JK Chapter 5

The kidneys produce urine, a solution containing water as the solvent and a number of unwanted small molecules and
ions as solutes.
CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes
DIALYSIS
In dialysis, small molecules and ions can flow from a solution of higher concentration to a lower concentration solution. In this chapter, mixtures such as solutions will be discussed and you will learn how to use and calculate solution concentrations.
OUTLINE
5.1 Mixtures and Solutions 5.2 Concentration of Solutions 5.3 Colloids and Suspensions 5.4 Processes that Maintain Biochemical
Balance in Your Body
MIXTURES
A mixture contains two or more elements or compounds in any proportion. This is different from a compound in which elements are present in exact or definite proportions. Biological systems are composed of many mixtures with many components. Chemistry determines the make-up of mixtures:
Which substances are present How much of each is present
RECALL
Pure substances may be either elements or compounds. Some compounds are ionic, others are covalent. Ionic compounds form a crystal lattice. When ions dissolve, the solution contains electrolytes. Molecular structure allows us to predict polarity. Interactions among molecules may include hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole interactions.
COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Composition of mixtures may vary. Composition of compounds are definite. Mixtures may be separated using physical means. Compounds must be separated into component elements using chemical procedures only.
WAYS TO SEPARATE MIXTURES

Take advantage of differences in physical properties.
Solubility differences: sugar and sand, for example Magnetic differences: iron filings and dirt Boiling point differences: Distilling whiskey Other differences are exploited by analytical instrumentation, for example, drug tests on athletes, medical tests on blood samples, water quality testing, and many others.
TYPES OF MIXTURES
Heterogeneous mixtures have an uneven distribution of components.
For example, a chocolate chip cookie
Homogeneous mixtures have an even distribution of components.

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. For example, a cup of coffee is the same throughout.
Classifications of matter are on the next slide.
TYPES OF MATTER
SOLUTIONS
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. They may be solids, liquids, or gases. Composed of two parts:
Solvent, the major component Solutes, minor components
The main solvent in biological systems is water.
WHAT DISSOLVES?
Like-dissolves-like rule:
In general, polar solvents (like water) dissolve polar solutes (like sugar). Non-polar solvents (like fish oil) can dissolve non-polar solutes (like vitamin E). Polar solvents will not dissolve non-polar solutes (so oil and vinegar will not mix). Solutions containing water as the solvent are aqueous solutions.
SOLUBILITY
If two liquids do not mix, they are immiscible (such as oil and water), and if they mix in any proportion (such as alcohol and water), they are miscible. Most solutes have a maximum limit of solubility in which no more can dissolve.
Such solutions are saturated. Additional solute will not dissolve, and forms a separate phase, often as a precipitate. Examples include kidney stones (ouch!).
SOLUTION STATES
A solution may be a solid, liquid, or a gas. Solid solutions may include alloys such as brass and dental amalgams. A liquid solution may be a rum-and-coke, containing:
Solids (sugar) Liquids (alcohol) Gases (CO2)
Air is a gas solution, containing dissolved gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, water (a liquid), and odors (which may be solids).
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Identify the solute and solvent in each solution:
5 mL of ethanol and 25 mL water 200 g of water containing 6 g of NaCl 0.005 L of CO2 and 2 L O2
2. What does the phrase like dissolves like mean? 3. What is a saturated solution? How can you tell when a solution is saturated?
BIOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS
Most common solutes in biological solutions are:
Molecules
Sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins
Ions
Na+, K+, HCO3-, Cl-, HPO42-, Ca2+, Zn2+
Gases
O2, CO2
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A COMPOUND DISSOLVES?

If it is composed of molecules, the covalent bonds remain intact. The molecules uniformly disperse throughout the solution. In aqueous solutions, each solute molecule interacts with many water molecules by way of weak dipoledipole and hydrogen bond forces.
MOLECULES IN SOLUTION
IONIC COMPOUNDS IN SOLUTION

when ionic compounds dissolve, the crystal lattice breaks apart into individual ions. Each ion is surrounded by solvent molecules. For example, in salt water:
Each Na+ ion is attracted to the partially negative O atoms on water molecules. Each Cl- ion is attracted to the partially positive H atoms on water molecules. Each ion is surrounded by many water molecules.
NaCl IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
NaCl in an aqueous solution.
ELECTROLYTES
Electrolytes are dissolved ionic compounds. These solutions conduct electricity due to electrolyte charge. Roles of electrolytes in our body include regulating
Nerve action Muscle action Cell volume Water flow
Imbalances of electrolytes cause serious difficulties.
FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

