A. Rushton, A.S.Ward, R.G.

Holdich

Solid-LiquidFiltration and Separation Technology

0VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-69451 Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 1996

Distribution: VCH, PO. Box 10 1 61, D-69451 Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany 1 Switzerland: VCH, PO. Box, CH-4020 Basel, Switzerland United Kingdom and Ireland VCH, 8 Wellington Court, Cambridge CB1 lHZ, United Kingdom USA and Canada: VCH, 220 East 23rd Street, New York, N Y 10010-4606, USA Japan: VCH Eikow Building, 10-9 Hongo 1-chome,Bunkyo-ku,Tokyo 113, Japan

ISBN 3-527-28613-6

A. Rushton, A. S. Ward, R. G. Holdich

Solid-Liquid Filtration and Separation Technology

VCH

Weinheim - New York - Base1 Cambridge - Tokyo

Dr. Albert Rushton Colynwood Claremont Drive West Timperley Cheshire, WA 14 SNE Great Britain

Dr. Anthony S. Ward Dr. Richard G. Holdich Department of Chemical Engineering Loughborough University of Technology LoughboroughLEll3TU Great Britain

T h i s book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors and publisher do not warrant the information

contained therein to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.

1st edition 1996 Published jointly by VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Weinheim (Federal Republic of Germany) VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, NY (USA) Editorial Director: Dr. Barbara Bock Production Manager: Peter J. Biel

Library of Congress Card No. applied for A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Rushton, Albert: Solid liquid filtration and separation technology / A. Rushton ; A. S. Ward ; R. G. Holdich. Weinheim ; New York ;Base1 ; Cambridge ;Tokyo : VCH, 1996 ISBN 3-527-28613-6

0VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-69469 Weinheim, (Federal Republic of Germany), 1996

Printed on acid-free and low chlorine paper All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form - by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means - nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Typesetting: H. Drouv6 Printing and Bookbinding: Strauss Offsetdruck, D-69.509 Morlenbach Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany

The separation of particulate solids fiom liquids by filtration and associated techniques constitutes an important and often controlling stage m many industrial processes. The latter generate a somewhat bewildering array of particlehid separation problems. Separation by filtration is achieved by placing a permeable filter m the path of the flowing suspension. The barrier, ie. a filter screen, medium or membrane m some cases is selected with a view to retaining the suspended solids on the filter surfice, whilst permitting passage of the clarified liquid. Other systems, e.g. deep-bed or candle filters, operate m a diBerent mode, in promoting deposition of the particles within the interstices of the medium. Further purXcation of the clarified liquid may proceed m u s e of adsorbents to remove dissolved solutes. Alternatively, the two phases may be separatedby sedimentation processes, m the presence of gravitational or cent&& force fields. Serious operational problems centre on the interaction between the particles and the filter medium Plugging of the latter, or collapse of the collected solids under the stress caused by flow through the filter, can result m low productivity. Such effects are often related to the size of particles being processed; enhanced effective particle size can be accomplished by p r e treatment with coagulants or flocculants. These techniques are discussed m detail m the text, which also reports recent improvements m the machinev of separatioq e.g. the variable chamber presses, the cross-flow processes, ceramic dewatering filters, etc. Several of these newer modifications m filtration plant have followed trends m the developing science of solid-fluid separation and the growing understanding of the processes involved. Fortunately, filtration processes have attracted the attention of mcreasing numbers of scientists and engineers. A large output of literature has resulted m a copious flow of design and operational informaton suflicient to place filtration on a much sounder scientific basis. Nevertheless, the random nature of most particulate dispersions has resulted in a wide nt range of machines m this ui operation. Selection of the best available separation technique is, therefore, a di&cult process problem. It is the authors viewpoint that m y existing separation problems would have been avoided by the application of available scientific data. This text is aimed at the provision of theoretical and practical information which can be used to improve the possi%ddy of selecting the best equipment for a particular separation. It is relevant to record the recent increased commercial awareness of the need for this informaton m the selection of plant used in environmental control The material presented m the text has been used by the authors m short-course presentations over several years. These courses are illustrated by a large number of practical problems m the SLS field; some of these problems have been used to illustratethe book. Basic theoretical relationdqs are repeated m those chapters dealing with process calculations. This feature minimises the need for back-referencing when using the book. A Rushton AS. Ward RG. Holdich

