PRIMER PLANT POWER

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POWER PLANT PRIMER

by Ntdrcw W. l(nner hPyrigtn 1954 Rcvisecl October 1972 Rcviscd January 1979 Rcprintcd 1983 Rcprinted t987 Rcprinted t988 Rcprinted 19w Frprintcd 1993

Magazine POWERENG|NEER|NG o Copyright Publishing Company 1988by PennWefl

To order, contact the ReprintDepartment. Reprint Department Magazine POWERENGINEER|NG P.O. Box 1260 Tufsa, OK 741A1 (918) 882-9363

Power Plant Primer

A s t e a m p o w e : ' p l a n ti s a m e a n sf o r c o n v e n i n gt h e p o t e n t i a l c h e m i c a l e n e ! ' c yo f f u e f i n r o e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y . I n i t s s i m p l e s t f o r r n i t c c n s i s t so f a b o i l e r a n d a t u r b i n e d r i v i n g a n electric aene!'aici'. T h e b o i l e r i s a c j e v i c ef o r t u r n i n g w a t e r i n t o s t e a m . T h e s t e a m j e t i s s u i n gf r o m t h e s p o u t s p i n st h e f a n ( t u r b i n e ) a n d a l s o t h e g e n e r a i o r .I n t h e s k e t c h t h e v e r y s i m p l e s tk i n d o f b o i l e r a n d t u r c i n e a r e s h o w n .T h e b o i l e r i s a t e a k e n l e , a n d the tu:'bine is nothing more than a linle windmill. Actual t u r b i n e s a r e r n o r ec o m p l i c a t e d b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e i s t h e s a m e . e n e r g y b y r ne a n s o f t h e t y p e o f p l a n t s w e h a c a b o u t 6 0 y e a r s a g o , w e w o u l d h a v e n e e d e dt h r e e t i r n e s: h e c o a l , o r o v e r 1 . 3 4 b i l l i o n t o n s . C o a f- f i r e d p l a n t s s u p p l i e d 4 6 . 4 o / o f total eleciricity production by electric utifity ccmpanies i n 1 9 7 7 . O i l - f i r e d p l a n t s s u p p l i e d 1 6 . 8 o / og a s - f i r e d 1 4 . 4 o / o , , n u c f e a r 1 1 - 8 % ,h y d r o 1 0 . 4 o / o ,n d a l l o t h e r 0 . 2 % . a T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e g r e a t d e c r e a s ei n t h e c o n s u r n p t i o n o f c o a l l i e s i n t h e g r a d u a fi m p r o v e m e n to f o u r p o w e r s y s t e m s , b o t h w i t h r e s p e c tt o t h e i n d i v i d u a l p i e c e so f e q ui o m e n t a n d in the system as a whole. Just how do we go about improvi n g t h e s y s r e ms h o w n i n t h e s k e t c h ? Boiler components Looking at it again, it is obvious that it can be broken d o w n i n t o s e v e r a ld i v i s i o n s . F i r s t , t h e r e i s t h e f i r e u n d e r t h e b o i l e r . T h i s i n v o fv e s n o t o n l y t h e f u e i i t s e l f b u t a l s o the method of placingthe fuel under the boiler and the a r r a n g e m e n tf o r b u r n i n g i t p r o p e r l y . S o l e t u s e x i e n d t h e d i a g r a mt o l o o k l i k e t h i s :
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A word about :he generatorshown in the sketch. To most p e o p l e t h e p r c c e s so f g e n e r a t i n g e l e c t r i c i t y i s v e r y r n y s t e rious, yet the aciual process is easy to understand. As r s h o w n , t h e g e n e ! ' a t o c o n s i s t so f a l i t t f e b a r m a g n e t s o i n n i n g i n s i d e a s t a t i o n a r y c o i l o f w i r e . T h i s m a y s e e ma n a b s u r d l y sirnple affair, yet that is exactly what a real generator c o n s i s t s o f - a n n a g n e tr o t a t i n g i n s i d e o f a c o i l o f w i r e . A s i t h e m a g n e t i c ; i e i d i s s un g f r o m t h e e n d s o f t h e m a g n e t moves across:he tu rns of wire in the stationary coil an electric curreni is set up in the wire. By winding a large n u m b e r o f t u r n s o f w i r e i n t o a r i n g o r d o u g hn u t , t h e current set up in each turn is added to the current set up in the other iurns of wire, and so a much more powerful current is prociuced. This is all you need to know about an electric generator now-just think of it as a rapidly rotaring magnet insideof a c o i l o f w i r e l t h i s p r o d u c e s a n e l e c t r i cc u r r e n t i n t h e w i r e . L a t e r w e w i l l e l a b o r a t eo n t h i s s i m p l e d e s c r i p t i o n . Y o u m a y w o n d e r , i f a p o w e r p l a n t i s b a s i c a f f ya s s i m p l e a s t h i s , w h y w e b u i l d t h e c o m p l e x p l a n t s w e s e e d e s c r i b e di n POWER ENGINEERING Magazine? he answeris quite T simple: the plant shown in the sketch is not very efficientindeed its efficiency is close to zero-and since we want to g e t a s m u c h p o w e r a s p o s s i b l eo u t o f a g i v e n q u a n t i t y o f f u e f i t i s n e c e s s a r yo r n a k e o u r p l a n t s a s e f f i c i e n t a s p o s s i b l e . i Until the early 1920s, the electric pows:' plants of the nation used over 3 pounds of good coal to produce a k i fo w a t t h o u r o f e l e c t r i c i t y . T o d a y , t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e i s fe s s t h a n I p c u n d o f c o a l p e r k i l o w a n h o u r . l n o t h e r words, plants cuilt dt that time used three times as much c o a f t o p r o d u c e a k i l o w a f t h o u r a s w e u s e t o d a y . l n 1 9 7 7, the electric utiliries of th is country produced over 985 billion kilowanhours by means of coal-firedplants. This required the curning of 447.2 million tons of coal. lf, however, we haChad to produce this amount of electrical
POWER ENGINE=RING

H e r e , w s e e a b e ft c o n v e y o r t r a n s p o n i n g c c a f t o t h e furnace where it is burned on a raveling grate stoker. Air f o r c o m b u s t i o n i s s u p p i i e db y a b e l l o w s . Remernber, when you burn coal you are reafly promoting a chemical reactioo-E chain reaction. When coal is heated to a high enough temperature in the presenceof air, the carbon in the coal combines with the oxygen of the air to f o r m e i t h e r c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O z) o r c a r b o n m o n o x i d e (CO). These, of course, are both gases. Which gas is formed depends upon the guantity of oxygen present. The CO means that the coal is onfy partiaffy bu rned, indeed, the CO can be combined with more oxygen to forrn CC2. In burning coal we do not want CO becausehat meansthe t c o a l i s o n f y p a r t i a l l y b u r n e d : t h e r e i s s t i fl e n e r g y l e f t i n t h e gas, energy that we can recover if we can burn it to CO2. It is desirable, in the operation of our boiler furnaces, always to get as much COZ as we can becausein that way we get all the heat out of the fuel. We can obtain the COz by supplying more air to the fuef as it is burning. But we do not want to supplytoo much air, because i'f we do we will be supplying more oxygen than is actually needed to combine with the carbon, and this e x c e s so x y g e n w i l l p l a y n o p a r t i n t h e c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s . Not only will it play no part but it will actually detract from the efficiency by absorbing heat that otherwise could b e u s e d t o h e a t t h e w a t e r i n t h e b o i l e r . I n a c r r r a lp r a c t i c e i t i s n o t p o s s i b l et o s u p p l y e x a c t l y t h e r e q u i r e da m o u n t o f a i r , so somewhat more than enough is supplied. This is com-