The formula unit of an ionic compound tells how many of each ion will form in solution.
For example, NaCl Na+ + Cl-
Every unit dissolving results in one of each ion. MgCl2 Mg2+ + 2Cl-
The number of ions present in solution follows the same ratio as present in the formula unit.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Describe the formation of an aqueous solution of glucose, C6H12O6 from pure glucose. 2. For the following compounds, how many ions of each type will be produced per formula unit in aqueous solution? MgCl2 K3PO4 NaHCO3 (Pg 153-5.7,5.8)
RECALL
Substances may be measured either in mass units
or in molar units.
A mole is a unit of measurement consisting of a
specific number of objects.

Many measurements include the metric prefixes.
HOW MUCH IS THERE?

A solution may have a lot of solute present.
Such a solution is concentrated.
A solution may have very little solute.

These solutions are dilute.
One central aim in chemistry, especially in medical science, is to determine how much solute, its concentration, is present per unit of volume.
SOLUTIONS HAVE A RANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS
QUANTIFYING SOLUTIONS
Concentration =
amount of solute amount of solution
Note that the amount of the solution is the sum of solvent plus solute.
Types of concentration analysis:

Concentration based on mass (e.g., g/L, or mg/L) Concentration based on moles (e.g., mol/L, or mmol/L)
COMMON CONCENTRATION UNITS

Examples of units
mass/vol
Typical examples
125 g/dL (iron in blood) 75 mg/dL (glucose in blood) 0.9% (saline in i.v. solutions) 5% (dextrose in i.v. solutions) 100 mmol/L (Cl- in blood) 0.018 mol/L (CO2 in blood) 19 meq/L (Ca+ in blood) 0.15 eq/L (Na+ in blood)
% mass/vol Moles/vol
Equivalents/vol
CALCULATING CONCENTRATIONS
Concentrations are always a division of one unit (mass or moles) by another (volume). Ratios mean conversion factors may be used:
Mass/vol or vol/mass may be used to convert from one type of concentration to another.
Metric prefixes, when present, must be noted in calculations.
AN EXAMPLE
For a solution containing 137 g/dL of Fe2+, how many grams of Fe2+ are dissolved per mL of solution?
Recall that there are 100 mL/dL, so
137g 10 6 g 1dL = 1.37 10 6 g / mL dL 1g 100mL

Conversion factor
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Isuprel, used to treat asthma, comes in i.v. form at a concentration of 4 mg in 500 mL. What is the concentration of this solution in g/L? 2. For a solution containing 99 mg/dL glucose, how many g are dissolved per L of solution?
(pg 156-5.12,5.13
% MASS/VOL SOLUTIONS
Most i.v. solutions use this form of concentration,
defined as:
mass g solute % = 100 volume mL solution

Units must always be g/mL, because waters density
is 1.00 g/mL; every mL of water weighs 1.00 g. I.v. saline is 0.9 % NaCl, so every 100 mL of saline solution contains 0.9 g of NaCl.
RELATED UNITS
The terms ppm and ppb are analogous to %. Parts per million is defined as follows:
ppm = g solute 10 6 mL solution
Parts per billion is similar:

g solute ppb = 10 9 mL solution
Note that % is really the same as parts per hundred.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the % m/v of sucrose in a carbonated beverage that contains 28 g of sucrose in 315 mL of beverage. 2. You have been asked to prepare one L of a 0.45 % NaCl (% m/v) solution for i.v. therapy. How many g of NaCl should you weigh out?
(pg 157-5.16,5.17)
MOLARITY
This is defined as moles per liter and is abbreviated
M:
moles solute M= liters solution
This is a measure of how many molecules are
present in a solution.
A 1 M solution of anything contains 1 mole of solute
in each liter; a 1 mM solution has 1/1000 this much.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. How many moles of potassium ions (K+) are there in 5.0 L of 2.5 mM K3PO4? 2. A solution having a volume of 3.0 L contains 23 mmol of O2 (oxygen). What is the concentration of oxygen in this solution in mol/L?
(pg 158-5.19, 5.20)
EQUIVALENTS/LITER
Equivalents (eq) are related to moles.
These units are applied to electrolytes.
Moles of ion x the charge on each ion = equivalents

Corresponds to the molarity of charge. 1 eq/L is the same as 1 mol/L if the charge is + or 1. For ions with 2+ or 2- charge, eq are double the mol. So 1 M Ca2+ or S2- is 2 eq/L. So 1 M Fe3+ or PO43- is 3 eq/L.
Ions in biological fluids are usually given in meq/mol.
IU
International units (IU) often used to specify
concentration of biologically active solutes.

