"One Step At A Time" Hurry up and wait So close, but so far away Everything that you've always dreamed

of Close enough for you to taste But you just can't touch You wanna show the world, but no one knows your name yet Wonder when and where and how you're gonna make it You know you can if you get the chance In your face as the door keeps slamming Now you're feeling more and more frustrated And you're getting all kind of impatient waiting [Chorus:] We live and we learn to take One step at a time There's no need to rush It's like learning to fly Or falling in love It's gonna happen when it's Supposed to happen and we Find the reasons why One step at a time You believe and you doubt You're confused, you got it all figured out Everything that you always wished for Could be yours, should be yours, would be yours If they only knew You wanna show the world, but no one knows your name yet Wonder when and where and how you're gonna make it You know you can if you get the chance In your face as the door keeps slamming Now you're feeling more and more frustrated And you're getting all kind of impatient waiting [Chorus] When you can't wait any longer But there's no end in sight when you need to find the strength It's your faith that makes you stronger The only way you get there Is one step at a time

[Chorus x2] "Bye Bye" This is for my peoples who just lost somebody Your best friend, your baby, your man, or your lady Put your hand way up high We will never say bye (no, no, no) Mamas, daddies, sisters, brothers, friends and cousins This is for my peoples who lost their grandmothers Lift your head to the sky 'cause we will never say bye As a child there were them times I didn't get it but you kept me in line I didn't know why you didn't show up sometimes On Sunday mornings, and I missed you But I'm glad we talked through All them grown folk things Separation brings You never let me know it You never let it show because You loved me and obviously There's so much more left to say If you were with me today face to face [Chorus:] I never knew I could hurt like this And everyday life goes on like "I wish I could talk to you for awhile" Miss you but I try not to cry As time goes by And it's true that you've reached a better place Still I'd give the world to see your face And I'm right here next to you But it's like you're gone too soon Now the hardest thing to do is say bye bye (Bye Bye [3x]) Bye bye And you never got the chance to see how good I've done And you never got to see me back at number one I wish that you were here to celebrate together I wish that we could spend the holidays together I remember when you used to tuck me in at night

With the Teddy Bear you gave to me that I held so tight I thought you were so strong You'd make it through whatever It's so hard to accept the fact you're gone forever [Chorus] (bye bye bye bye bye bye [3x]) Bye bye This is for my peoples who just lost somebody Your best friend, your baby, your man, or your lady Put your hand way up high We will never say bye (no, no, no) Mamas, daddies, sisters, brothers, friends and cousins This is for my peoples who lost their grandmothers Lift your head to the sky 'cause we will never say bye [Chorus] Life comes in many shapes You think you know what you got Until it changes And life will take you high and low You gotta learn how to walk And then which way to go Every choice you make When you're lost Every step you take Has it's cause [Chorus:] After you clear your eyes You'll see the light Somewhere in the darkness After the rain has gone You'll feel the sun comes And though it seems your sorrow never ends Someday it's gonna make sense Tears you she'd are all the same When you laughed 'till you cried Or broken down in pain [ Lyrics from:

http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/m/michael_learns_to_rock/someday_its_gonna_make_s ense.html ] All the hours you have spent in the past Worrying about A thing that didn't last Everything you saw Played a part In everything you are In your heart [Chorus:] After you clear your eyes You'll see the light Somewhere in the darkness After the rain has gone You'll feel the sun comes And though it seems your sorrow never ends Someday your gonna find the answers To all the things you've become(and all day down) At your expense Someday it's gonna make sense After the rain has gone You feel the sun comes And though it seems your sorrow never ends Someday it's gonna make sense After the rain has gone You feel the sun comes And though it seems your sorrow never ends Someday it's gonna make sense California King Chest to chest Nose to nose Palm to palm We were always just that close Wrist wrist Toe to toe Lips that felt just like the inside of a rose So how come when I reach out my fingers It feels like more than distance between us [Chorus]

In this california king bed We're ten thousand miles apart I've been california wishing on these stars for your heart, for me My california king Eye to eye Cheek to cheek Side by side You were sleeping next to me Arm in arm Dusk to dawn With the curtains drawn And a little last night on these sheets So how come when I reach out my fingers It seems like more than distance between us [Chorus] In this california king bed We're ten thousand miles apart I've been california wishing on these stars for your heart, for me My california king Just when I felt like giving up on us You turned around and gave me one last touch That made everything feel better And even then my eyes got wetter So confused, wanna ask you if you love me But I don't wanna seem so weak Maybe I've been california dreaming [Chorus] In this california king bed We're ten thousand miles apart been california wishing on these stars for your heart, for me My california king In this california king bed We're ten thousand miles apart I've been california wishing on these stars

for your heart, for me My california king Kaleidoscope World So many faces, so many races Different voices, different choices Some are mad, while others laugh Some live alone with no better half Others grieve while others curse And others mourn behind a big black hearse Some are pure and some half-bred Some are sober and some are wasted Some are rich because of fate and Some are poor with no food on their plate Some stand out while others blend Some are fat and stout while some are thin Some are friends and some are foes Some have some while some have most Every color and every hue Is represented by me and you Take a slide in the slope Take a look in the kaleidoscope Spinnin' round, make it twirl In this kaleidoscope world [ From: http://www.elyrics.net/read/f/francis-magalona-lyrics/kaleidoscope-worldlyrics.html ] Some are great and some are few Others lie while some tell the truth Some say poems and some do sing Others sing through their guitar strings Some know it all while some act dumb Let the bassline strum to the bang of the drum Some can swim while some will sink And some will find their minds and think Others walk while others run You can't talk peace and have a gun Some are hurt and start to cry Don't ask me how don't ask me why Some are friends and some are foes Some have some while some have most Every color and every hue

Is represented by me and you Take a slide in the slope Take a look in the kaleidoscope Spinnin' round, make it twirl In this kaleidoscope world

If our brains were computers, we'd simply add a chip to upgrade our memory. The human brain, however, is more complex than even the most advanced machine, so improving our memory isnt quite so easy. Just as it takes effort to build physical fitness, so too does boosting brain power. A strong memory depends on the health and vitality of your brain. Whether youre a student studying for final exams, a working professional interested in doing all you can to stay mentally sharp, or a senior looking to preserve and enhance your grey matter as you age, there are lots of things you can do to improve your memory and mental performance.