rnonfy referrec io es excassa/r. w o S o , i n t h e p r o c e s s f c o m b u s t i o n ,w e a r e d e a l i n g i : h c h e m i s t r y . l t i n v ci v e s a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o m P o s i t i o no f t h e c o a l , i t s p h y s i c a lc o n i i t i o n , i t s b e h a v i o r u n d e rv a r i o u sc o n d i t i o n s o f I e n p e r a t u r e , m o i s t u r e ,e t c . A c r u a i l y ,i h e c o m ' b u s t i o n o f c c a l i s a v e r y c o r n o l e x p r o c e s sr e o u i r i n ga g o o d k n o w l e d g e c ; l c t h p h y s i c sa n d c h e m i s t r y . I n a l a r g e p l a n t j i t i n v o l v e s a n n ao r p r o b l e m i n m a t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g - f u e l , f l u e g a s . R e m e m b e r ,t o b u r n c O a l ,y o u h a v e a s h e s ,a i r a n d t o s u p p l y a b o u t 1 1 p o u n d s o f d r y a i r f o r e a c i rp o u n d o f o d r y c o a l u s e d . 3 e c a u s e f w i c j e l yv a r y i n g c o a l c o r n p o s i t i o n s , a a n d a l l o w i n g f o r e x c e s s i r a n d m o i s t u r e ,t h e a c i u a l a m o u n t r e q ui r e d i s u s u a l l vs o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n t h i s . S o f a r , w e h e v e m e r e l y m e n t i o n e d a s h e sa n d f l u e g a s .T h e s e have to be rernovedcontinuously. ln the ciaysof hand f i r i n g t h e r e m o v a l o f a s h w a s s i m p l e ,t h o u g h l a b o r i o u s .T h e f i r e m a n m e r e i y r a k e d t h e a s h o u t o f t h e a s h p i ta n c ic a r r i e d i t a w a y i n w , h e e l b a r r o w s .T o c j a y , i n l a r g e p l a n t s , t h e r e m o v a l o f a s h i s a c o m p l i c a r e d p r o c e s s r e g ui r i n g r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e e q u i p m e n t . S o , w e m u s t a d d a s h r e m o v a le g u i p ' m e n t t o o u r c i i a g : ' a m a l s o a c h i m n e y f o r t h e r e n n o v a lo f , flue gas. F u n h e r m o r e , t h e p r o c e s so f c o m b u s t i o n i s s i i m u l a t e d b y heat; indeei, the processwilf not start until the fuel is b r o u g h t t o : n e k i n d l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .E v e r y t h i n gm u s t b e dOne, therefore, to maintain a high temperature in the t f u r n a c e . T h i s m a k e s i t c j e s i r a b l eo h e a t t h e a i r i o r c o m ' bustion befc:'e ir is delivered to the furnace. This aids c o m b u s t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e tsh e e ff i c i e n c y . With these facts in m ind, let us redraw our diagram to in' c c r p o r a t e t h e s a i m p r o v e m e n $ .T h i s w a y :
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the bellows will be blowing warrn air into the fire asshown in the sketch.

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A l f t h i s p r o b a b l y s e e m sa b s u r d l y s i m p l e , a n c i t i s . T h e r e a s o n f o r e x p l a i n i n gi t i n t h i s w a y , h o w s v e r, i s i o s h o w , k b y m e a n s o f t h e s i m p l e s t i n d o f e q u i o m e n t ,h o w e n g i n e e r s S g o a b o u t i m p r o v i n gt h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a n y s y s t e n n . t e p b y step, adding something here, saving somelhing there, e s t a b l i s h i n gc l o s e r s u p e r v i s i o no v e r e v e r y t h i n g g r a d u a l l y s i m p r o v e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e sa n d t h e e f f i c i e n c yo f a l m o s t a n y a k i n d o f s v s i e m .T h e s ea r e t h e k i n d s o f t h i n g s e n g i n e e r s r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h . N e a r l y a l l o f t h e m a r e r n o r e o r l e s sc o m p l e x a n d r e o ui r e a g r e a t d e a l o f s p e c i i c a s w e l i a s g e n e r a l f , knowlecjge. In the example just cjescribedfor example, j u s t h o w m u c h s u r f a c es h o u l d i h e h e a t e r i n t h e s t a c k h a v e H to heat the air to a cenain ternperature? ow not should the air be ior best combustion, how much air should be s u p p l i e d ,h o w m u c h p o w e r w i l l i t t a k e t o r u n : h e b e l l o w s , w h a t h a o o e n s t o t h e f l u e g a s e si f t o o m u c h h e a t i s e x ' t r a c t e d f r o m t h e g a s e s ,w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e s l a c k ? N o n e o f t h e s e i s a i o o l i s hq u e s t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n ,f o r e x a m p l e ,t h a t o f c o o l i n g t h e f l u e g a s e s o o m u c h . W h a t h a p p e n s ?W e l l , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a t f cenain amount af water vapor in the f lue gases; rom the 'fuel. As the temperature air and from the hydrogenin the of the gases is lowered, there comes a time when the . s a t ur a t i o n p o i n t i s r e a c h e da n d t h e m o i s t u r e c o n d e n s e s l f , t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e h a p p e n st o b e a n y s u f f u r i n t h e g a s at ( a n d t h e r e u s u a l l yi s ) , s u l f u r i c a c i d w i l l b e f o r m e d , r e s u l t i n g in the spread of a thin but extrernelycorrosivelayer of o l i q u i C o n t h e i n s i d es u r f a c e s f t h e f l u e s . T h i s s i n g l e e x a m p l e ,t h e n , s h o w s w h a t t h e e n g i n e e r r u n s i n t o w h e n h e b e g i n st o r e f i n e t h e s i m p f e s y s t e m w e b e g a n w i t h . H e m a y a d d s o m e t h i n gt o i m p r o v e i t b u t h p m a y f i n d t h a t t h e i m g r o v e m e n t i s n o t a n u n m i x e d b l e s s i n g ;i t m a y e a l s o h a v e d e l e t e r i o u s f f e c t s .T h e s e h e m u s t g u a r c ia g a i n s t . But let's get on with our power system. The tea kettfe r e p r e s e n t i n gt h e b o i l e r i s n o t a v e r y e f f i c i e n t g e n e r a t o r o f s t e a m . L e t ' s s e e i f w e c a n n o t d e s i g na b e t t e r o n e . L o o k a t t h e s k e t c h o n t h e n e x t p a g e . H e r e w e h a v ea b o i l e r c o n s i s t ing of two steel drums connected by a number of steel t u b e s , a n d a r r a n g e di n a f u r n a c e s o t h a t t h e h o t g a s e sh a v e t o p a s st h r o u g h t h e b a n k o f t u b e s o n t h e i r w a y t o t h e s t a c k . T h e t o t a l s u r f a c eo f t h e t u b e s i s l a r g e ,f f i E k i n gi t p o s s i b l e t o absorb a greatdeal of heat. The steam bubbles formed in t h e t u b e s r i s e t o t h e u p p e r d r u r n ( c a l l e dt h e s i e a m d r u m )
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A s y o u s e e ,i t i s b e c o m i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d .N o w , w e h a v e a chimney or stack to remove the gasof combustion and a heater to heat the air from the bellows beforeit is blown i n t o t h e f u r n a c e .A l s o , w h a v e p u t i n a n a s h c o n v e y o r . N o w , i f y o u e r e o f a n a n a l y t i c a lr n i n d , y o u w i l l s e e t h a t i t takes additional heat to heat the air. We have shown a c c a n d l e .S i n c e c a n d f e s o s t m o n e y , i t i s o b v i o u st h a t w e a r e n O t g o i n g t O s a v em u C h m o n e y t h a t w a y . W h y c a n ' t w e u s e s o r n e o f t h e n ea t f r o m t h e f i r e u n d e r t h e b o i l e r i t s e l f t o h e a t t h e a i r ? M a y b e t h a t w o u l d b e c h e a p e rt h a n b u y i n g c a n d l e s ? W e l f, i t i s, a n d m o r e o v e r ,t h e r e i s h e a t g o i n g t o w a s t eu p t h e s t a c k . Y o u k n o w f r o m e x g e r i e n c et h a t i f y o u h o l d y o u r h a n d a b o v e a t e a k e r t l e o n a s t o v e t h a t t h e r e i s a fo t o f h e a t being wastec So, let us pui a heating coil in the stack so -

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T h i s c o n s i a n t v i g i l a n c e n t h e p a r i o f o o e r a t o ' ' s / a sa p r o b o v l e m , s o f e e c i w a t e r e g u l a t o r s e r e d e v e l o p e dw n i c n c o n t r o l w the flow auiomaticaffy s the water in the boiler crurn rises a a n d f a l l s . T h e s ea r e v e r y h e l p f u l e v e n w i t h s m a i l b o i l e r s ,