The amount of material in an IU varies with the type
of solute, depending on how active the material is.
DRUG DOSAGE CALCULATIONS

This is one of the most important calculations
commonly made in health care fields.

It is no different than any conversions between
different units of measurements.
AN EXAMPLE OF DOSAGE CALCULATIONS

An order is given for 500 mg of amoxicillin to be administered to a patient every six hours. For an oral suspension of amoxicillin that contains 250 mg of amoxicillin in every 5 mL, how many mL of the suspension should you administer to the patient every six hours?
SOLUTION
Express problem as conversion factors. The
supplied unit is 500 mg of drug. The requested unit is mL of suspension. You are given the concentration of the drug as m/v: 250 mg amoxicillin per 5 mL of suspension. So use
5mL 250mg or 250mg 5mL
Set up calculation so supplied units cancel 5mL = 10 mL every six hours 500mg 250mg
FLOW RATES
Drugs are often administered at a specific dosage
per unit of time, called the flow rate. For example: An order is given to infuse 500 units per hour of Heparin, an anticoagulant. The IV bag supplied contains 25,000 units in 250 mL. At what flow rate in mL per hour should the solution be infused into the patient? For this, use two conversion factors: 500units and 250mL
hr
25,000units
Multiply so units cancel: 500units

hr
250mL = 5mL /hr 25,000units
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. An order is given to administer 0.25 mg digoxin by i.v. over a period of 5 min. The solution supplied contains 5 g digoxin in 2 mL. What should the flow rate be in mL/min? (pg 163-5.28) 2. A patient on diuretics is prescribed 30 meq of potassium (K+) every day. The solution supplied contains 40 meq of KCl in every 15 mL. How many mL of this solution should you give to the patient every day? (pg 161-5.26)
CONVERTING CONCENTRATION UNITS

Often one needs to know concentration in M, but the
information is given in units of mass/vol.

Or the reverse might be needed. Youll need to be able to convert between these
types.
It helps to set up a flow chart outlining the steps. Each step uses conversions just like those you have
been doing.
FLOW CHART FOR CONVERSIONS
FOR EXAMPLE
What is the molarity of Na+ in the 0.9% saline in an i.v. drip bag? Convert percentages to moles:
1 mol NaCl 1.5 10 2 mol NaCl 0.90 g NaCl = 100 mL solution 100 mL solution 58.44 g NaCl
Convert between moles NaCl and moles Na+.

Check subscripts in formula; in this case each NaCl produces one Na+.
PROBLEM CONTINUED
So:
1.5 10 -2 mol NaCl 1 mol Na+ 1.5 10 2 mol NaCl = 1mol NaCl 100 mL solution 100 mL solution
Convert to liters:
1.5 10 2 mol Na + 1 mL 0.15 mol Na+ -3 = L 100 mL 10 L
So the final answer is that 0.9% NaCl has 0.15
mol/L Na+, or better, 0.15M Na+.
TYPES OF MIXTURES
Mixtures
Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Suspensions
Solutions
Colloids
COLLOIDS
Homogeneous mixtures that are not solutions Composed of much larger particles than would be
found in a solution
May be composed of large molecules, or
aggregates of many molecules

The major component of a colloid is called the
medium.
SUSPENSIONS
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture. It will eventually settle out. Particles are very large. Major component is the dispersion medium. Particles are either solids or liquids.
COMPARING COLLOIDS AND SUSPENSIONS
EXAMPLES
BLOOD HAS PROPERTIES OF ALL THREE TYPES OF MIXTURES
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Describe the differences between a solution, a colloid, and a suspension. 2. Explain why humid air is considered a solution, while mist, which is also a mixture of water in air, is considered a colloid.
3. (pg 165-5.32,5.34)
SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANES
A membrane is a barrier between two environments. A semipermeable membrane allows certain
molecules to cross.
All cells and organelles within cells are surrounded by
semipermeable membranes.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
Molecules may cross a membrane through simple diffusion.
CELL MEMBRANES
These surround all cells and maintain different
concentrations of ions and molecules inside and outside the cells.
Ions and large molecules require special transport
systems to carry them across the membrane as needed.
OSMOSIS AND DIALYSIS

These are two ways by which molecules may cross
semipermeable membranes.
In osmosis, water may cross the membrane, but
not other substances.