Harnessing the power of your brain

They say that you cant teach an old dog new tricks, but when it comes to the brain, scientists have discovered that this old adage simply isnt true. The human brain has an astonishing ability to adapt and changeeven into old age. This ability is known as neuroplasticity. With the right stimulation, your brain can form new neural pathways, alter existing connections, and adapt and react in ever-changing ways. The brains incredible ability to reshape itself holds true when it comes to learning and memory. You can harness the natural power of neuroplasticity to increase your cognitive abilities, enhance your ability to learn new information, and improve your memory.

Improving memory tip 1: Dont skimp on exercise or sleep

Just as an athlete relies on sleep and a nutrition-packed diet to perform his or her best, your ability to remember increases when you nurture your brain with a good diet and other healthy habits.

When you exercise the body, you exercise the brain

Treating your body well can enhance your ability to process and recall information. Physical exercise increases oxygen to your brain and reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Exercise may also enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.

Improve your memory by sleeping on it

When youre sleep deprived, your brain cant operate at full capacity. Creativity, problemsolving abilities, and critical thinking skills are compromised. Whether youre studying, working, or trying to juggle lifes many demands, sleep deprivation is a recipe for disaster. But sleep is critical to learning and memory in an even more fundamental way. Research shows that sleep is necessary for memory consolidation, with the key memory-enhancing activity occurring during the deepest stages of sleep.

Improving memory tip 2: Make time for friends and fun

When you think of ways to improve memory, do you think of serious activities such as wrestling with the New York Times crossword puzzle or mastering chess strategy, or do more lighthearted pastimeshanging out with friends or enjoying a funny moviecome to mind? If youre like most of us, its probably the former. But countless studies show that a life thats full of friends and fun comes with cognitive benefits.

Healthy relationships: the ultimate memory booster?

Humans are highly social animals. Were not meant to survive, let alone thrive, in isolation. Relationships stimulate our brainsin fact, interacting with others may be the best kind of brain exercise. Research shows that having meaningful relationships and a strong support system are vital not only to emotional health, but also to brain health. In one recent study from the Harvard School of Public Health, for example, researchers found that people with the most active social lives had the slowest rate of memory decline. There are many ways to start taking advantage of the brain and memory-boosting benefits of socializing. Volunteer, join a club, make it a point to see friends more often, or reach out over the phone. And if a human isnt handy, dont overlook the value of a petespecially the highly-social dog.

Laughter is good for your brain

Youve heard that laughter is the best medicine, and that holds true for the brain as well as the body. Unlike emotional responses, which are limited to specific areas of the brain, laughter engages multiple regions across the whole brain. Furthermore, listening to jokes and working out punch lines activates areas of the brain vital to learning and creativity. As psychologist Daniel Goleman notes in his book Emotional Intelligence, laughterseems to help people think more broadly and associate more freely.

Looking for ways to bring more laughter in your life? Start with these basics:

Laugh at yourself. Share your embarrassing moments. The best way to take ourselves less seriously is to talk about the times when we took ourselves too seriously. When you hear laughter, move toward it. Most of the time, people are very happy to share something funny because it gives them an opportunity to laugh again and feed off the humor you find in it. When you hear laughter, seek it out and ask, Whats funny? Spend time with fun, playful people. These are people who laugh easilyboth at themselves and at lifes absurditiesand who routinely find the humor in everyday events. Their playful point of view and laughter are contagious. Surround yourself with reminders to lighten up. Keep a toy on your desk or in your car. Put up a funny poster in your office. Choose a computer screensaver that makes you laugh. Frame photos of you and your family or friends having fun. Pay attention to children and emulate them. They are the experts on playing, taking life lightly, and laughing.

Improving memory tip 3: Keep stress in check

Stress is one of the brains worst enemies. Over time, if left unchecked, chronic stress destroys brain cells and damages the hippocampus, the region of the brain involved in the formation of new memories and the retrieval of old ones.

The stress-busting, brain-boosting benefits of meditation Get depression in check

In addition to stress, depression takes a heavy toll on the brain. In fact, some of the symptoms of depression include difficulty concentrating, making decisions, and remembering things. If you are mentally sluggish because of depression, seeking treatment will make a big difference in your cognitive abilities, including memory.

The scientific evidence for the mental health benefits of meditation continues to pile up. Studies show that meditation helps improve many different types of conditions, including depression, anxiety, chronic pain, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Meditation also can improve focus, concentration, creativity, and learning and reasoning skills. Meditation works its magic by changing the actual brain. Brain images show that regular meditators have more activity in the left prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain associated with feelings of joy and equanimity. Meditation also increases the thickness of the cerebral

cortex and encourages more connections between brain cellsall of which increases mental sharpness and memory ability.