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w h e r e t h e s i : 3 r x c c l l e c t sb e f o r e i t f l o w s i n t o t h e c i o e l e a d . ingto the tu:-3ine. T h i s i s t h e : a s i c t r i n c i p l e o f t h e m o d e r n w a r e ri u c e c o i l e r . Note that a lciler feed pump has been incluoec in the b u t i n t h e c a s eo f m o d e r n h i g h f r e s s u r e b o i l e r s t h e y a r e . a l m o s t i m p e r a t i v e A l a r g eh i g h - p r e s s u r b o i i e r , e v a p o r a t i n g e in the neignborhood f a million poundsof water ler hour, o w o u l d r u n c i r y i n a b o u t 9 0 s e c o n i s i f t h e w a r e i ' s u p p f yw a s s u d de nl y c u t o f f . Now, gettingback to our water supply io the boiier,so far noth ing has been saidabout the temperature of the water b e i n g d e fi v e r e dt o t h e b o i l e r . l t s h o u i d b e o b v i o u s ,h o w e v e r , that it would not be wise to pump coid warer into a boiler since that would cjecrease the temperature of the water a l r e a d y i n t h e b oi l e r a n d s o r e d u c e t h e r a t e a t w n i c h s t e a r n was being macieAlso, the introciuction of cold warer might . set up strainsin the boiler by vinue of the oreat temperature difference.Therefore, it becomes expedient to heat the water before pumping it into the boiler. So it is run heater. through a feecjwater The feeciwater heater cou ld be heated by a seearate fuelfired furnace but, as in the caseof the air heater, it would i b e m u c h m o r e e c o n o m i c a f f i t c o u l d b e h e a t e db y h e a t t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e w a s t e d .S u p p o s e f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e , boiler feed pump was a steam driven pump, and we could use the exhaust stearnfrom th is pump. This would cost v i n u a f fy n o i h i n g . S o , w e a d d a h e a t e r , B S s h o w n a t l e f t . After the steam has done its work driving the purnp, it is d e l i v e r e d t o t h e f e e d w a t e rh e a t e r , w h i c h , a s s h o w n h e r e , i s noth ing more ihan a large tank in wh ich the sream mixes directfy with the water to be heated. lt is called an opn heater. As will be shown later, there are other kinds of f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r sc a l l C c l o s e d h e a t e r s i n w h i c h t h e s t e a m and water cionot m ix. S o f a r , s o g o o d ; w e h a v e s a v e da l i n t e b y u s i n g i h e h e a t i n exhaust steam which otherwise would have been wasted. L e t ' s l o o k a b i t f u n h e r , h o w e v e r ; m a y b e w e c a n s a v es o m e m o r e h e a t s o m e w h e r ee l s e . I n t h e b o i l e r , f o r e x a r n p l e , r e m e mb e r t h a t w e p i c k e d u p s o m e h e a t i n t h e f l u e g a s e s b y m e a n so f t h e a i r h e a t e r .H a v e w e g o t a l l o f i t ? An air heater may or may not remove all the heat we want t o r e m o v e f r o m t h e f l u e g a s e s .B u t i f w e w a n t t o . w e c a n m o d i f y t h e b o i l e r a n d i n s t alf o n e s e c r i o n o f t u b e s t o h e a t

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d i a g r a m . S i n c : s i e a r nf l o w s o u t o f t h e b o i l e r i t o b v i o u s l y b e c o m e sn e c 3 s s a r yo r e p l e n i s h h e w a t e r t h a t i s e v a p o r a t e d . t t F o r t h i s r e a s o na b o i l e r f e e d p u m p i s n e c e s s a r y . T h i s u m p p m u s t o p e r a t e a t e c r e s s u r eh i g h e n o u g h s o t h a t i t c a n o v e r c o r n e t h e p r e s s u r en t h e b o i l e r . i In the ooeraiion of any boiler, even a tea keitle, it is e s s e n t i a la l w a v s i o k e e p e n o u g h w a t e r i n t h e b o i l e r . l f i t should run c:v ine metaf woufd become red hot, soften, a n d r u p t u r e . A . i : h e s a m et i m e i t s h o u l d n o t b e f i l l e d t o a p o i n t w h e r e : : ' r 3 r ei s n o r o o m f o r t h e s t e a m t o c c l l e c t . T o check th e v,/e--er ievel a water gage is fitted to the stearn d r u m . T h i s s n o ' r , 'is e w a t e r l e v e fi n t h e b o i l e r a t a l l t i r n e s . h N o w , i t i s o b v i o u st h a t i f t h e a m o u n t o f s t e a m l e a v i n gt h e b o i l e r w a s e l , r ; e v isn e s a m ea s t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r e n t e r i n g , t h e w a t er l e v e : v r o u l d r e m a i n t h e s a m e . T h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s s e l d o m o c c u r s .' J a r i a t i o n s n l o a d c a u s e s a r i a t i o n s n s t e a m i v i flow: variatic:s in the fuel supply and air suppiy cause v a r i a t i o n s i n : r e i ' a t eo f c o m b u s t i o n ,w h i c h i n t u r n r e s u l t s i n v a r i a t i o n s i n t ; r e r a t e o f e v a p o r a t i o f , ,a n d a l t o f t h e s e c a u s e c h a n o e si n t h e w a t e r l e v e l . T h i s m a k e s i t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e o p e r a t ? ri o m a i n t a i na c o n t i n u a l w a t c h o n t h e w a t e r f e v e f . l t i t c r o 3 s , h e i n c r e a s et h e w a t e r s u p p l y ; i f i t r i s e s , s h e d e c r e a s e ;s: .
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f a n b l a d e s n Cc a u s e sh e e n t i r e r o t o r a s s e r r b l v : 3 t u r n . I n a t t u r n i n g t h e : l a d e s i n t h e f i r s t s r a g et h e s t e a r n g i . l ? s p s o m e u o f i t s e n e r c y , r e s u l t i n gi n a d r o p i n p r e s s u i ' el.n u s , a t a s l i g h t l y l o r v e rp r e s s u r e ,t e n t e r s t h e s e e o n c s : a q en o z z l e i a n d a g a i n i l o i v e su p s o m e o f i t s e n e r c y i n : : : n i n g t h e s e c o n d s r a g eo f t h i s r o t o r . A f t e r D a s s r n gh r o u g r ,t h e t h i r d r s t a g ei n r n i s r v a ! , p r a c r i c a l i ya l f o f i h e e n e r g o : : n e s t e a r n y h a s b e e n c i v e n u p I o t h e r o t o r a n d i t l e a v e s : , : et u r b i n e a s e x h a u s is : e a m . T h i s a r r a n c e r n e n t , b v i o u s l y , p r o v i c i e sa r n u c h . n o r e e f f i o c i e n t m e a n sf o r s p i n n i n gt h e r o t o r s h a f t : h a n : n e s i m p f e linle fan snownin the first diagram. of ccurse,it is still merelya oiag;'am-nourbine would everbe cuii: this way. t T h e o n l y s i e p r e m a i n i n gt o m a k e t h i s e l e r n e n : a t u r b i n e l i n t o a c o r n m e r c i ar n a c h n e i s t o i n t r o d u c e n u i t i o / e n o z z l e s l i o f P r o 9 e r c e s i g na n d c n a n g e t h e s h a p e o f t h e i n e f f i c i e n t p a d d l e si o a n e f f i c i e n t b l a d e h a v i n g c u r v e c e n i i a n c e sa n d e x i t s . H e r e i s a c i e t a i l e d i r a w i n go f r h e n o z z t e sa ; r d b l a d e s c ( t h e y a r e a i s cc a l l e db u c k e t s ) o f a m o d e r n t u r c i n s , a n d n e x t t o i t i s a c ' ' c s s ' s e c t i ot h r o u g h a t u r b i n e s h o w i r i c h o w t h e n e f e m e n t sa r e a r i a n g e d n t h e s h a f t . o

