qurere
The
change
the instruments
shall
of deception here
in
question, this
completely effected,
of civilization.
form an epoch
in the history
THE END.
/K
3 1158
00557 1152
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Mb^'.
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i^-^*
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