Improving memory tip 4: Bulk up on brain-boosting foods

Just as the body needs fuel, so does the brain. You probably already know that a diet based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats will provide lots of health benefits, but such a diet can also improve memory. But for brain health, its not just what you eat its also what you dont eat. The following nutritional tips will help boost your brainpower and reduce your risk of dementia:

Get your omega-3s. More and more evidence indicates that omega-3 fatty acids are particularly beneficial for brain health. Fish is a particularly rich source of omega-3, especially cold water fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, halibut, trout, mackerel, sardines, and herring. In addition to boosting brainpower, eating fish may also lower your risk of developing Alzheimers disease. If youre not a fan of fish, consider turning to fish oil supplements. Other non-fish sources of omega-3s include walnuts, ground flaxseed, flaxseed oil, pumpkin seeds, and soybeans. Limit saturated fat. Research shows that diets high in saturated fat increase your risk of dementia and impair concentration and memory. The primary sources of saturated far are animal products: red meat, whole milk, butter, cheese, sour cream, and ice cream. Eat more fruit and vegetables. Produce is packed with antioxidants, substances that protect your brain cells from damage. Colorful fruits and vegetables are particularly good antioxidant "superfood" sources. Try leafy green vegetables such as spinach, broccoli, romaine lettuce, Swiss chard, and arugula, and fruit such as apricots, mangoes, cantaloupe, and watermelon. Drink wine (or grape juice) in moderation. Keeping your alcohol consumption in check is key, since alcohol kills brain cells. But in moderation (around 1 glass a day for women; 2 for men), alcohol may actually improve memory and cognition. Red wine appears to be the best option, as it is rich in resveratrol, a flavonoid that boosts blood flow in the brain and reduces the risk of Alzheimers disease. Other resveratrol-packed options include grape juice, cranberry juice, fresh grapes and berries, and peanuts.

For mental energy, choose complex carbohydrates.

Just as a racecar needs gas, your brain needs fuel to perform at its best. When you need to be at the top of your mental game, carbohydrates can keep you going. But the type of carbs you choose makes all the difference. Carbohydrates fuel your brain, but simple carbs (sugar, white bread, refined grains) give a quick boost followed by an equally rapid crash. For energy that lasts, choose complex carbohydrates such as whole-wheat bread, brown rice, oatmeal, high-fiber cereal, lentils, and whole beans.

Improving memory tip 5: Give your brain a workout

By the time youve reached adulthood, your brain has developed millions of neural pathways that help you process information quickly, solve familiar problems, and execute familiar tasks with a minimum of mental effort. But if you always stick to these well-worn paths, you arent giving your brain the stimulation it needs to keep growing and developing. You have to shake things up from time to time! Memory, like muscular strength, requires you to use it or lose it. The more you work out your brain, the better youll be able to process and remember information. The best brain exercising activities break your routine and challenge you to use and develop new brain pathways. The activity can be virtually anything, so long as it meets the following three criteria: 1. Its new. No matter how intellectually demanding the activity, if its something youre already good at, its not a good brain exercise. The activity needs to be something thats unfamiliar and out of your comfort zone. 2. Its challenging. Anything that takes some mental effort and expands your knowledge will work. Examples include learning a new language, instrument, or sport, or tackling a challenging crossword or Sudoku puzzle. 3. Its fun. The more interested and engaged you are in the activity, the more likely youll be to continue doing it and the greater the benefits youll experience. The activity should be challenging, yes, but not so difficult or unpleasant that you dread doing it.

Use mnemonic devices to make memorization easier

Mnemonics (the initial m is silent) are clues of any kind that help us remember something, usually by helping us associate the information we want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word. Mnemonic device Visual image Technique Example

Acrostic (or sentence) Acronym

Associate a visual image with a To remember the name Rosa Parks word or name to help you remember and what shes known for, picture a them better. Positive, pleasant woman sitting on a park bench images that are vivid, colorful, and surrounded by roses, waiting as her three-dimensional will be easier to bus pulls up. remember. Make up a sentence in which the The sentence Every good boy does first letter of each word is part of or fine to memorize the lines of the represents the initial of what you treble clef, representing the notes E, want to remember. G, B, D, and F. An acronym is a word that is made The word HOMES to remember up by taking the first letters of all the names of the Great Lakes:

Mnemonic device

Technique

Example

Rhymes and alliteration

Chunking

Method of loci

the key words or ideas you need to Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and remember and creating a new word Superior. out of them. Rhymes, alliteration (a repeating The rhyme Thirty days hath sound or syllable), and even jokes September, April, June, and are a memorable way to November to remember the months remember more mundane facts of the year with only 30 days in and figures. them. Chunking breaks a long list of Remembering a 10-digit phone numbers or other types of number by breaking it down into information into smaller, more three sets of numbers: 555-867manageable chunks. 5309 (as opposed to5558675309). Imagine placing the items you want For a shopping list, imagine bananas to remember along a route you in the entryway to your home, a know well or in specific locations in puddle of milk in the middle of the a familiar room or building. sofa, eggs going up the stairs, and bread on your bed.

Tips for enhancing your ability to learn and remember

Pay attention. You cant remember something if you never learned it, and you cant learn somethingthat is, encode it into your brainif you dont pay enough attention to it. It takes about eight seconds of intense focus to process a piece of information into your memory. If youre easily distracted, pick a quiet place where you wont be interrupted. Involve as many senses as possible. Try to relate information to colors, textures, smells, and tastes. The physical act of rewriting information can help imprint it onto your brain. Even if youre a visual learner, read out loud what you want to remember. If you can recite it rhythmically, even better. Relate information to what you already know. Connect new data to information you already remember, whether its new material that builds on previous knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street where you already know someone. For more complex material, focus on understanding basic ideas rather than memorizing isolated details. Practice explaining the ideas to someone else in your own words. Rehearse information youve already learned. Review what youve learned the same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. This spaced rehearsal is more effective than cramming, especially for retaining what youve learned.