H e r e w e h a v ea c c i e d s e p a r a t e a n k o f t u b e s i h r o u g h w h i c h a b the feeowaier Jasses efore it goes into the boiler drum. b T h i s b a n k o f r u c e s i s p l a c e di n t h e p a t h o f t h e g a s e s r a v e l t ing towards the air heaterand the stack. Most of the heat i n t h e s e g a s e s a s b e e n a b s o r b e di n t h e b o i l e r t u p e s , b u t h n o t a l l o f i t . T h e g a s e sp r o b a b l y s t i l l h a v e a r e m p e r a r u r e F o f a b o u t 6 0 0 o e g r e e s a h r e n h e i t .B y m a k i n g t h e n n t r a v e l t h r o u g h t h i s a c c e di u b e b a n k ,s i i l l m o r e o f t h e h e a r w i l l b e absorbed. Conseauentlyhe economy of the boiier as a i w h o l e w i l l b e i n c r e a s e d . e n c e ,t h i s b a n k o f t u b e s i s k n o w n H as an economizer. With this arrangement, the water is f irst h e a t e d t o a t e m p e r a t u r eo f a b o u t 2 1 2 F i n t h e f e e c i w a t e r h e a t e r b y t n e e x n a u s ts t e a mt r o m t h e f e e d p u m p , a n d t h e n , i n t h e e c o n o m i z e r ,t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s f u n h e r r a i s e d t o a po int not very :ar below the temperature of the water in the boiler. Steam turbineandcondenser O u r b o i f e r - o r s i e a m g e n e r a t o r ,a s i t i s c a l l e d - h a s n o w b e c o m e q u i t e c o . n o l e x ,s o b e f o r e w e d o a n y t h i n g m o r e t o i t l e t ' s h o o k i t u D r o t h e r e s t o f t h e s y s t e m , A s a l r e a c j ym e n tioned, a turbine is essentialla windmill; not a simple fan y like the one shown but a more complex one with many hundreds of blacies, ome stationary and some rotating. s These blades are arrangedin groups or stages,so that the s t e a m i s c o m p e l l e dt o p a s ss u c c e s s i v e l yh r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s t s t a g e s .H e r e i s a v e r y s i m p l e d i a g r a n n .
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S o , n o w w e h a v ee b o i l e r a n d a t u r b i n e c o u p l e d t o a n e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o ra s s h c w n a b o v e . Here you see sieam from ine boiler being fed into the o t u r b i n e b y m e e n s f t h e c o n n e c t i n gp i o i n g a n d a r t e r p a s s i n g of stages the turbine the steam exhaus?.s through the vai'ious through an ocening in the bottom of the turbine. The s t e a m h a s g i v e nu p i t s e n e r g y t o t h e t u r b i n e r o t o r a n d t h i s in turn spins the generator rotor. The generator rotor r e m e m b e r ,i s s i r n p i ya m a g n e : . B u t w h a t s h a l lw e c j o w i t h t h e e x h a u s t s t e a m ? l s i t o f a n y u s e ? W e l l , i f y o u m e a s u r et h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e x h a u s t steam right ai the point of the exhaust opening, you will f i n d t h a t i t n a s a t e m D e r a t u r eo f 2 1 2 F . T h i s i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f s t e a r ne i a r m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e . Obviously, we cen use it to heat the water in the feedwater heater in the same way thai we used the exhaust steam from the boilerieed pump. However, you would find that there is far more exhaust Eteam coming from the turbine than you ccuici use in the feedwater heater.. R emember, practically the entire bo iier output passes through the turbine and ou: into the exhaust. lf you want, you can pipe this exhaust steam to radiators a n d u s e i t t o h e a t h o u s e sa n d b u i l d i n g s i n w i n t e r . This way

Note that ean of the exhaust steam goes tc the feedwater heater. Most of it, however, goes to the bu ilding h e a t i n gs y s i e n n . Now, this is fine if you havea building you wani to heat or i f y o u n e e c s i e a m h e a t f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e ss u c n a s c o o k i n g , h e a t i n g s t i t l s i n f o o d o r c h e m i c a l p l a n t s o r a n y o f s c c r e so f d i f f e r e n t c u r ? o s e si n i n d u s t r y , a n d i n p r a c t i c e : n a t i s h o w a great Cealof exhauststeam is used. lncieeC,:his is one o f t h e r e a s c n si t p a y s t h e o w n e r s o f a n i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t , a p a p e r r n i l l f o r e x a m p l e ,o t a t e x t i l e m i l l o r a f o o d p r o d u c t s plant, to have their own power planti they can use prac' t i c a l l y a l l o r t h e e x h a u s is t e a m f r o m t h e t u r b i n e f o r h e a t i n g and other"purpcses. lf they cjid not have the turbine, they still wculd need a s b o i l e r t o g e n e r a t e t e a m .B y f i r s t r u n n i n g t h e $ e a m t h r o u g h a turbine they can gei the elestric power so prcduced for a very low ccs:. S u p p o s e , h o w e v e r ,t h e r e i s n o b u i l d i n g t o b e h e a t e d o r n o factory processto use Up the exhaust steam; what then? Take a pubiic utility plant for example. A oublic utility plant is designed olely to generate electriciry to sell. Such s plants usually are tar away from buildings where the exhaust sream might be used for heating. Shall the exhaust steam be permitted to be wasted to the atmosphere? N o . T h e r e i s a m u c h b e t t e r w a y o f d i s p o s i n go f t h i s e x h a u s t

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s t e a m .T h a t i s b y u s i n g i t t o c r e a t e a v a c u u m a t t h e e x h a u s t end of the tu rcine A v a c u u m ? h y a v a c u u m ?W h a t g o o d w o u l d t h a t d o ? W e l l , W r e m e m b e r : h a : i n e t u r b i n e i s s u r r o u n d e do n a l l s i o e sb y t h e o a t m o s p h e r er v n i c h , a t s e a l e v e f X e r t s a p r e s s u r e f a b o u t , 15 l b p e r s c u a r e i n c h ( p s i ) . I n o r d e r i o g e t o u t o i t h e e x ' h a u s t o p e n i n g , i n e s t e a m h a s t o p u s h a g a i n s tt n i s 1 5 p s i p r e s s u r e a n d : ; r i s r e q u i r e sw o r k , j u s t a s i t d o e s t o p u s h t h e , turbine blades around. But suppose, by some means,wB could remove the atmosphere from around the exhaust o p e n i n g s o t h a t t n e s t e a m i s s u i n gf r o r n t h e e x h a u s t o p e n i n g w o u l d e n c o u n i e r n o r e s i s t a n c ew h a t e v e r ; y o u w o u l d f i n d t h a t y o u c o u l C d e v e l o p m o r e p o w e r i n t h e t U r b i n e ,i n d e e d , i t w o u l d b e e c u i v a l e n tt o a n i n c r e a s ei n s t e a r np r e s s u r e . T o u n d e r s t a n dh o w w e c a n a c c o m p l i s h t h i s ( r e m o v a lo f t h e atmospheric pressure) it is necessary to know a iew facts a b o u t s t e a m .S t e a m , r e m e m b e r , i s e v a p o r a t e dw a t e r . W h e n water is heatecito a temperature of 212 F at atmospheric p r e s s u r ei t t u r n s i n t o s t e a m . l f t h e w a t e r i s e n c l o s e d i n a t i g h t l y c l o s e d v e s s e ls u c h a s a b o i l e r , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h t h e w a i e : ' t u r n s i n t o s t e a m w i l l b e h i g h e r ' .I n a n y c a s e ,t h e v o l u i ' n eo f t h e s t e a m p r o d u c e d w i l l b e v e r y m u c h larger than the volume of the water from which it was produced. At atmospheric pressure,for example, a pound o f s t e a r no c c u p i e sa v o l u m e o f 2 6 c u b i c f e e t . Suppose, now, ihat you had a pound Of steam at atrnoi s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e n a c l o s e d v e s s e lw i t h a v o l u r n e o f e x a c t l y l 2 6 c u f r . T h i s v e s s e w o u l d b e a t r i f i e l e s st h a n 3 i e e t o n a s i d e - a s s u m i n gi t t o b e a c u b e . l t w o u l d b e f u l l o f s t e a m . T h e r e w o u l d D n o a i r . l f y o u s u d d e n l y p l a c e dt h i s v e s s e l o n a l a r g eb i o c k o f i c e , a r c c o l e d i t b y s p r a y i n gc o l d w a t e r o n i t , w h a t w c u i i h a p p e n ?T h e s t e a m w o u l d c o n d e n s e - i t would turn back into water-into one pound of water. This p o u n d o f w a t e : ' ,h o w e v e r , w o u l d o c c u p y o n l y 1 / 6 Q t h o f a c u b i cf c o t . l t w o u i Cl o o k a b o u t l i k e t h i s

down on it {and with nothing inside to ccunterect it) the t o t a l a t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r eo n t h e c u b e i s n o v / 7 7 7 6 x 1 5 o r a b o u t 1 1 6 , 6 4 0l b . l f y o u w a n t t o s e ew h e t h e r t h i s i s r e a l l y t r u e , i r y i t s o m e g time. Take an ordinaryrecrangular alloncan wi:n a screw c a p c l o s u r e ,p o u r i n a b o u i a h a l f - i n c h o f w a i e r , a n d b r i n g t h e w a t e r t o a b o i l b y p l a c i n gi t o n a g a s b u r n e r l c r a f e w minutes. Do this with the screw cap off . Then, when the w a t e r i s b o i l i n g v i g o r o u s l y ,s c r e w t h e c a p o n a n d q u i c k l y place the can under a stream of ccld water. The can will crumple up {ikeso much paper.

