Nigerian Journal of Soil and Environmental Research

Nig. J. Soil & Env. Res. Vol. 7: 2007, 92-101 Department of Soil Science Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 195-6121

DISCIPLINE 6: SOILS AND ENVIRONMENT

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

K.J. Osinubi1 and Stephen Ayuba Thomas2 Department of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Nigeria. 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Nigeria.
1

ABSTRACT The paper presents the results of a laboratory study on the influence of three compactive efforts, (i.e., British Standard Light, BSL, West African Standard, WAS and British Standard Heavy, BSH) on the strength properties of treated black cotton soil. The tropical black clay was treated with a maximum 10% bagasse ash by weight of dry soil and the results show that the strength properties of the soilbagasse ash mixture increased with higher compactive effort. The maximum dry densities (MDD) of the natural soil for BSL, WAS and BSH compactive efforts are 1.75, 1.91 and 2.05 Mg/m3, respectively. Treatment of natural soil with stabilizer gave peak values of 1.83 Mg/m3 at 10 % bagasse ash for BSL, 1.9 Mg/m3 at 8% bagasse ash for WAS, and 2.1 Mg/m3 at 2% bagasse ash for BSH compactive energy. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for the natural soil for the BSL, WAS, and BSH compactive efforts are 120, 355, and 424 kN/m2, respectively, while the treated soil gave peak values of 229 kN/m2 at 10% bagasse ash for BSL, 469 kN/m2 at 6% bagasse ash for WAS and 756 kN/m2 at 8% bagasse for BSH compactive effort. Peak California bearing ratio (CBR) values for the BSL, WAS, and BSH compactive energies for the natural soil are 3, 6 and 8%, respectively, while values for treated soil are 8 at 10% bagasse ash for BSL, 11% at 2% bagasse ash for WAS and 13% at 8% bagasse ash for the BSH compactive effort. The WAS compaction energy which is conventionally used in the region yielded CBR value of 11% at 2% bagasse ash treatment of soil is recommended for use as subgrade of lightly trafficked roads in view of expected increase in strength due to time-dependent pozzolanic reactions.
Keywords: California bearing ratio, Compactive effort, Unconfined compressive strength, British Standard Light, West African Standard, British Standard Heavy, Maximum dry density and Optimum moisture content.

INTRODUCTION Primarily, the basic function of a highway pavement is to carry traffic safely, conveniently and economically over its design life span. To achieve this objective therefore, the design of highway pavements involve the process of
92

evaluating the type and thicknesses of various materials to be incorporated in the road pavement structure as sub-grade, sub-base or base courses. Very frequently in practice, problematic soils are encountered, chiefly represented by expansive soils.

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

Expansive soils can be found almost anywhere in the world (Chen, 1988). Warren and Kirby (2004) referred to the expansive soils as swelling soils, heaving soils and volume change soils. Sahel (1993) described expansive clay formations as being favoured by the geology, climatic condition and the environment of extreme disintegration, strong hydration and restrained leaching. Expansive soils swell and shrink considerably with changes in moisture content. When dry they are hard with very deep cracks. Cracks measuring 70 mm wide and over 1m deep have been observed (Adeniji, 1991) and such cracks may even extend to 3m or more in cases of high deposits. When wet they loose stability because of the presence of either illite or montmorillonite. Expansive soils are seen mostly as tropical black clay soils also known as black cotton soils in Africa (Morin, 1971). They are found in the northeastern parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Lake Chad Basin, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Zimbabwe and other Eastern African countries. They are also found in India, Australia, South Western U.S.A. (Tomlinson, 1999), South Africa and Israel (Ola, 1978). Two groups of parent rock materials have been associated with the formation of expansive soils. The first group comprises sedimentary rock of volcanic origin, which can be found in North America, South Africa and Israel (Ola, 1978), while the second group of parent materials are basic igneous rocks found in India, Nigeria and South Western U.S.A. (Plait, 1953). Morin (1971) gives the engineering definition for tropical black clay as dark grey to black soil with a high content of clay, usually over 50 % in which montmorillonite is the principal clay mineral and which is commonly expansive. They have the tendency to expand and shrink with changes in moisture and appreciable plasticity due to the clay fraction.
93