January 1996

Contents
Preface
1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13

k Rushton

Solid Liquid Separation Technology

Introduction The FiltrationProcess FiltrationFundamentals Sedimentation Processes Filter Media Pretreatment Techniques CMcation Fjltration Sedimentation and Flotation Washing and Deliquoring Membrane Filtration FiltrationProcess Equipment and Calculations References Nomenclature

1 2 6 7 10 13 15 19 24 26 29 30 31
33 33

2
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.7 2.8

RG. Holdich

Filtration Fundamentals
Introduction Fluid Flow Through Porous Media Permeability Cake Filtration Mass Cake Deposited per Unit Area and Speczc Resistance Solid Concentration Forms of Cake Filtration Equation Constant Pressure Filtration Constant Rate Filtration Variable Pressure and Rate Filtration Effect of Pressure on Cake Filtration Constant Pressure Filtration Constant Rate Filtration Analysis of Flow Inside a Cake Variable Rate and Pressure Filtration for Compressible Cakes Other Modes of Filtration Filtration with Non-Newtonian Fluids

33 36 37 40 41 44 44 48 50 52 56 57 57 63 64 70

VIII

Contents

2.9 2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.10 2.11

Laboratory Tests Vacuum Filter Leaf Compression Permeability Cell Capillary Suction Time Other Laboratory Tests and Procedures References Nomenclature

72 73 74 76 77 80 82 85 85 93 94 94 98 99 99 101 105 105 107 107 112 112 114 114 116 117 117 118 118 118 120 120 120 121 122 122

3
3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

A.S. Ward

Sedimentation Fundamentals

Dilute Sedimentation Hindered Settling Voidage Functions Batch Settling: Kynch Theory Batch Flux Settling Under Inched Surfaces Nakamura-Kuroda Equation Grashof Number and SedimentationReynolds Number References Nomenclature

4
4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4 4.4,1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.4.7 4.4.8 4.4.9 4.4.10

Filter Media
A. Rushton Introduction woven Cloths Monofilaments and Mult3laments Cloth Selection Effect ofYarn Type and Weave Pattern Criteria of Choice Operational Aspects of Woven Media in Filters Loading of Yarns with Solids Bacterial Growths Precipitationfiom Solution InadequateDrainage Critical Concentration CriticalPressure Classification of Particles Effect of Gas Bubbles Evaporation Effects Effect of Fabric Construction

Contents

I x
123 124 124 125 126 128 129 130 132 132 133 135 138 138 140 143 147 148 150 152 153 153 154 167 174 175 177 178 185 187 187 188 196 197 200 202 205

4.4.11 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5 4 4.5 5 4.6 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.4.1 4.7.4.2 4.7.5 4.7.6 4.7.7 4.8 4.9

Effect of Cloth Underdrainage Aspects of the Cloth Selection and Performance Cloth Shrinkage Cloth stretching Filter Cake Release Cloth Structural Effects Cloth Cleaning Process Nonwoven Filter Media Mathematical Models of Flow Through Filter Media Permeability of Clean Media Particle-stopping Power Nonwoven, Random Fibre Media Woven Media M&if&ment Cloth Permeability Monofhment Cloth Permeab@ Filter Pore Cloth Bridging Bridge Failure and Particle Bleeding How Resistance of Used Media References Nomenclature

5
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

Pretreatment Techniques
A.S. Ward Introduction Coagulation and Flocculation Filter Aids References Nomenclature

6
6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.3 6.4 6.5

RG. Holdich

Clarifying Filtration

Capture Mechanisms Deep-Bed Filtration Performance. Cleaning Design Laboratory Test Equipment Design Calculations Precoat Filtration Filter Candles Microstrainers

Contents

6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7 6.8

Cartridge Filtration Tests and Characterisation Filter SiZing Arrangements References Nomenclature

207 213 218 218 2 19 220 22 1 22 1 226 255 256 257 257 257 259 260 260 26 1 267 268 27 1 272 273 273 274 275 27 6 277 279 281 284 284 285 286 287 287 290

7
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

AS. Ward

Sedimentation and Thickening

Batch Tests and Analysis Design Methods for Continuous Settling References Nomenclature

8
8.1 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.5.1 8.2.5.2 8.2.5.3 8.2.6 8.2.6.1 8.2.7 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.3.1 8.3.3.2 8.3.3.3 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.3.6