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This spectaciar exoeriment is one wh ich anvboiy can do u at home but it is extremely convincing in cernonstrating t h e p r o c j u * i o n o f a v a c u u m b y t h e c o n d e n s a t i c no f s t e a m . Remember, we wanted to create a vacuum at the exhaust end of the turbine. Now that we know how io create a v a c u u m , j u f i h o w c a n w e a p p f y t h e p r i n c i p l et o o u r t u r b i n e ? l W e l l , s u p p o s ew e a t t a c h a i a r g eh o l l o w v e s s e t o : n e e x h a u s t o p e n i n g o f t h e t u r b i n e a n c i i n s t a l l a b a n k o f s n n a l lt u b e s i n l t h e v e s s et h r o u g h w h i c h w e c a n p u m p c o l d w a t e r ' . I n t h i s f a s h i o n-

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With such an arrangement, the steam issung f rom the i turbine will come in contact with the cold tubes and thereby turn back into water. Th is will create a vacuum i n t h e v e s s e jl u s t a s i t d i d i n t h e c a s eo f t h e g a l l o n c a n . T h e v e s s e l n o w , h o w e v e r , i s m a d e o f h e a v y .s t e e f c a p a b l e o f , w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e p r e s s u r eo f t h e a t m o s p h e r e , a n d w i l l not collapse.
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S i n c e c o i d w a r e r c o n t i n u e st o f l o w t h r o u g h t h e t u b e s , t h e processis a ccntinuous one. There will be a steady conv e r s i o n o f s : e a r ni n t o w a t e r , a n d a s t e a d y s i a i e o f v a c u u m w i l l e x i s t i n s i d ei n e v e s s e l . T e c h n i c a l l y ,s u c h a v e s s e li s c a l l e d a c c n d e n s e r .l t s p u r p o s e i s t w o f o l d : ; i r s : , t o c r e a t ea v a c u u m a t t h e t u r c i n e e x h a u s t , and second, ic recover the condensare (the ccndensed s t e a m ) s o i n a i i t c a n b e u s e Co v e r a g a i n i n t h e b o i l e r . S i n c e i t h i s c o n d e n s a : es r e a l l y d i s t i l l e dw a r e r , i t i s v e r y o u r e , a n d , f t h e r e fo r e , h i g r l v d e s i r a b l e o r u s e a s b o i l e r f e e c i w a t e r ' . So, we buiic another smallerchamberat the bonom of the c o n c j e n s e ri o p r o v i d e a p l a c e w h e r e t h e c o n d e n s a t e c a n collect anci ;rom which it can be pumped back to the boiler, or ra;rer, first to the boiler feedwater heater. This r e s e r v o i ri s c a l l e dt h e h o t w e l l s i n c e t h e w a t e r w h i c n c o l l e c t s in it is fairly warm. N o w , o u r s y s i e r nl o o k s l i k e t h e d r a w i n g a b o v e . Steam produced in the boiler flows through the main steam , h e a d e r t o t h e t u r b i n e . l n t h e t u r b i n e i t p a s s e ss u c c e s s i v e l y , l t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s , o s i n g p r e s s u r ea t e a c h $ a g e a n d g i v i n g u p i t s e n e r g yt o t h e b l a d e so n t h e r o t o r . T h i s t u r n s the electric generator and produces electricity. Emerging f r o m t h e e x h a u s to p e n i n g a t t h e b o n o m o f t h e i u r b i n e , t h e S t e a me n t e r s i i t e c o n d e n s e rw h e r e i t c o n d e n s e s n t h e t u b e s o through which the cool circulating water flows. C o n d e n s a t i o no f t h e s t e a m c r e a t e sa v a c u u m w h i c h r e d u c e s the back pressure hich otherwise would impede the flow w o f s t e a m t o a c o n s i d e r a b l ee x t e n t . T h e c o n d e n s e d s t e a m collects in the hotwell of the condenser and is drawn off p by the conciensate ump wh ich pumps the water into the f e e d w a t e rh e a t e r .H e r e t h e w a t e r i s f u n h e r h e a t e d b y t h e 6 x h a u s t s t e a i nf r o m t h e b o i f e r f e e d p u m p ( o r o t h e r s t e a m d r i v e n a u x i i i a r i e sa n d t h e n i s p u m p e d b a c k i n t o t h e b o i l e r ) by the boiler feed pump. The lafter, ir will be noted, is run b y s t e a m f r o m t h e m a i n h i g h p r e s s u r eh e a d e r .W e n o w h a v e a c o mp l e t e l y c l o s e d s y $ e m . , A l l t h e w a t e r t h a t i s t u r n e d i n t o s t e a m i n t h e b o i l e r i s c o n d e n s e db a c k i n t o w a r e r i n t h e condenserancf pumped back into the boiler again. Of course, there are slight lossesat various points in the
POWE R ENG I r . {5 E R I N G

s y s t e m , l e a k a g e t h r o u g h p u m p b e a r i n g s ,s i e a m l e a k a g e t h r o u g h v a l v ep a c k i n g ,e t c . T o m a k e u p f o r t h i s l o s sa s m a l l quantity of raw water has to be pumped into lhe system. T h i s i s k n o w n a s r n a k e u pw a t e r c r s i m p l y m a k e u p . T h e i d e a is to keepthe amount of . T h e r e i s o n l y o n e a d d i t i o n a lr e q u i r e m e n t o m a k e a w o r k i n g s y s t e m , W h e r e v e rt h e r e i s a v a c u u f f i ,t h e r e w i l l b e s o m e air leakageinto the system, and tn is air rnusi ce removed t o r i t w i l l g r a d u a l l yb u i l d u p a n c jc j e s i r o y h e v a c u u m . l f t h e v a c u u m r e c u i r e d i s n o t t o o h i g h , a c o m b i n a t i o nc o n d e n s a t e , a i r r e m o v a ip u m p c a n b e u s e d .F o r h i g h e rv a c u u f t i s s e p a r a t e a i r r e m o v a i e q u i p m e n t i s n e e c i e d .C o n c i e n s e r i r p u m p s a s e p a r a t et h e a i r f r o m t h e w a t e r v a p o r a n d r e t u r n t h e w a t e r t o t h e c o n c i e n s a t e y s t e m . T h e y g e n e r a l l ya r e o f t h e s t e a m s ejector tyoe. Even these are fitted with heat exchangersto recover ihe heat that might otherwise be lost in extracting the air frorn the condenser. l f y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e do n l y i n t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f a p o w e r pfant, this is afl you need to know. True, many more r e fi n e m e n t s c a n b e a d d e d w h i c h w i l l f u n h e r i m p r o v e the efficienqy but the system shown in the last diagram would work. f f t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n ,s o f a r, h a s m a d e s e n s e o y o u a n d i f i t t has been of interest, maybe you would like ro go a little f u r t h e r a n d l e a r n s o m e t hi n g a b o u t a c t u a l p l a n r a s t h e y a r e b u i ft t o d a y . T h e b o i l e r p l a n t s h o w n i n t h e d i a g r a r n ss f i r e c b y a c h a i n i grate stoker. Most people are reasonably amiliar with a f stoker. Power plant boilers are aiso fired by oil or pulveri z e d c o a l . W h e r e p u l v e r i z e d c c a f i s u s e d ,t h e c c a l i s f i r s t p a s s e d t h r o u g h a p u l v er i z e r w h i c h g r i n d s t h e c o aI t o t h e consistenry of flour and then, by meansof a fan, the powdered coal is blown into the furnace where it burns v e r y m u c h a s a g a sf l a m e , Most of the large coal-fired planrs roday arefired by pul. verized coal. One reason for th is is that the control of pulverized coal firing is much more flexible ihan stoker firing. With stoker firing there is alwaysa bed of coal on the grate which contains a considerable mount of heat. a

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any other kind of heat engine, then, is the ternperature range through which the heat energy falls in its passage t h r o u g h t h e e n g i n e .T h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y o f t n e e n g i n e depends uDon this temperaturerange. This Qn be ex' p l a i n e d v e r y s i m p l y b y i m a g i n i n ga p e r f e c t e n g i n e - o n e i n w h i c h t h e r e a r e n o h e a t o r f r i c t i o n l o s s e so f a n y k i n d . O f c o u r s e , s u c n a m a c h i n ec o u l d n e v e r b e b u i l t . A s s u mi n g t h a t w e h a d s u c h a n e n g i n e ,h o w e v e r , l e t u s c c n n e C t i t t o a source of steam having a temperature of 400 7. Also, assume that the engine exhausts against atrnospheric p r e s s u r e .T h d e x h a u s t s t e a m t h e n w o u l d h a v e a t e m p e r ' ature of 212 F. N o w t h e t h e r m a i e f f i c i e n c y o f s u c h a p e r fe c : e n g i n e i s o e a s i l yf i g u r e db v m e a n s f a v e r y s i m p l e e q u a t i o n .H e r e i t i s :