Black cotton soils are black clays that are produced from the breakdown of basic igneous rocks, where seasonal variation of weather is extreme. Specifically, Nigerian black cotton soils are formed from the weathering of shaly and clayey sediments and basaltic rocks. According to Ola (1983) the Nigerian black cotton soils contain more of montmorillonite with subsequent manifestation of swell properties and expansive tendencies. In some parts of Nigeria, expansive soil is in the form of attapulgite clay shales that are named after the dominant clay mineral Attapulgite, which can absorb high moisture. This leads to high volume changes. The soil is classified as soft silty clay with a fibrous structure and is found inter-bedded in stiff mottled clays (Agboola, 1991) Black cotton soils are poor materials to employ in highway or airfield construction because they contain high percentages of plastic clay. Consequently, lime and cement has been used to appreciably improve the properties of black cotton soils to make them meet the requirements for construction works. However, the cost of incorporating the additive is prohibitive and recent studies ( Osinubi, 2000b, 2006; Osinubi and Medubi, 1997; Osinubi and Alhaji, 2005; Osinubi and Stephen, 2005) has focused on potentially cost effective materials that can improve the properties of deficient soils. Bagasse is the fibrous residue obtained from sugar cane after the extraction of sugar juice at sugar cane mills (Medjo and Riskowski, 2004). Bagasse ash is the residue obtained from the incineration of bagasse in sugar producing factories. Recent research works in the field of geotechnical engineering (Osinubi, 1995, 1999, 2000a,b, 2001; Osinubi and Medubi, 1997, Osinubi et al., 2006, oka, 2001) and construction materials (Uteene, 1986; Mohamedbhai and Baguant, 1990; Medjo and Riskowski, 2004; Osinubi and Alhaji, 2005; Osinubi and Stephen,

Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen Ayuba Thomas

2005) focus more on the search for cheaper and locally available materials for use in construction. The results of chemical tests carried out on bagasse ash in Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and elsewhere are shown in Table 1. The results show that bagasse ash contains high amounts of silica, which if present in amorphous chemically reactive state, could enable the ashes to exhibit pozzolanic properties. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the likely compactive energies that can be used in construction, that is, British Standard Light, BSL, West African Standard, WAS and British Standard Heavy, BSH on the bagasse ash treated black cotton soil.
Table 1. Chemical composition of bagasse ash
Constituents SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O P2O5 SO3 Cl2 MnO TiO2 L.O.I Mauritius* 74.2 12.12 12.12 3.93 0.32 1.67 0.36 5.58 0.20 0.07 1.63 % Composition Dundee** Zaria*** 50.19 10.12 15.75 4.94 8.14 5.56 0.41 2.09 0.26 1.57 1.23 57.12 29.73 2.75 3.23 8.72 0.02 1.10 17.57

(1990) for the natural and stabilized soils, respectively. The following tests were performed: liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit, sieve analysis unconfined compressive strength tests and California bearing ratio tests. Location of Study Area The soil sample used in this study was collected along Numan Ngurore Road, Lamurde Local Government Area of Adamawa State. It was collected as a disturbed sample obtained at a depth of 0.85m in order to avoid organic matter. Numan Ngurore is situated between lat. 12 15, long. 9 30 and lat. 12 10 and long. 9 25 and the precise borrow pit location is at 0195745N and 1029614 E UTM, obtained in Global Positioning System (GPS) using GARMIN 45. Soil Index Properties The index properties of the natural and treated soil were determined in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) and BS 1924 (1990), repectively. All the soil samples were air-dried for one day before testing in order to simulate field conditions. The soil samples were washed through BS No. 200 sieve and the material retained was oven dried and sieved by agitating the material through a range of sieves from sieve No.7 or 2.4 mm aperture sieve and downwards while the material passing was turned into a sedimentation cylinder for hydrometer analysis. When the black cotton soil was treated with 2 12% bagasse ash by dry weight of soil at optimum moisture content (OMC), less than 10% of the material passed through BS No. 200 sieve, and therefore did not meet the minimum requirement for sedimentation analysis to be carried out. Compaction Tests The essence of conducting the compaction test was to determine the relationship between
94