IMPROVING MEMORY

In the previous section, we have discussed memory processes and introduced you to some basic concepts of memory. What we have presented, however, is just the tip of the iceberg. If you review research on memory and learning, you will find that there exist a vast amount of information on the subject. But in learning to become more personally and academically effective, you are probably most interested in seeing how this knowledge can be put into practice. In other words, how can it help you improve your memory. Thus, we focus on memory techniques and strategies. 1. PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER. Organizing and ordering information can significantly improve memory. Imagine, for example, how difficult it would be to remember a random list of 62 letters. On the other hand, it would not be difficult to memorize the first sentence in this paragraph (consisting of 62 letters). Similarly, learning a large amount of unconnected and unorganized information from various classes can be very challenging. By organizing and adding meaning to the material prior to learning it, you can facilitate both storage and retrieval. In other words, you can learn it better and recall it easier. The following concepts can help you pull various information together in order to increase understanding and organization. This can mean organizing material on paper, such as when you make an outline or idea web, or simply organizing material in your memory, such as learning it in a particular order or making intentional associations between ideas. 2. THE FUNNEL APPROACH. This means learning general concepts before moving on to specific details. When you study in this manner, you focus on getting a general framework, or overview, before filling in the details. When you understand the general concepts first, the details make more sense. Rather than disconnected bits of information to memorize, such as history dates, the material fits together within the overall framework. Seeing how the smaller details relate to one another, you process the information more deeply (which helps you store, and later retrieve, it from memory). This idea is probably familiar--there are many learning strategies based on the funnel approach. For example, the approach is used in previewing a chapter for the major ideas as a way to enhance your comprehension of details contained in the chapter. You may also notice that many textbook chapters are organized in a "general to specific" format. Finally, you probably use this type of approach when studying from an outline, matrix, or concept map. Because of their organization, these tools are particularly well-suited for learning general to specific. 3. ORGANIZING THROUGH MEANING AND ASSOCIATION. Earlier, we discussed the concept of making intentional associations in order to improve learning retention. What do we mean by "intentional associations"? When learning, a person continually makes associations. We make associations between what we are learning and the environment we are in, between the information and our mental states, and between the information and our stream of thoughts. When things are associated in memory, thinking of one helps bring the other to mind. Have you ever actually retraced your path when you have forgotten where you put an object such as your keys? Often, as you approach the place where you put them, you are suddenly able to remember the act of laying them down on the table or putting them in your gym bag. This is association. The memory of putting the keys down was associated with your memory of things in the environment. You can

make associations work for you by making them intentional. When you are having difficulty recalling new material, you can help bring it to mind by thinking about what you have associated it with. In other words--retrace your mental path. We will return to this idea later when we discuss specific strategies. a) Deep processing--relating the material to yourself. One way to process information more deeply, and also to create meaningful associations, is to think about how the information can be personally meaningful. You might think about how the new material relates to your life, your experience, or your goals. If you can link new information to memories already stored ("mental hooks"), you'll have more cues to recall the new material. b) Grouping. This idea is probably best explained with an example. Before reading ahead, take a moment to complete the following exercise. EXERCISE: GROUPING Read the following list of sports one time. When you are done, write down as many of the sports as you can without looking back at the list. Snow Skiing Basketball Tennis Long Jump Bobsledding 100-Meter Dash Hockey Baseball Ice Skate Discus Golf High Jump Volleyball Javelin Soccer Luge Curling Cricket Decathlon Hurdles Note the number of sports you remembered correctly. We will return to this exercise later. You can organize material by grouping similar concepts, or related ideas, together. Arranging the material into related groups helps your memory by organizing the information. For example, in the exercise you just completed, you could have grouped all of the sports into one of the following categories: a) Winter sports, b) Track and Field sports, and c)Sports using a ball. Keeping these categories in mind, try the exercise again. If your are like most people, you will be able to remember more of the sports. Of course, in this instance, we created a list with the intention of demonstrating grouping; thus, there were 6 or 7 sports in each category. Still, with a little thought, this strategy can

be used in a variety of ways. For example, can you think of other ways that these sports could be grouped? There are individual sports, team sports, sports you may enjoy, and sports you may dislike. There are sports requiring a great deal of equipment, and sports requiring little or none. When you are trying to remember lists for a test, the concepts and words may or may not have a natural organization. Therefore, you may need to be creative when making associations. Finally, the process of organizing a list into groups can often help you to understand the relationship between the concepts better. 4. VIVID ASSOCIATIONS. We have already discussed the idea of associations: aiding storage and retrieval of new information by intentionally pairing it with something familiar. When learning something new and unfamiliar, try pairing it with something you know very well, such as images, puns, music, whatever. The association does not have to make logical sense. Often times it is associations that are particularly vivid humorous, or silly that stay in your mind. Some people remember names this way. For example, they may remember the name "Robert Green" by picturing Robert playing golf (on the green), wearing green clothes, or covered in green paint. Or suppose for your anatomy course you have to recall names of the veins in the human body, and the first one on the list is "pancreatic" followed by "right gastroepipeloic" and "left gastroepipeloic" and so on. You can picture a frying pan being creative--maybe painting a picture with bright paints and bold strokes. If the frying pan is working in a studio, picture gas pipes with little padlocks on them (gastroepipeloic) in the left and right studio corners.... VIVID ASSOCIATIONS: LEARNING THE NAMES OF CLASSMATES 1. Pick names of classmates with whom you are unfamiliar. 2. For each name, brainstorm some words or ideas that you can associate with the name. For example, if one student's name is Teresa Martinez, you might think of Mother Teresa, a Martin (a type of bird), Mars the planet, a Martini (the drink), the word "terrific," Martinique, etc. 3. Once you have brainstormed several ideas, you can begin to think of ways that some of the associations can be combined to remember the name. In the above example, you could create a visual association by picturing Mother Teresa standing on the beach at Martinique. 4. Do this for each person, and you will have a great way to remember the names of your new classmates! 5. ACTIVE LEARNING. You will notice that the term "active learning" has come up frequently. Active learning facilitates your memory by helping you attend to and process information. All of the memory techniques we have discussed require active learning. Even if you attend every lecture and read every assignment, there is no guarantee that you will learn and remember the information. Although you may passively absorb some material, to ensure that you remember important information requires being active and involved, that is attending to and thinking about what you are learning.