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t Even if the ccal sucply were cut off comOletely, he coal o n t h e g r a t e w o ul C c o n t i n u e t o b u r n f o r a n a p p r e c i a b l e l e n g t h o f t i m e . V r / i t hp u l v e r i z e d c o a l t h e r e i s n o s u c n r e s e r ' voir of heat anc if the coal supply is cut off ccrnbustion c e a s e si n s i a n t l y . T h e s a m e i s t r u e o f o i l o r g a s .A l s o , t h e c r n a x i m u m r a r i n g o f s t o k e r si s l i m i t e d . W i t h p u l v e r i z e C o a l f i r i n g , v e r y m u c n ! a r g e rb o i l e r sc a n b e b u i l t . The use of pulverizedcoal instead of stokers eoes not c h a n g et h e b a s i c c r i n c i p l e o f o p e r a t i o n a s f a r a s i n e p o w e r a p l a n t a s a w h o i e i s c o n c e r n e d ;i t m e r e l y i n v o l v e s c i f f e r e n t type of equiprneni. Efficiency I N o w , w h a t a o c u t s t e a m p r e s s u r e ?n o n e o f t h e i o r e g O i n g p a r a g r a p h sw e s ai d s o m e t hi n g a b o u t e f f i c i e n c Y b e i n g r e ' l a t e d t o s t e a r np r e s s u r e l.s t h i s t r u e ? Y e s , b u t l a r g e f y b e c a u s es t e a m p r e s s u r e i s r e l a t e i t o t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e h i g n e r t h e p r e s s u r eo f s t e a r n ,t h e h i g h e r i t S t e m p e r a t u r e . A t a t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e t, h a t i s , 1 5 c s i a b s o ' l u t e p r e s s u r e ,f i e a m h a s a t e m o e r a t u r e o f 2 1 2 F . A t 5 0 0 p s i o a b s o l u t e ,t h e t e r n p e r a t u r e f s t e a m i s 4 4 9 F . The efficiency of a turbine, or any other kind of heat e n g i n e s u C h a s a s t e a m e n g i n e o r a g a s e n g i n e ,i o e s n o t d e p e n d u p o n t h e n a t ur e o f t h e w o r k i n g m e d i u m - s t e a m , c o m p r e s s e da i r , a m m o n i a , e t c . - b u t u p o n t h e q u a n l i t Y a n d t h e a b s o l u t e i e r n c e r a t u r eo f t h e h e a t r e c e i v e da n d t h e h e a t rejected. This means merefy that a turbine supplied with s t e a m a r 4 0 0 7 a n d e x h a u s t i n gi t a t 2 1 2 F i s m o r e e f f i c i e n t t h a n o n e r e c e i v i n gt h e s t e a m a t 3 0 0 F a n d e x h a u s t i n ga t 2 1 2 F . A l s o , a t u r b i n e r e c e i v i n gs t e a m a t 4 0 0 F a n d e x ' h a u s t i n g a t 2 i 2 ? i s / e s s e f f i c i e n t t h a n o n e r e c e i v i n gt h e s t e a m a t t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t ur e ( 4 0 0 ) b u t e x h a u s i i n gi t a t 1 O O F . T h i s n o i o n l y e x p l a i n st h e v a l u e o f t h e c o n d e n s e r . b u t a l s ot h a t o i h i g h s t e a m p r e s s u r eW i t h o u t t h e c o n d e n s e r , the lowest tencerature at which steam can be exhausted i s 2 1 2 F , s i n c e t h a t i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r eo f s t e a m a t a t m o h s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e .3 y m e a n SO f t h e c o n d e n s e r , O w e v e r ,a v a c u u m c a n b e c r e a t e ds o t h a t t h e s t e a m w i l l e x h a u s t a t a p r e s s u r e o f , s e y , 1 0 p o u n d s b e l o w a t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e , t h a t i s , a t 5 p s i ( m o d e r n t u r b i n e se x h a u s t a t a b o u t 2 p s i a , o r e v e n l o w e r i . A t 5 p s i a b s o l u t e ,t h e s t e a mt e m p e r a t u r e would be 162 7. T h e t h i n g t h a t i s i r n p o r t a n ti n t h e o p e r a t i o no f a t u r b i n e o r

I n t h i s e x p r e s s i o nE s t a n d sf o r e f f i c i e n c y i n p e r e e n t ,T 1 i s , t h e a b s o l u t et e m p e r a t u r eo f t h e s t e a m e n t e r i n gt h e e n g i n e , r t a n d T 2 i s t h e a b s o l u t e e m p e r a t u e o f t h e s t e a m l e a v i n gt h e engine. So, with 400 F (860 absolute)' for the entering s t e a m a n d 2 i 2 F f o r t h e e x h a u s t , t h e e f fi c i e n c y o f t h i s theoretical engine is: 188 860- 672 = 2 1. 8 P e r c e n t = i00 x 860 860 I n s t e a do f l e n i n g t h e s t e a mf r o m t h i s e n g i n ee x h a u s i a g a i n s t r , a t m o s p h e r i c c r e s s u r e s u p p o s ew e a c a c h a c o n c j e n s e t o t h e o exhaust ooeningto produce a back pressure f 5 psia. As e x p l a i n e d p r e v i o u s l y ,a t t h i s p r e s s u r et h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f steam is 162 7 (162 + 460 = 622 abs). Now the eguation w i l l g i v e u s a n e f f i c i e n c yo f
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S o , b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e c o n d e n s e r ,w e h a v e r ai s e d t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e n g i n ef r o m 2 1 . 8 t o 2 7 . S Y o . This simple example,then, shows why power engineers have been striving, not only for higher and higher steam t e m p e r a t u r e s ,b u t a l s Of O r l o w e r e x h a u s t t e m p e r a t u r e s .T h e greater the range between the temperature of the steam e n t e r i n g a n d l e a v i n gt h e t u r b i n e , t h e h i g h e rw i f l b e t h e e f f i ciency of the turbine. Of course, there is no such thing as a perfect heat engine, a n d i n p r a c r i c e t h e e f f i c i e n c i e so b t a i n e d a r e m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h o s e c o n s i d e r e di n t h i s e x a m p l e f o r s i m i l a r t e m p e r ' a t u r e r a n g e s .B y u s i n g m u c h h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s ,h i g h e r a c t u a l e f f i c i e n c i e sc a n b e o b t a i n e d . T h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t c o n ' ventional steam power plant in operation has an overall efficiency of about 40o/o. I t s h o u fd b e p e r f e c t l y c l e a r a l s o , t h a t w h e n a c o n d e n s e r i s a d d e d t o a s y f i e m , l a r g eg u a n t i t i e s o f c o o l i n g w a t e r m u s t b e h p u m p e d t h r o u g h i t . A l s o , t h e c o n d e n s a t e a st o b e p u m p e d T o u t o f t h e c o n d e n s e r . h i s r e q u i r e sp o w e r a n d t h i s a d d e d power has to be subtracted from that developed by the t u r b i n e w h e n t h e e f f i c i e n c yo f t h e s y s t e ma s a w h o l e i s c o n ' W s i d e r e d " e d o n o t g e t s o m e t h i n gf o r n o t h i n g i n t h i s w o r l d . A n d t h i s i s a s i t s h o ul d b e ; i t m a k e s t h e p o w e r e n g i n e e r ' s j o b i n t e r e s t i n gr e g a r d l e s s f w h i c h b r a n c h o f t h e f i e l d h e o *Temp. Absolute Temp. F + 460. Absolute zero is 460 degrees below zero F.
POWER ENGIruEERING