* (Mohamedbhai and Baguant, 1990 ** Uteene, 1986 ***Osinubi and Stephen, 2005
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The soil used in this investigation is the black cotton soil taken from Numan Ngurore Road, Lamurde Local Government Area of Adamawa State. The soil was subjected to tests in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) and BS 1924

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

dry unit weight and moulding water content. Factors that influence the degree of compaction are the moisture content, soil type and the compactive effort per unit volume. Field compaction tests often vary from laboratory tests and in a bid to reduce these differences, several compactive efforts were selected in the laboratory that span the range of compactive efforts anticipated in the field. Consequently the water content/dry unit weight criterion applies to the compactive effort used. Tests involving moisturedensity relationships, unconfined compression (UCS) and California bearing ratio (CBR) were carried out in accordance with the standards stated above. Three compactive efforts namely: British Standard Light (BSL), West African Standard (WAS) and the British Standard Heavy (BSH) were applied in the study using a 1000 cm3 compaction mould with a diameter of 101.6 mm . The BSL compactive effort was derived from a hammer weighing 2.5 kg falling through 30 cm onto 3 layers each receiving 27 blows. In the case of WAS compaction, the energy exerted was obtained from a 4.5 kg hammer falling through 45 cm onto 5 layers each receiving 10 blows, while for the BSH compaction, the compaction energy applied was derived from a 4.5 kg hammer falling through 45 cm onto 5 layers each receiving 27 blows. Strength Tests The soil-bagasse ash mixtures were prepared by thoroughly mixing predetermined weights of air-dried samples of the black cotton soil with the bagasse ash until a uniform mix was obtained. An amount of water necessary to give the required moisture content was added to the dry mixtures. Strength tests were carried out in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) and BS 1924 (1990) for the natural soil and stabilized soils, respectively. However, for the CBR test, the specimens were cured for six days unsoaked under controlled conditions (that is, at a temperature
95

of 25 2 C and relative humidity of 100 %) and later immersed in water for one day before testing as recommended by the Nigerian General Specifications (1997). Specimens for UCS tests were cured in sealed polythene bags to prevent loss of moisture for 7, 14 and 28 days after which they were placed on platens of a universal testing machine and crushed to failure. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Index Properties The concentrations of the major detected oxides in black cotton soil by weight using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) are summarized in Table 2. From research findings reported by Ola (1983) and Osinubi (1995) the predominant clay mineral is montmorillonite.
Table 2. Detected oxide composition of the natural black cotton soil
Oxide CaO SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MnO TiO2 Concentration (% by weight) 31.01 4.74 16.19 0.13 1.34

The index properties of the natural and treated soils are summarized in Table 3, while Fig. 1 shows the particle size distribution. Optimum Moisture Content The effect of compactive effort on the optimum moisture contents (OMC) of the black cotton soil treated with bagasse ash for the BSL, WAS and BSH compactive efforts, is shown in Fig.3. The OMC for the natural soil at BSL,

Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen Ayuba Thomas Table 3. Geotechnical properties of the natural black cotton soil
Property Natural moisture content, % Percentage passing BS No. 200 Sieve Liquid Limit, % Plastic Limit, % Plasticity Index, % Linear shrinkage, % AASHTO Classification Group Index Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) Maximum Dry Density (MDD) , Mg/m3 British Standard Light West African Standard British Standard Heavy Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) ,% British Standard Light West African Standard British Standard Heavy Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), kN/m2 British Standard Light West African Standard British Standard Heavy California bearing ratio (CBR), % British Standard Light West African Standard British Standard Heavy pH Specific Gravity Swelling Pressure, kN/m2 Colour
1 0 0 .0 9 0 .0 8 0 .0 7 0 .0 % Pass ing 6 0 .0 5 0 .0 4 0 .0 3 0 .0 2 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 0 .1 0 0 1 .0 0 0 10. 000