In dialysis, water or small solutes such as ions or
sugars may cross the membrane, but not large molecules such as proteins.
In all cases, molecules move through simple
diffusion to equalize solute concentrations.
OSMOSIS AND DIALYSIS
OSMOSIS
In osmosis, solvent (water) moves across a
membrane so as to equalize solute concentration across membrane.

Flow of water is determined by total number of
moles of all solutes on both sides of membrane.

Laxatives work by increasing the number of moles
of solute outside cells, drawing out water into the stool.
DIRECTION OF DIFFUSION
In osmosis, water always moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration. Three types of solutions:
Hypertonic solution with a higher solute concentration than inside cells. Hypotonic solution with the lower solute concentration compared with cells. Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentrations to cell contents.
OSMOSIS
In osmosis, water flows in order to dilute solutions until concentrations are equal.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Osmotic flow can be reversed if pressure added to
hypertonic side.
Water then flows from high concentration solute to
low concentration solute.

This can be used to purify sea water or other impure
water sources.
The amount of pressure needed to overcome
natural osmosis is called the osmotic pressure.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
When excess pressure is applied to impure water, the backwards flow is called reverse osmosis. This can be used to purify water.
OSMOSIS IN RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs)

If RBCs are immersed in hypotonic or hypertonic solutions, water will cross the RBC membrane inappropriately, destroying its function.
Eventually the cells in hypotonic solution will burst in what is called hemolysis; the cells in hypertonic solution shrivel during crenation.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. You have probably heard that if you are stranded
on a desert island, it is not wise to drink large quantities of sea water in place of fresh water. Why is this true?
2. What might happen if an IV bag were filled with
distilled water instead of isotonic saline?

(pg 170-5.37-q1)
DIALYSIS
In dialysis, small solutes can cross a special membrane. They always cross from high to low concentration. Dialysis is used to separate solute molecules from colloidal particles. Kidneys carry out dialysis by
removing urea and creatinine and retaining water and electrolytes Artificial dialysis can be used if kidneys are diseased.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
Consider two solutions that are separated by a semipermeable membrane that is designed for dialysis. One solution is pure water; the other is a solution [0.9% (m/v) NaCl] of red blood cells. Based on the principles of dialysis, which would you expect to take place? a. hemolysis b. crenation c. Neither
(pg-171-5.39)
SUMMARY OF MAIN CHAPTER POINTS, P1

Mixtures and Solutions
Mixtures contain components in any proportion. They can be separated into components. Solutions contain solvent (major) and solute (minor). Like dissolves like rule explains solubility. In dissolving a molecule, bonds remain intact. In dissolving an ionic compound, ions separate and are surrounded by water.
Concentration of Solution
Expressed as the ratio of mass or moles per unit volume. Typical units also include % mass/vol and eq/vol.
SUMMARY OF MAIN CHAPTER POINTS, P2

Colloids and Suspensions
Colloids are homogeneous with large solute molecules. Suspensions are heterogeneous and will settle out.
Processes that Maintain Biochemical Balance in Your Body

Molecules may cross semipermiable membranes such as found surrounding cells. Water crosses membranes in osmosis to equalize concentrations. Small solutes may cross membranes in dialysis. Molecules cross membranes in direction of decreasing concentration. Relative concentrations across membranes may be hypertonic (higher), hypotonic (lower), and isotonic (the same). Colloidal particles do not cross semipermeable membranes.

JK Chapter 5

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The kidneys produce urine, a solution containing water as the solvent and a number of unwanted small molecules and

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Balance in Your Body

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

WAYS TO SEPARATE MIXTURES

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Homogeneous mixtures have an even distribution of components.

Classifications of matter are on the next slide.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

The main solvent in biological systems is water.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A COMPOUND DISSOLVES?

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

IONIC COMPOUNDS IN SOLUTION

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

NaCl IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

NaCl in an aqueous solution.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Imbalances of electrolytes cause serious difficulties.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

FORMULAS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

specific number of objects.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

HOW MUCH IS THERE?

A solution may have very little solute.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

SOLUTIONS HAVE A RANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Types of concentration analysis:

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

COMMON CONCENTRATION UNITS

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Metric prefixes, when present, must be noted in calculations.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

137g 10 6 g 1dL = 1.37 10 6 g / mL dL 1g 100mL

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

mass g solute % = 100 volume mL solution

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

Parts per billion is similar:

Note that % is really the same as parts per hundred.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

moles solute M= liters solution

This is a measure of how many molecules are

in each liter; a 1 mM solution has 1/1000 this much.

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes

CHAPTER 5: Solutions, Colloids, and Membranes