6. VISUAL MEMORY. Some people remember information best when it is encoded visually; if that is the case for you, then code information in this manner. But even if you do not consider yourself specifically "a visual learner," you may find that including visual memory can still help. After all, it is one more way of encoding and storing information-and one more way of retrieving it for a test. There are many ways of visually encoding and retrieving information. We have already mentioned the strategy of associating concepts with visual images. But other aids to visual memory include diagrams, tables, outlines, etc. Often these are provided in texts, so take advantage of pictures, cartoons, charts, graphs, or any other visual material. You can also draw many of these things yourself. For example, try to visualize how the ideas relate to each other and draw a graph, chart, picture, or some other representation of the material. You may even want to make it a habit to convert difficult material into actual pictures or diagrams in your notes, or to convert words into mental images on the blackboard of your mind. Finally, using your visual memory can be as simple as writing out vocabulary words, theories, or algebraic formulas. This allows you to not only practice (repeat) the information but also to see the way it looks on the page (developing a visual memory that you may be able to retrieve later). Another advantage is that it helps you take an active role in learning the material. When you draw your ideas on paper or write down things you are trying to remember, you have the opportunity to think about the information more deeply. 7. TALK IT OUT. When trying to memorize something, it can help to actually recite the information aloud. You might repeat ideas verbatim (when you need to do rote memorization), or you can repeat ideas in your own words (and thus ensure that you have a true understanding of the information). Repeating information aloud can help you encode the information (auditory encoding) and identify how well you have learned it. Some students have told us that they know the test information and are surprised when they "freeze" and cannot give adequate responses. For some students, this "freezing" may be a result of test anxiety. For others, however, it may be a result of overestimating how well they know the material. If you recite the information aloud from memory (answering questions, defining words, or using flash cards), it is often quite clear how well you know it. If you stumble in your responses, have to look up answers, or can only give a vague response, then you know that you need to study more. Although reciting aloud can be a helpful memory technique, some people avoid it out of fear of appearing foolish ("what if someone sees me talking to myself?"). If this applies to you, work with a friend or study group. Another advantage of working with someone else is that they can inform you when you are missing important concepts or misunderstanding an idea. Keep in mind, however, that studying with others does not work for everyone. For example, some students may become anxious or intimidated in study groups and would be more comfortable studying alone. 8. VISUALIZE YOURSELF TEACHING THE MATERIAL. An effective way to enhance recall and understanding of dense material is to teach it to an imaginary audience.

By doing so, you are forced to organize the material in a way that makes sense to you and to anticipate potential questions that may be asked by your students. Moreover, by articulating your lecture aloud, you will uncover gaps in your comprehension (and recall) of the material. (Far better to discover those "weak" areas before a test than during it.) After you have mastered a particular section from your textbook, try delivering an organized lecture on any topic from that section. Then check for accuracy. Don't forget to anticipate questions that students might ask about the material as a way of anticipating potential test questions.

Memory - Theories and Processes

Underlying memory improvement are a few basic concepts. Although we will not go into extensive detail about theories of memory, we will present some of the basic ideas to help you understand why certain techniques work. ATTENTION AND SELECTION The first process of memory is attention. There is much more information in your environment than you can process at any one time. Thus, you must make choices (conscious and unconscious) regarding the stimuli to which you will attend. Imagine two students who are driving to Padre Island, TX for spring break. Both have different plans for how they want to spend their vacation: one listening to local bands, the other surfing and swimming. They stop to eat at a sidewalk cafe, where they are approached by a stranger who asks if they know of a surf shop nearby. Assuming they passed one on the way to the cafe, the chances are that the surfer, but not the friend, would have remembered seeing it. Had the stranger asked about music clubs, you might find the opposite scenario. Each one likely attended to what was of interest. We will have more to say about attention later, but we present the idea here to emphasize the roles attention and selection play in our memory. ENCODING Once something is attended to, it must be encoded to be remembered. Basically, encoding refers to translating incoming information into a mental representation that can be stored in memory. You can encode the same information in a number of different ways. For example, you can encode information according to its sound (acoustic code), what it looks like (visual code), or what it means (semantic code). Suppose, for example, that you are trying to remember these three types of encoding from your notes. You might say each of the terms aloud and encode the sounds of the words (acoustic), you might see the three types of encoding on your page and visualize the way the words look (visual), or you might think about the meanings of each of the terms (semantic).

How does encoding apply to memory? Well, the way you encode information may affect what you remember and how you recall it later. If you encoded the three things visually or acoustically, but not semantically, you may be able to list them during a test, but you may have difficulty recalling what each term means. If you encoded them only semantically, you might be able to explain what they mean but have difficulty remembering the order in which they were listed on the page. You may be able to remember information best if you use techniques (while retrieving the information) that are related to the way you encoded it. For example, if you encoded something visually, you will be able to recall it most easily by drawing on visual cues. You will find that many of the memory techniques discussed in this section are designed to help you encode the information in different ways. STORAGE Storage is the process of holding information in your memory. A distinction is often made between short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory is just that, brief and transient. Think about looking up a new phone number in the phone book and making a call. You may remember it long enough to make the call, but do not recall it later. This is your short-term memory, which can hold a small amount of information for a short period of time. Once you stop attending to the number, perhaps after you make the call and move on to another task, you are likely to forget it. In order to remember the number for a longer period of time (and after attending to other things), you would need to store it in your longterm memory. The transfer of information from short- to long-term memory can be achieved in many ways. Simply repeating the information can help if it's repeated enough times. For example, frequently called phone numbers are remembered because you have used (repeated) the number many times. Although simply repeating, or practicing, something can help move it into long-term memory, another strategy for transferring information is to think about it deeply. That is, elaborate on the information, drawing connections between what you are trying to remember and the other things with which you are already familiar. You might learn that telephone number quicker, for example, if you notice that it includes the dates of your friend's birthday, the numbers on your license plate, or some other familiar number pattern. RETRIEVAL Retrieval is the process of actually remembering something when you want to. If you think about tip-of-the-tongue experiences, when you know a word or name but just can't seem to recall it, you will understand how retrieval is different from storage. In terms of memory improvement, it can help to understand how the retrieval process relates to encoding and storage. Consider the relationship between retrieval and encoding. If you encoded something visually, but are trying to retrieve it acoustically, you will have difficulty remembering. Like encoding, information can be retrieved through visualizing it, thinking about the meaning, or imagining the sound, etc. The more ways information has been

encoded, the more ways there are for retrieving it. Imagine that you are taking a test in which you are given a definition and asked to recall the word it describes. You may recall the page of your notes that the word was on and visualize the word, or you might say the definition to yourself and remember yourself repeating the word. Thus, memory is aided by encoding and retrieving information in multiple ways. Retrieval relates to storage as well, Obviously the memory has to be stored in order for you to retrieve it, but knowing how it was stored can help. This is where elaboration and processing come in. When attempting to retrieve information, it helps to think about related ideas. For example, you are trying to remember a chemistry formula during an exam. Although you are able to visualize the page of your chemistry notes, you cannot recall the exact formula. You do remember, however, that this same formula was used in the biology class you took last semester. As you think about that class, you are able to recall the formula. This is one reason why intentionally organizing information in your memory when you are learning it helps you recall it later. SUMMARY