Value/ Description 8 58 52 15 37 15 A-7-6 13 CH 1.75 1.91 2.05 18.4 13.2 13.2 120 355 424 3 6 8 7.7 2.37 55.6 Dark grey

WAS and BSH compactive efforts are 18.5, 13 and 13%, respectively. The inclusion of bagasse ash led to increase in OMC to a peak value of 24% for BSL comapctive effort at 6% bagasse ash content. Further addition of bagasse ash led to a sharp reduction in OMC to a minimum value of 16% at 10% bagasse ash content. Similarly, for the WAS compactive effort, the addition of bagasse ash to the soil led to consistent (except for the drop at 6% bagasse ash content) increases in OMC to a peak value of 17.5% at 12% bagasse ash content. However, the OMC trend for the BSH compactive effort was slightly different in the sense that there was an initial decrease in OMC to a value of 11.0% at a stabilizer content of 4%. Further addition of the bagasse ash slightly increased OMC to a value of about 13%. The increases in OMC recorded are due to the increasing demand for water by the various cations and the clay mineral particles to undergo hydration reaction. The pattern of changes in OMC for the BSH compactive effort, is different probably because of the high compactive energy involved, hence the need for more moisture for reaction. In other words, decreases in OMC were as a result of self-desiccation whereby all the

Particle size (mm) Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of the natural soil 96

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

available water molecules were used up in the hydration reaction with consequent lower hydration and an incomplete hydration that affected the OMC (Osinubi, 2001). Compaction Characteristics Maximum dry density The effect of compactive effort on the maximum dry density (MDD) of the black cotton soil treated with bagasse ash for the three compactive efforts is shown in Fig. 2. The MDD for the natural soil at BSL, WAS and BSH are 1.75, 1.91 and 2.05 Mg/m3, respectively. Addition of bagasse ash to the soil increased the MDD to a maximum value of 1.83 Mg/m3 at 4% bagasse ash content and subsequently, decreased with higher bagasse ash content at the BSL compactive effort. For the WAS compaction, inclusion of bagasse ash led to an initial increase in MDD to a peak value of 1.94 Mg/m3 at 2% and 6% bagasse ash contents and further
2 .1 5 2. 1 Max. Dry Density (Mg/m 3) 2 .0 5 2 1 .9 5 1. 9 1 .8 5 1. 8 1 .7 5 1. 7 0 2 4

inclusion of the additive caused a reduction in the MDD to a value of 1.87 Mg/m3 at 10% bagasse ash content and remained constant up to 12% bagasse ash content. Similarly, for the BSH compactive effort, the MDD increased to a peak value of 2.09 Mg/m3 at 2% bagasse ash content and further inclusion of the stabilizer led to decrease in the MDD to a value of 1.99 Mg/m3 at 6% bagasse ash content. Thereafter, MDD remained fairly uniform with higher doses of bagasse ash. The initial increases in MDD recorded for all the three compactive efforts are partly attributable to flocculation and agglomeration of the clay particles due primarily to ion exchange. The later reduction in MDD could probably be due to the flocculated and agglomerated clay particles occupying larger spaces leading to corresponding decreases in the MDD (OFlaherty, 1988). Partly also, the reduction in MDD with increases in bagasse ash could be due

BS L WAS BS H

8 B (%) Bagasse ash content

10 h

12 t (%)

Fig. 2. Maximum dry density versus bagasse Ash Content 97

Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen Ayuba Thomas

25.00 Optim um mo istu re content (% ) 23.00 21.00 19.00 17.00 15.00 13.00 11.00 9.00 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Bagasse ash content (%)
Fig. 3. Optimum moisture content versus bagasse ash contents