10

m a y s p e c i a i i t ei n . T a k e t h i s q u e s t f o r t h e a t ' i a i n n e n t o f higher steam :gmperaturesand lower exhaust ternperatures. f o r e x a m p l e .T h i s h a s l e d t h e p o w e r e n g i n e e r i n i o a l l s o r t s o f c o m p l e x t h i n g s i n v o l v i n gc h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s ,r n e : a l l u r g y , t e c h n i q u e so f m a n u f a c t u r e n d c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n i , c f c o u r s e , a e c o n o m i c s . H i c l s t e a mt e m p e r a t u r e s n d p r e s s u r e so g e t h e r a : w i t h s y s t e r n s f h i g n e ra n d h i - o h e c a p a c i r y n e c e s s i t a r e l l o y r c a s t e e l s c a p a b i e o f w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e h i g h t e m p e r a r u r e sa n d pressures;hign rates of evaporation in boilers io,oeiher with high pressuresand remperaturesmake elaborate feeCwater treating systens necessary,involving constant, ciose chem. ical control; hi_ohpressuresand temoeratures also affect the character oi the piping arrangements, valves, fittings, a n d m e t h o d s o i i n s u i a t i o na s w e l l a s m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s . With the use oi high pressures and temperatures the simple method of hea:in_o ihe feedwater by exhaust stearn from the boiler feeC pump or other steam driven auxiliaries shown in the les: version of our system ion page 9) will no longer suffice, becausethe feedwater must be heated to a far higher remgeraturebefore it enters the boilers. Modern boilers operaring ai sieam pressuresof 2500 or 3500 psi require higher ieedwater temperatures to avoic severe strains. The usa of higher temperatures and more heaters a l s o i m p r o v e sg i a n t e f f i c i e n c y ,a s e x p l a i n e d b e l o w . So we have the oroblem of increasing the feedwa:er temperature. Whar is the besr way of doing it? Of ccurse, one way of cioing i: would be to use high-pressure, hign-temperature live steam irom the main header anc ieei it into a special feecjwater heater capable of withstancin-o the high pressure.This, however',would be wastefui. The steam in the main headeris the most valuable commodity we have in the systern, and every pound of it should ce cjeiivered to the main turoing where it can do the most good. A n o t h e r m e i h o i r v o u l d b e t o s u p p l y t h e h e a t r e g u i r e Cf o r feedwater heaiing from a separately fired water hea:er but this would be even lessefficient rhan taking iive stear,:r from the boiler itself. Suppose, however, that feecjwater is heated by siaam extracted from an inrermediate stage of the main tur.bine; then power will be developed bv the steam used for feedwater heating. Moreover, this additional power _oenerated by the extraced sream will be produced at a very high efficiency and -iris, in turn, will increase the avera_oe efficiency at whim the total power output of tne svstem is generared. Now, why is this so? Why cioes this extracted steam oroduce power at a much lower fuel cost than that of power produced by steam flowing ro the condenser? The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n l i e sd e e p i n t h e r m o d y n a m i c t h e o r y b u t f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e si t c a n b e e x p l a i n e d a s f o l l o w s . l n e v e n the best modern condensing turbine power planrs, approx. imately two-thirds of the heat present in the steam at the turbine inlet is still in the steam at the exhausr.Even if it were possible tc have a 10Qo/o efficient turbine, the arnount o f h e a t t h r o w n ? w a y a t t h e e x h a u s tw o u l d n o t b e - o r e a t l y reduced.Actuallv, this heat is carriedaway by the ccoling w a t e r f l o w i n g t h r c u g ht h e c o n d e n s e r . T h i s m e a n s , r h e n , t h a t e v e n a t b e s t , l e s st h a n o n e - t h i r d o f the heat in the fuel can be turned into power in a straight condensing cycle. lf however, we extract a portion of the steam from the turbine before it reachesthe condenser,and u s e i t t o h e a r t h e f e e d w a t e r ,n o n e o f t h e h e a t i n t h i s s t e a m
POWER ENGIT{E:2ING

w i l l b e w ' a s t e c je c a u s et w i f l a l l b e a b s o r b e di n r h e b o i l e r b i f e e d w a t e r .T h u s i t d e c r e a s e s ,e a t u n i t f o r h e a t u n i t , t h e h h e a t w h i c h n r u s tb e s u p p l i e d o r h e b o i l e r . t P u t t i n g i t a n o t h e rw a y ; o f t h e s t e a m f l o r r u i n g r o m t h e : t h r o t t l e t o t n e c o n d e n s e ro v e r i w o - t h i r C s o f i h e h e a t w i l l , b e t h r o w n a w a y , w h i l e o f t h e s t e a m f l o w i n _ cf r o m t h e t h r o t t l e t o a n e x t r a c t i o no p e n i n g , n o h e a t w i l l D e w a s t e d . I t f o l fo w s c j i r e c t l yt,h e n , t h a t t h e m o r e p o w e r t h a t c a n b e g e n e r a t e dD Ve x t r a c t e d t e a m ,t h e h i g h e r w i l l b e t h e a v e r a g e s p l a n t e f f i c i e n c v .O f c o u r s e , h e a m o u n t o f s t e a m v r h i c h c a n t b e u s e d f o r f e e d w a t e r e a t i n gi s o e r e r mi n e d b y t h e a m o u n t h o f h e a t n e e o e C o r a i s et h e t e m p e r a t ur e a f t h e b o i i e r f e e d t w a t e r t o t h e r e q u i r e dl e v e l . T h i s p l a c e s a n u o D e r l i m i t o n w t h e g a i n i n e t f i c i e n c y h i c h c a n b e m a c j ei n r h i s w a y . As in the previous iagramssteam from the boiier enters d , t h e t u r b i n e a n d f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e t u r b i n e s r a g e sg e n e r a t i n g , p o w e r . M o s i o f t h e s t e a m p a s s e sh r o u g h t h e e n i i r e t u r b i n e t a n d e x h a u s r si n t o t h e c o n d e n s e r .A p a n o f t h e s t e a m , however, is extracted from an intermediate siage of the r t u r b i n e a t a p r e s s ue a n d t e m p e r a t ur e h i g h e r t h a n t h a t at the exnausi. H e r e i s i h e w a y i n w h i c h w e c a n t a k e a d v a n i a g eo f t h i s schem . e

MAIN STEAM

F.W. H E Ar = n F BOILER ::D PUMP

/'7-

N C O N D ESAT= P U M P

\ \

r i O T W EL L

In order that the temperature of the feedwater be high e n o u g h , i t i s n e c e s s a r yn t h i s c a s e t o e x t r a c t t h e s i e a m a t i a point in the turbine where the temperatu!'e is somewhere in the neighborhood f the temperature of the water o i n t h e b o i l e r . T h i s , o f c o u r s e ,l i m i t s t h e a m o u n t o f p o w e r that can be obtained from this extracted steam. lt would b e b e n e r i f a n e x t r a c t i o n p o i n t c o u fd b e l o c a r e d c l o s e r to the exhaustend of the turbine in the manner shown below.

MAIN STEAM

C O N D E N S E DT E A M S D R A I N ST O C O N D E N S E R H2

>
TOBOILE R

t-

B. F. PUMP

PUMP.r'

11

I n h e a t i n gw a i e r o r a n v o t h e r s u b s t a n c et o a h i g h e r t e m g e r a t u r e ,h o n , e v e r c n l y a g O r t i o n o f t h e t q t a l h e a t n e c e s ' , r s a r y n e e d b e e t l h e h i g h e s tt e r n p e r a t ue ; m u c h o f t h e t o t a l t h e a t i s u s e di n h e a t i n g h e l v a t e r t h r o u g h a l o w e r r a n g e o f I e m p e r a t u r e s\.^ u i i ht h i s f a c : i n m i n d , i t b e c o r n e sD o s s i b l e i s t o h e a t i n e : e e d r , v a t s ru c c g s s i v e l yn t w o o r r n c r e s t a g e s . H e r e w e h a v e i w o f e e d w a t e rh e a t e r s ,a l o w - p r e s s u r e l,o w ' e t e m p e r a t u r ec c e n h e a t e r r e c e i v i n g x t r a c t e d s t e a m f r o m a stage close io ihe conienser,and another One receiving p s t e a m f r o m a n e x i i ' a c t i o n o i n t c l o s e rt o t h e t h r o f l l e . W a t e r f rom the hoiwell is firsi purnpedto heater H 1 where it is r a i s e d t o a r e i a t i v e i yl o w l e m p e r a t u r e . T h e n i t ! s p u m p e d t h r o u g h t h e s e c c n dh e a r e r w h e r e i t i s r a i s e d t o a t e m p e r ' r a t u r e c l o s e : o i n e t e m p e r a t ue o f t h e w a t e r i n i n e b o i l e r . t T h i s i s a c l o s e dh e a t e r .T h e l e e d w a t e r p a s s e s h r o u g h t u b e s o a n d t h e s t e a r nc c n o e n s e s n r h e o u t s i d e o f t h e t u b e s . W i t h t h i s a r r a n g e m e n ti,t w i l l b e O b v i o u s ,m o r e p o w e r C a n b e obtained from tne total amount of extracted steam. In O t h e r w 9 r d 5 ,b y i h e u s e o f t w o h e a t e r s i n s t e a d o f o n e , w t h a v e i n c r e a s e dn e e ff i c i e n c yo f t h e s y s t e m . i So the quesiicn arises,f iwo heaters are better than one why wOulcjnot three be better than two , Of four better t h a n t h r e e ? T h e a n s w e r ,o i c o u r s e , i s t h a t e a c h a c i d i t i o n a i s t a g e o f e x t r e c i i o n i m p r o v e st h e t h e r m a l e f f i c i e n c y . F l o w ' , e v e r , i n t h i s i n s t a n c ga s i n a l l e n g i n e e r i n gp r o j e c i s ,t h e r e i s g a p o i n t o f o i r n i n i s n i nr e l u r n s b e y o n d w h i c h : h e f u r t h e r e a d di t i o n o f h e a r e r sb e c o r n s u n e c o n om i c a l. T h e o r e t i c a l l y m a x i m u m e i ; i c i e n c yw o u l d D e o b t a i n e d b V m e e n s o f a n i n f i n i t e n u m c e r o ; e x t r a c t i o nc o i n t s a n d f e e c i w a i e rh e a t e r s . a A c t u a l l y , f o u r o r f i v e s t a g e s r e c o m m o n l y u s e c ja n d s o m e s o f t h e m o s t r i r o c j e r n t a r i o n su s e s e v e n o r e i g h t . T h e m e t h o c jc f h e a t i n gt h e c o i l e r f e e d w a t e r i n t h i s f a s h i o n e i s k n o w n a s r e g e n e r a t i vfe e i w a t e r h e a t i n g ; i t i s u s e d i n a l l s m o d e r n s i e a r i "c o w e r g e n e r a i i n g y s i e m s . W i t h s u c n s y s t e m s t a t o t a l o f 2 0 i o 3 0 Y oo f t h e t h r o t t l e s t e a m m a y D e w i t h ' d r a w n f r o m i n e t u r b i n e a r v a r i o u s p o i n t s a n d u s e c jt o h e a t th e f eeciwater. I n t h e d i a g r a mb e i o w w e h a v e i n c o r p o r a t e d f o u r s t a g e sO f feedwater heatingin our system with three open heaters i n d i c a t e d a n d o n e c i o s e dh e a t e r . A t e a c h h e a t e r t h e w a t e r