Attention ----> Encoding ----> Storage ----> Retrieval

Here are the steps of memory discussed thus far. First, you select the information to which you will attend. You then code the information for storage (where it can be practiced and processed more deeply). Later, when needed, information is retrieved by using a search strategy that parallels how the information was coded and stored. FORGETTING Although information can be stored in long-term memory for extended periods of time, "memory decay" does take place. In other words, we can forget what we learn. In fact, we forget things quickest shortly after we learn them. This has two implications in terms of improving our memory. First, as disheartening as it is, you will often learn a great deal more than you can retain in the long run. But, before you lose heart entirely, keep in mind that the memories can be retained with a little effort. So, the second implication for improving memory involves maintaining memories with the least amount of effort. In order to retain information in memory, you must practice, think about, and sometimes relearn things. Every time you practice and relearn the information, you are reinforcing it in your memory. Taking a few moments to do frequent, but brief, reviews will save you time by helping you retain what you have learned. For example, it's a good idea to make rehearsal part of your reading and note-taking regimen. When you complete a reading assignment or a note-taking session, take a few minutes to rehearse the material as a way of moving the information from short-term to long-term memory. Not that this practice alone is sufficient to prepare for most test, but it will enhance your understanding and recall of the material, facilitating serious study.

Human Memory Encoding, Storage, Retention, and Retrieval

Memory is retention of information over a period of time. Ebbinghaus studied memories by teaching himself lists of nonsense words and then studying his retention of these lists over periods of hours to days. This was one of the earliest studies of memory in psychology. Contents: 1. Short Term Memory 2. Working Memory 3. Long Term Memory 4. Spreading Activation Model 5. Practice and Strength 6. Depth of Processing 7. Elaborative Processing and Text 8. Forgetting: Gone or Inaccessible? 9. Forgetting: Decay or Interference? 10. Retrieval and Inference 11. Other Facts about Memory

Short Term Memory

While Ebbinghaus studied retention over long intervals, later experiments studied memory loss over periods of seconds to minutes. Short term memory was postulated to explain temporary retention of information as distinct from long term retention of information . Short term memory acts to also store current sensory information and to rehearse new information from sensory buffers. It has limited capacity (Miller's 7 plus or minus 2). The probability of encoding in Long term memory has been directly related to time in short term memory. It is now believed that the loss of information stored in short term memory has the same characteristics as loss of information stored in long term memory. It happens quicker because it involves information that is not learned as well. What we call the learning process is transferring information from short term to long term memory and is a physiological process. The shape of the memory loss curves are the same. Hence we don't need to postulate a special type of memory. Instead, we need a theory of:

Why we can rehearse only a limited amount of information at a time. How different memories get different strengths (and so are forgotten at different rates).

Working Memory
Here we address why we can rehearse only limited information at a time.

Articulatory Loop Rehearsal limitations are due to limits in how long it takes verbal material to decay, not how many items we can store. Hence, the faster we can rehearse, the more we can store (Baddeley, 1986). Experimental support: word length effect. How long it takes to read words predicts how many words will be remembered. Articulatory loop is called the phonological loop due to evidence that it involves speech. We can rehearse about 1.5 seconds of verbal material before it decays. Time in the loop is not related to probability of coding in long term memory. Baddeley's model proposes that we have a visual/spatial sketchpad as well as the phonological loop. These hold information for use by a central executive. There is evidence that a particular area of the frontal cortex is involved in working memory.

Long Term Memory

A simple observation: we often need to recall information that we learned long ago.How quickly and reliably we recall it depends on:

Activation: How long since we last used the information. Strength: How well we have practiced it.

Experimental Evidence: (Anderson 1976) - Subjects learn some sentences. Some sentences are studied twice as long as others. Subjects must discriminate sentences they learned from distracters. They are tested for each sentence more than once, with varying intervening sentences. Results: Both amount of study and how recently the information was accessed affect speed of response. However amount of study matters only if the information was not recently accessed (an interaction effect).

Delay (number of intervening items) Short (0-2) Long (3 or more) Less Study 1.11 seconds 1.53 seconds

Degree of Study More Study 1.10 seconds 1.38 seconds

Spreading Activation Model

When information becomes easier to access as a result of having been used recently, we say it is more activated. This activation spreads between semantically related concepts. Empirical Evidence:

Subjects are faster at confirming that a pair of words are both words if the second word is an associate of the first, for example, bread and butter (Meyer and Schvaneveldt 1971).

Given a word, subjects are asked to give an associated word. Their response is faster if subjects have responded with an associated word on a previous trial (Perlmutter and Anderson, figure 6.8). Speed of activation seems to be about 200ms (as measured by Ratcliff and McKoon, 1981).

Implication: Text is easier to read if semantically related words are used.

Practice and Strength

We've seen that speed of recall of information from long term memory depends in part on how recently that information has been activated. However, what about the fact that speed of recall also depends on amount of practice? Activation changes quickly over time. The effect of practice decays much more slowly over time (witness Ebbinghaus, the alphabet). Thus these are believed to be distinct processes. Power Law of Learning A very robust result: the effect of practice in a wide range of different tasks fits a power law Reaction Time equals C * Practice Time K where C and K are constants that depend on the task. Practice helps a lot at first, then provides decreasing gains as you reach the limits of your performance ability. Long-Term Potentiation - There appears to be a neural basis for this law of learning. Neural pathways in the hippocampus (known to be involved in learning) become increasingly sensitive when stimulated. The change in sensitivity follows a power law relationship.