BSL WAS BSH

to the replacement of soil particles that were of higher specific gravity of 2.37 in a given volume by particles of bagasse ash of comparatively lower specific gravity of 1.66. Strength Characteristics Unconfined compressive strength The effect of compactive efforts on the UCS of the bagasse ash treated black cotton soil is shown in Fig.4. For the BSL compactive effort at 7 days curing period, it can be observed that the strength of the stabilized soil increased from 120 kN/m2 for the natural soil to a peak value of 229 kN/m2 at 10% bagasse ash content. Further increase in bagasse ash content led to a reduction in UCS to a value of 114 kN/m2 at 12% bagasse ash content. Similarly, for the WAS compactive
98

effort, increase in bagasse ash content led to increase in UCS values from 355 kN/m2 for the natural soil to a peak value of 470 kN/m2 at 6 % bagasse ash content. Further addition of the stabilizer led to decrease in UCS value to 220 kN/m2 at 12% bagasse ash content. For BSH compactive effort, addition of bagasse ash led to an increase in the UCS from an initial value of 423 kN/m2 for the natural soil to a peak value of 756 kN/m2 at 8% bagasse ash content. A sharp reduction in UCS to a value of 492 kN/m2 occurred at 10% bagasse ash. The peak UCS values are lower than the conventional 1720 kN/ m2 for 7 day strength of cement stabilized base course soil (TRRL, 1977).

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

800 Unconfined Com pressive Strength (kN/m 2) 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 2 4 BSL WAS BSH

Bagasse ash content (%)

6 8 10 12 Bagasse ash co ntent (%)

Fig. 4. Variation of UCS with bagasse ash content (7 days curing)

Generally, the initial increases in UCS due to inclusion of bagasse ash could probably be due to ion exchange at the surface of clay particles as the Ca2+ in the stabilizer reacted with the lower valence metallic ions in the clay microstructure, which resulted in agglomeration and flocculation of the clay particles. The reduction in UCS with higher bagasse ash content could be partly due to excess of lower valence cations that could not be neutralized with the available higher valence cations. This reaction increased the affinity for H+ which caused a reduction in UCS (e.g. BSL compaction). to a minimum value of 103 kN/m2 that is less than the value for the natural soil sample. With higher bagasse ash content the amount of cations increased and were able to balance the net negative disequilibrium or in other words caused a reduction in the zeta potential of the clay minerals and bagasse ash mixture that resulted in a reduction in the affinity for H+( OFlaherty, 1988). This consequently led to the increase in UCS to 229 kN/m2 at 10 % bagasse ash which is about twice the UCS value of the natural soil sample. California bearing ratio The CBR values obtained from the results of bagasse ash stabilization of the black cotton soil are 3 %, 6 % and 8 % for natural soil compacted at the BSL, WAS, BSH energy levels
99

respectively. Peak values of 8 % at 10% bagasse ash content, 11 % at 2% bagasse ash content and 14 % at 4% bagasse ash content were recorded for the BSL, WAS and BSH compactive efforts, respectively. The reason for the slight increases in strengths could be due to inadequate amounts of calcium required for the formation of CSH which is the major element for strength gain. The Nigerian General Specification (1997) recommends that a CBR value of 180 % should be attained in the laboratory for cement stabilized material to be constructed by the mix-in-place method. But usually, a minimum CBR value of 60 to 80 % is required for bases and from 20 to 30 % for sub-bases both when compacted at optimum moisture and 100% intermediate/West African Standard (Gidigasu and Dogbey 1980; Gidigasu, 1982; Osinubi, 2001). Although, there is no existing specification for bagasse ash stabilization, the optimum CBR values for the three compactive efforts do not meet the minimum specified by the Nigerian General Specification (1997).
16 14 12 C B R (% ) 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 BSL WAS BSH

Bagasse ash content (%) Fig. 5. Variation of CBR with bagasse ash content

CONCLUSION The black cotton soil used in this study was classified as A-7-6 (13) (AASHTO: Standard 1986) or CH (ASTM: 1992). The natural soil is highly clayey with 58 % passing the BS No. 200

Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen Ayuba Thomas

sieve, high liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, and swelling pressures while UCS and CBR were very low. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values for BSL, WAS and BSH compactive efforts obtained for the natural soil after 7 days curing were 120, 355 and 424 kN/m2, respectively, and the optimum UCS values obtained for treated specimens are 229, 470 and 756 kN/m2 at 10 %, 6 % and 8 % bagasse ash contents, respectively. These do not meet the minimum requirement of 1720 kN/m2 recommended by TRRL (1977). Therefore, bagasse ash stabilized soil cannot be used as a pavement material. The CBR values for the natural soil at the BSL, WAS and BSH energy levels are 3 , 6 and 8 %, while the optimum CBR values obtained for the stabilized black cotton soil are 8 , 11 % and 14 % at 10 %, 2 % and 4 % bagasse ash contents, respectively. The values obtained barely meet the minimum specification by the Nigerian General Specification (1997) of 15 % CBR for a subgrade material at the WAS and BSH compactive efforts. The results obtained show that bagasse ash can be more profitably used as an admixture with a conventional stabilizer such as cement or lime. However, from this investigation the CBR value of 11 % at 2 % bagasse ash content and at WAS compaction effort, can be recommended for use in subgrade construction of lightly trafficked roads. The reason for the preference of the WAS compactive effort instead of the BSH compaction energy which recorded a higher CBR value of 14 % is because this energy level is more commonly used in the West African sub-region (Osinubi, 1999). Furthermore, it is expected that there would be an increase in strength due to timedependent pozzolanic reactions in the soilbagasse ash mixtures (Osinubi, 1998).

REFERENCES Adeniji, F.A. 1991. Recharge function of vertisolic vadose zone in sub-Sahelian Chad Basin. Proc. 1st Inter. Conf. on Arid Zone Hydrology and Water Resources, Maiduguri, pp. 331-348. Agboola, O. 1991. The Effects of Stabilization on Black Cotton Soil. Unpublished MSc Thesis Dept. of Civil Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. AASHTO. 1986. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 14th Edition, Am. Assoc. of State Hwy. and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. ASTM. 1992. Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 04. 08. American Society for Testing and Matreials, Philadelphia. BS 1377. 1990. Methods of Testing Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes. British Standards Institute, London. BS 1924. 1990. Methods of Test for Stabilized Soils. British Standards Institute, London. Chen, F. H. 1988. Foundations on Expansive Soils, Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co. Amsterdam. oka, Erdal. 2001. Use of Class C Fly Ashes for the stabilization of an expansive soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engrg., Vol. 127, No.7, pp. 568-573. Gidigasu, M.D. 1982. Importance of material selection, construction control and field performance studies in developing acceptance specification for laterite paving gravels. Solos and Rocha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Vol.5, No.1. pp. 27-35. Gidigasu, M.D. and Dogbey, J.L.K. 1980. Geotechnical characteristics of laterized decomposed rocks for pavement construction in dry sub-humid environment, Proc. 6th Southeast Asian Conf. on Soil Engrg. Taipei, Vol.1, pp. 492 506. Medjo Eko and Riskowiski, G. 2004. A procedure for processing mixtures of soil, cement, and sugar cane bagasse. Agricultural Engineering International. The Journal of Scientific Research and Development. Manuscript BC 990. Vo. III., pp. 1-6. Mohamedbhai, G.T.G. and Baguant,.B.K. 1990. Possibility of using bagassae ash and other furnace residue as partial substitute for cement in
100