RG. Holdich; A. Rushton

Centrifugal Separation

Fundamentals Angular Velocity and Acceleration Particle Velocity in a CentrifugalField Force Centrifugal Sedimentation Designs Simple Sigma Theory Particle Collection Efficiency Hindered Settling in a Centrifuge Decanter Scroll Discharge Machine Applications Sigma Theory for Scroll Discharge Decanters Power and Efficiency Disc Stack Machine Modified Sigma Theory Design Calculation Examples Hydrocyclones Cut Point and Fractionation Reduced Grade Efficiency Velocities Tangential Velocity Radial Velocity Axial Velocity Locus of Zero Vertical Velocity and Mantle Equilibrium Orbit Theory Residence Time Model

Contenb

XI

8.3.7 8.3.8 8.3.9 8.3.10 8.3.11 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.4.4 8.4.5 8.4.6 8.4.7 8.4.8 8.4.9 8.4.10 8.4.11 8.4.12 8.5 8.6

DimensionlessGroup Model Numerical Solutions of Continuity and Flow General Relations Arrangements, Types and Designs Applications Centd3galFiltration Batch Discharge C e n e g e s BatchDischarge Centd3ge Capacity Continuous Discharge Machines Selection of Filtering Centd%ges Centd3ge ProductiVities n Filtration and Permeation i Centfigation Wash Time spin Dry Practical Equilibrium Saturation Studies n Theoretical Filtration Rates i Centfiges Centrifkges Cake Thickness Dynamics Centrifkgal Filter Developments References Nomenclature

292 295 296 296 299 300 300 301 304 305 307 307 311 3 12 3 15 3 17 320 325 325 326 329 329 329 333 337 341 343 343 343 345 347 348 351 356 357 357

9
9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2 6 9.2.7 9.2.8 9.3 9.3.1 9.4 9.5 9.6

Post-Treatment Processes
RG, Holdich
Introduction Washing Wash Ratio Longitudinal Dispersion, Mixing and Difhsion Diffusion Coefficient Washing Efficiency Drained Cakes Stopstart Washing Other Mathematical Models Reslurry Washing Deliquoring Relative Permeability Equipment for Washing and Deliquoring References Nomenclature

XI1

Contents

10
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.5.1 10.5.2 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10

Membrane Technology
RG. Holdich
Microfiltration Ultrafiltration Module Design Filtration Resistances Equipment Scale-up and Modelling Models of Flux Decline EquilibriumFlux Models Diafiltration Permeate Flux Maintenance and Regeneration Applications and Investigations References Nomenclature

359 363 368 368 371 372 376 378 388 389 392 393 395 397 397 398 400 406 406 409 411 413 417 419 422 422 422 423 433 433 436 437 44 1 446 45 1 452 455 455 460

11
11.1 11.1.1 11.1.2 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.1.1 11.2.1.2 11.2.1.3 11.2.1.4 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.3.1 11.2.3.2 11.2.3.3 11.3 11.3.1 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.1.1 11.4.1.2 11.4.1.3 11.4.2 11.4.2.1 11.4.2.2 11.4.2.3

Filtration Process Equipment and Calculations

A. Rushton

In&oduction Filter ProductivityFundamentals Filter Cake Dewaterhg and Washing Continuous, Largescale Filters Rotating Drum Drum Filter Productivity Cake Discharge and Tbiclrness Theory vs Practice: Rotary Vacuum Drum Filter Dewatering and Washhg on the RVF Rotary Disc Filters Horizontal Filters Tihing Pan Filter Rotating Table Filter HorizontalBelt Filter Batch-Operated, Large-scale Vacuum Filters Nutsche Filters Pressure Filters Filter Presses OpthumFiltration Time Cycle PracticalDeviations fiom Theoretical Predictions Fatration of Highly Compressible Materials Variable Chamber Filters Filter Cake Compression Compression Kinetics VariablechamberFilter Types

Contents

XI1

11.4.3 11.4.4 11.5 11.6

ContinuousFiltration and Expression Pressure Leafand Candle Filters References Nomenclature

466 470 478 481 483

Appendix A
Particle Size, Shape and Size Distributions

Particle Size Analysis Statistical Diameters Particle Size Distributions Calculus of Size Distributions Specific Surface Particle Shape

484 485 486 490 49 1 492 499

Appendix B
Slurry Rheology

Equations of Flow References

500 502

Appendix C
Computer Spreadsheet Files

503

Index

529