Depth of Processing
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that strength of memory depends on how deeply information is processed, not on how long it is processed Experimental support: Memory for words not improved by merely repeating them for a longer period of time (Glenberg et al. 1977). A large number of studies support the depth of processing conclusion. It applies to subject matter learning as well as laboratory situations. Subsequent work focused on what constitutes deep processing. Processing Meaning: Some lab studies compare tasks that require processing meaning of words versus form (e.g., what letters do they have).

Elaborative Processing and Text

Studies show benefits of connecting the items to be remembered to other related information (e.g., elaborating on sentences to be remembered, or rhyming). Intention does not matter. Subjects in deeper processing conditions do better regardless of whether they know they will need to remember the processed items. Implications for study habits and method. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Preview the material Make up questions Read, trying to answer the questions Reflect while you read. think of examples, relate it to what you know. Recite the information in each section after you've read it. Re-read what you can't recall. Review the major points and the answers to your questions at the end. Question generation is at least as beneficial as question answering. Questions generated before the material rather than after may be more beneficial

Forgetting: Gone, or Inaccessible

Do we forget because the information is gone, or do we forget because we can't access information that is still there? It is difficult to distinguish the two. However, there is evidence that we retain more than we can retrieve. Experiment: (Nelson 1971) - Learn paired associates (numbers to nouns). Tested 2 weeks later to see which were remembered. Then given new material to learn that had some of the forgotten numbers, both with and without their original nouns. Results: Subjects relearned the original associations faster (in spite of the fact that they could not recall them). Subjects relearned the original associations faster (in spite of the fact that they could not recall them). This suggests that some associative information was retained. One possible interpretation: strength of memories decay gradually. If these strengths fall below a certain threshold, we can't recall the information, but the remaining memory trace is still there to facilitate relearning.

Forgetting: Decay or Interference?

Is forgetting due to decay of unused information, or to interference of new information with old information? Different kinds of evidence are offered for each position. A survey of forgetting research concluded that the rate at which we forget information usually conforms to a power law: we forget a lot at first, but over time the rate of forgetting diminishes.

Decrease in long-term potentiation follows a similar power law. These facts are interpreted by some as evidence for a physiologically determined decay rate. Interference Experiments Typical Experiment (A-D C-D paradigm): 1. Subjects all learn A-B association (between items on list A and items on list B). 2. Experimental subjects learn A-D associations (which use the same stimuli items as the A-B associations), while control subjects learn C-D association. 3. Everyone is tested on A-B associations. Typical Results: Experimental subjects take longer to learn their second set of associations than controls, and make more errors on the A-B test. Experimental subjects take longer to learn their second set of associations than controls, and make more errors on the A-B test. These results are interpreted as evidence that learning new associations to stimuli causes forgetting of old associations. However, interference does not happen with factual material when the additional facts are redundant with (e.g., causally related to) the original facts. Fan Effect (a model) - Interference effects can be modeled as weakening of spreading activation over multiple links in a propositional network. Stimulus activates concept nodes.- Fixed (limited) amount of activation spreads from activated nodes over associative links, divided equally between links. (Hence the more links, the less activation per link.) Activation converges at propositional nodes (candidate responses) until one emerges as the answer. Time to identify the response is inversely related to level of activation. Decay or Interference? Some claim that interference can produce the appearance of decay although it appears, both mechanisms are involved in forgetting or memory loss.

Retrieval and Inference

It is well established that people make inferences during retrieval, and believe that they saw or heard things that they in fact did not. People are more likely to erroneously think they read a sentence if it is an implication of something they read. Effect of Prior Knowledge - People add other knowledge they have about the material studied. Effect of Question Wording - Subjects shown film of automobile accident. Subjects asked: Did you see a broken headlight? or Did you see the broken headlight? (There was actually none.) Results: Subjects more likely to respond yes to the broken headlight. Implications for courtroom testimony!

Other Facts about Memory

Organization of Material Retrieval of information is better if the information is organized in some manner supporting systematic search, such as in hierarchies. Method of Loci The ancients remembered things by imagining taking a familiar walk, and placing the things to be remembered at locations along the way. This method works because it organizes the material to be remembered and it encourages elaborative processing and memorable imagery. Context-Dependent Learning Physical and emotional context may be inadvertently coded as retrieval cues, along with the intended cues. Consistent with this idea, various studies show that recall is better when tested in the same context (physical or emotional) as in which learning took place. Some benefit has been found studying for important exams in the same room as they will be taken. However these results are variable.

YOUR MEMORY'S NATURAL RHYTHMS

You can utilize the mind's natural processes for learning information. Your memory and memorization skills (comprehension + memory = learning) will benefit from knowing how your brain best absorbs information (builds new neural connections) . If you were to hear a list of 30 words and were then asked to recall them. You would be able to recall some words from the beginning of the list, some from the end but only a few from the middle of the list. These effects are known as primacy (words from the beginning of the list) and recency (words from the end of the list). Unless you were applying a mnemonic technique, it is highly unlikely that you would recall all of the words. You would however be able to recall words that were repeated or connected in any way and any outstanding or unusual words (for example the word "Rhinoceros" in a list of underwear is outstanding just as the word "Underpants" sticks out in a list of large African Herbivores).