Influence of Compactive Efforts on Bagasse Ash Treated Black Cotton Soil

Mauritius. Revue Agricole et Sucrere de lIle Maurice. Vol. 64. No. 3 Sept. Dec., pp.1-10. Morin, W.J. 1971. Properties of African tropical black clay soils. 5th Reg. Conf. for African on Soil Mech. and Foundation Engrg. Luanda, Vol. 1, pp. 51-59. Nigerian General Specifications. 1997. Roads and Bridges. Federal Ministry of Works, Lagos, Nigeria. OFlaherty, C.A. 1988. Highway Enginering. Vol. 2. Edward Arnold, London. Ola, S.A. 1978. "The geology and geotechnical properties of the black cotton soils of north eastern Nigeria Engineering Geology. Vol. 12, pp. 375-391. Ola, S.A. 1983. The geotechnical properties of black cotton soils of north eastern Nigeria. In: S.A. Ola(ed). Tropical Soils of Nigeria in Engineering Practice. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 260-278. Osinubi, K.J. 1995. Lime modification of black cotton soils." Spectrum Journal, Vol. 2. Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 112-122. Osinubi, K.J. 1998. Influence of compactive effort and compaction delays on lime-treated soil. Journal of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol.124, No.2, pp.149 155. Osinubi, K.J. 1999. Evaluation of admixture stabilization of Nigerian black cotton soils. NSE Technical Transaction Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 88-96. Osinubi, K.J. 2000a. Stabilization of tropical black clay with cement and pulverized coal bottom ash admixture. In: Advances in Unsturated Geotechnics. Edited by Charles D. Shackelford, Sandra L.H and Nien-Yui Chang. ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, No.99, pp.289-302 Osinubi, K.J. 2000b. Laboratory trial of soil stabilization using pulverized coal bottom ash. NSE Transaction. Vol.35, No.4, pp.13-21. Osinubi, K.J. 2001. Influence of compaction energy levels and delays on cement-treated soil. NSE Technical Transactions Vol. 36, No.4., pp.1 - 13 Osinubi, K.J. 2006. Influence of compactive efforts on lime-slag treated tropical black clay. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 18, No.2, pp. 175- 181

Osinubi, K.J. and Medubi, A.B. 1997. Evaluation of cement and phosphatic waste admixture on tropical black clay road foundation. Proc. of 4th Int. Conf. on Structural Engineering. (SEAM 4), Accra, Vol. 2: pp. 297-307. Osinubi, K.J. and Stephen, T.A. 2005. Economic utilization of an agro- industrial waste Bagasse ash. Proc. 4th Nigerian Materials Congress, NIMACON 2005, November, Zaria. p. 36 - 40 Osinubi K.J. and Alhaji, M.M. 2005. The potential of bagasse ash as a pozolana. Proc. 4th Nigerian Materials Congress, NIMACON 2005, November, Zaria. p. 41 - 45 Osinubi, K.J., Eberemu, A.O. and Amadi, A.A. 2006. Compacted lateritic soil treated with blast furnace slag as hydraulic barrier in waste containment systems Journal of Abstracts of Presentations at the Inter. Conf. on Infrastructure Development and the Environment, Abuja, September, Session D.3 Waste Containment Systems, Paper D:3 127, pp.1 23. Plait, R.M. 1953. Determination of swelling pressures of black cotton soil A method. Proc. of the Third International Conference on soil mech. and foundation. Engrg. Vol.1 pp 170-172. Sahel, N.A. 1993. Treatment of calcareous expansive clays. In: Fly Ash for Soil Improvement. Geotechnical Special Publications No.36, K. D. Sharp (ed.) Geotechnical Engrg. Division of the ASCE, pp.100-115 Tomlinson, M.J. 1999. Foundation Design and Construction. 6th edition, Longman, Harlow, Essex, United Kingdom. TRRL. 1977. A guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen-surfaced Roads in Tropical and Subtropical Countries, Road Note 31. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, H.M.S.O., London, United Kingdom. Uteene, A.F. 1986. Types of Boiler Bagasse Ash. Unpublished Final year project, department of Civil Engineering, University of Mauritius. Warren, K.W. and Kirby, T.M. 2004. Expansive Clay Soil A Widespread and Costly Geohazard. Geostrata. Geoinstitute of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Jan., pp. 24-28.

101