How can you use this? If you were to study for hours and hours and hours without a break, you would find that the dip in recall between the primacy and recency effects would be considerable. On the other hand, if we stopped every 5 minutes during a half hour we would not get into the flow of learning. We need to find a balance between these two extremes. You need to take more breaks when you are studying. Split your study time into 20-50 minute chunks with 10 minute breaks in between when it is important that you relax or do something physical or creative. The time chunks will mean that you create more primacy / recency high points and will remember more from your studying. The breaks will give your mind a chance to rest from learning and doing something different will actually stimulate it. Instead of poring over your notes solidly for 3 hours, if you split the time up into 50 minute segments, you will actually remember more during your learning periods. How do you recall this information after you have learned it? (transferring short term memory to long term). The ability to learn something once and then have

the ability to recall it whenever you wanted? It does require effort. Imagine that you went to a class, listened to the teacher, took your notes and at the end of the lesson threw your notebook into your bag. How much information do you think you would remember about what you had learned by the end of the following day? Ebbinghaus proved that within 1-2 days, we forget about 80% of what we have learned. ite a waste doesn't it? There is a way to overcome that problem. At the end of an hour's learning, your mind integrates the information that you have just studied so that your ability to recall it actually rises, peaks after about 10 minutes and then falls off dramatically. Now if you review what you have learnt at that 10 minute point, you will reinforce the information at its strongest in your mind. (I will be writing about a suitable note taking technique to allow you to do this in future articles, so just bear with me).

Your ability to recall this information will remain at a high point for about a day before it begins to drop off rapidly. So it is a good idea to review what you have learnt again after a day. This second review will mean that your ability to recall what you have learnt will remain for about a week before it begins to tail off again so guess what we do after a week? Full marks to those who think we should review again. If you are worried about all these reviews, don't be because with the right note taking technique, each review will only take a couple of minutes. After this third review your recall will last for about a month at which your fourth review will keep the information accessible by you for up to 6 months. A fifth review after 6 months will meant that the information is firmly logged in your long-term memory. In summary then: 1. Study for as long as you like but make sure it is in 20-50 minute chunks with breaks of 10 minutes where relaxation and/or something physical and fun is mandatory. 2. Review what you have learned:

10 minutes after learning 1 day after learning

1 week after learning 1 month after learning 6 months after learning.

Hermann Ebbinghaus: Memory (1885; English 1913)

The methods available to those who worked in psychology's first laboratories were relatively limited. While considerable progress had been made in designing apparatus to control the systematic presentation of stimuli, to measure the time taken by or strength of an observer's reactions, and even to register the duration or course of response for later analysis, use of this apparatus was generally restricted to the study of sense perception and reaction time. Stimuli were relatively simple (e.g., a flash of light, a sound of a given frequency or amplitude, pressure from a weight of known mass or from two points at varying distances from one another, chemical odors) and the observer's response typically involved a simple judgment or movement, possibly accompanied by introspection regarding the experience itself. In 1885 a monograph from the pen of a young psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus,216 opened a new vista on experimentation. Published in German as ber das Gedchtnis and eventually translated into English as Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology,217 this monograph marked the beginning of programmatic experimental

research on higher mental processes. Using himself as a subject, gathering data for over a year (1879-80), and then replicating the entire procedure (1883-4) before publishing, Ebbinghaus not only brought learning and memory into the laboratory, he set a standard for careful scientific work in psychology that has rarely been surpassed. In order to proceed with his research, Ebbinghaus had first to invent stimulus materials. These needed to be relatively simple, neutral as to meaning, and homogeneous. They needed to be available in large numbers and to allow quantitative manipulation of the amount of material to be retained. In answer to these needs, Ebbinghaus hit upon the idea of a 'nonsense syllable.' As he described it: 'Out of the simple consonants of the alphabet and our eleven vowels and diphthongs all possible syllables of a certain sort were constructed, a vowel sound being placed between two consonants. These syllables, about 2,300 in number, were mixed together and then drawn out by chance and used to construct series of different lengths, several of which each time formed the material for a test.'218 Next Ebbinghaus had to develop novel methods for controlling the degree of learning and measuring the amount of retention. At first glance, it would seem that the most obvious method for controlling learning would have been to standardize the number of learning trials. The problem with this method, however, is that the degree to which any given material is learned in a fixed number of trials may vary as a function of the material or the mental state (e.g., attention, fatigue) of the learner. To circumvent this limitation and assure that material was learned to approximately the same degree from test to test, Ebbinghaus introduced the method of learning to criterion. In learning to criterion, the subject repeated the material as many times as was necessary to reach an a priori level of accuracy (e.g., one perfect reproduction). Measuring the amount of retention also presented Ebbinghaus with a puzzle. Because it is influenced by whole host of factors, conscious recall of material can vary from moment to moment even when the material has been well learned; worse yet, material may not be available to conscious recall at all even though it has been retained to some degree. To avoid this problem, Ebbinghaus invented the 'savings method'. Subtracting the number of repetitions required to relearn material to a criterion from the number originally required to learn the material to the same criterion provided an index of retention that was independent of whether the material could be consciously recalled. With these methods, Ebbinghaus obtained a remarkable set of results. He was the first to describe the shape of the learning curve. He reported that the time required to memorize an average nonsense syllable increases sharply as the number of syllables increases. He discovered that distributing learning trials over time is more effective in memorizing nonsense syllables than massing practice into a single session; and he noted that continuing to practice material after the learning criterion has been reached enhances retention. Using savings as an index, he showed that the most commonly accepted law of association, viz., association by contiguity (the idea that items next to one another are associated) had to be modified to include remote associations (associations between items that are not next to one another in a list). He was the first to describe primacy and recency effects (the fact that

early and late items in a list are more likely to be recalled than middle items), and to report that even a small amount of initial practice, far below that required for retention, can lead to savings at relearning. He even addressed the question of memorization of meaningful material and estimated that learning such material takes only about one tenth of the effort required to learn comparable nonsense material. Finally, in the treatment of his results, Ebbinghaus made considerable use of mathematics. He not only assessed statistical significance but characterized his findings in mathematical terms. Given this quantitative treatment, Ebbinghaus's methodological innovations, and the care with which he carried out his research, it is not surprising that his results have stood the test of time. Indeed, in the century since the publication of his monograph, surprisingly little has been learned about rote learning and retention that was not already known to Ebbinghaus.