i s r a i s e d t o a h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e .S i n c e t h e 3 r a s s u r ei n , e a C h O p e n h e a t e r i s h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e o n e C r e c e d i n ga h pump is necessarY elween successive ea:ers. Finally, D t a f t e r t h e w a t e ! ' p a s s e sh r o u g h t h e l a s t o O e n h e a t s r , t h e b o i l e r f e e d c u , Tc c u n c s i t t h r c u g n t h e c l o s a c n e a t e r a n d d e fi v e r si t t c l n e e c c n o i ' n i z esre c i i o n o f t h e b o i i e : . ft i s v e r y e v i c e n t f r o r n t h i s c i a g r a m t h a t e i e a r n p o w e r plant can beccnrecuiie connclex when we :rv ro take s a d v a n t a g eo f a l l t h e n ' ' r e l h o c ja v a i i a b l eI o i n c : e a s ei t s e f f i c i e n c y . I n Q e e c ,t h e c i a g r a m , a s s h o W f , , i s s : i l l ; a r f r o m c o r n pe t e . W h i i e a n a i r h e a t e r i s s n o w n , t h e ; a n s a n d c o n f nection to the air heater have beeri leit oui sc as io keep t h e d i a g r a m s i r n c l e .A c i u a l l y , o f c c u r s e , t h e a i r i s f o r c e d t h r o u g h t h e a i ; ' h e a t e r o y m e a n s o f a f a n , a n c a f r . e rb e i n g h e a t e di t i s f o r c e di n t c t n e r u r n a c e ;i n t h i s m a n n e r :

CCLDAIR

INDUC:] DRAF; FAN

+
- / \ 6 a r - t > t t x . V r r V - Y i

7AiR-SliiR

DRAF; FAN

n
F H
VA

\I

STACK

H. P.STE,{ M

- A - -

TURBINE

trL:Li
F e a t l a t .

nlL,
a

r A

\ - : t r l \ E , 1 1, r ' L / n

+
C O N : = N S =R

i.";

Ho T W EL :

:1

.r: f l L hi
4COi'JDENSEDTEAM S TO D R A I T . , . I S C O N D E N S ER

l.:i

tsAsh

?n

/-TT

/L'
i
B. F. PUMP

FEEDWATE R HEATE RS

F . W .P U M P S

,/

12

PO\^/ER

ENG TNEERING

This shows horv ihe forced draft fan forces cold air ihrough t h e a i r h e a t e ra n Ch o w t h e w a r m a i r i s f o r c e d t h r o u g n d u c t s ( w h i c h m u s i b i n s u l a r e d )i n t o a p l e n u m c h a m b e r u n d e r n e a t h t h e s i o K e r .H e r e i t p a s s e s h r o u g h t h e c o a l c e C a n d t t h u s s u p o o r t sc c m b u s t i o n . p o r t i o n o f t h e w a r m a i r i s a l s o A a d m i t t e d a b o v si n e f u e l b e d . T h e a i r h e a r e r ,i i w i l l b e n o t e d , i s p l a c e d d i r e c r l y a c o v e t h e o u t l e t o f t h e i . . l f n a c e . i n c ei t i s b u i l t o f a g r e a t m a n y t u b e s , S it introduces a cer:ain amount of resistance to tne flow of t h e h o t g a s e so f c o m b u s t i o n . I n o l d e r p l a n t s w h e r e a i r h e a t e r sw e r e n o r u s e d ,a t a l l s t a c k o r c h i m n e y u s u a l l y p r o duced sufficien: draft to pull rhe gases out of the furnace; but where air neatersare used it has become gener.alpractice to place an exnaust fan in the passageto ihe siack. Such fans are known as inciuced draft fans. In some cases, the forced o;'a- ian is macie powerful enough tc ,-naintain flow through :;re boiler without the need for an induced draft fan. Sincg inciuceddraft fans have to operare at com. paratively hign ternDeraturesand handle all the gases of combustion, ihey ofren are very large. Motors as large as 5000 hp, or even larger, may be used, and stearn turbine drives may be usedfor the largest plants, The plant as we have now designed it is a fairly -ooodcower plant but it lacks severalimoortant elements. One oi these is a superhear::'.The purpose of a superheater is ro heat steam above i1e temperature at which it is procjuced in the boiler. ln prac:icg, the superheater is merely an arrangement of alloy s:eeltubes placed in the gas path through the b o i l e r . A f t e r : n e $ e a m c o l l e c t si n t h e b o i l e r d r u n n i i c a s s e s through the suoerheater tubes and is thus heatec io a temperature higher :han that associated with the pressure at which it is crocjuced. For example. saturated sieem at 1000 psi absoiure oressure has a temperature c; 556 F (remember sieain ai atmospheric pressure has a iemperature of 212 ?i. Now, by passing the 1OOO psi sieam through the suorheater,it can easily be heated to a temperature of 2OOde-orees higher, or 756 F. The pressurewill remain the sarne. Such superheared steam has two advantagesover steam that is not superheatec;first, it increasesthe thermal ;-angeof the steam cycie, and hence the efficiency; and seccnd, being drier, ir is less likely to condense in the lower stages of the turbine. In large turbines, the formation of cjrops of water on the blaciesnear the exhaust end of the turbine can be quite cjamaging.By the use of superheared fieam, however, this conoensation can be minimized to a point where it is harmless.Hence, all modern fossil.fired power plants use superheatedsteam; indeed in the most modern plants, in acicjition to the superheater, the steam is reheated in a seccnd superheaterafter it has passedthrough a ponion of ne turbine. With such an arrangement, ,team collected in the fleam drum of the boiler passes first through the grimary superheater, then through the first few stagesof :he turbine, then back to the boiler where it is reheated in the reheat superheater, and finally is sent back to the lower pressurestagesof the turbine anc so to the condenser. A s a r u l e , t h e r e h e a t e ds t e a m h a s a t e m p e r a t u r e o n l v a linle below the of the primary steam but the pressure is c o n s i d e r a b l yl o w e r . A s a n e x a m p l e ,t h e p r i m a r y s r e a m m a y have a pressureof '1400 psi and a temperarure of 1050 F. After this has passedthrough a number of stages in the turbine it is extracred at, say. 200 psi where its iemperPOWER ENGINEEP,ING

REHEATEDSTEAM
-4,

EOILE R

MAIN STEAM

1-'*
f
BOILER TUBES A R Y S U P E R H Er
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ature wiil De around 400 F . In tne reheat sec:ion of the boildr this sieam will then be heated to a re!:ncerarure f o 1000 F. lrs sressure, owever, will still be nearly 200 psi, h w i t h j u s t a s r n a l lp r e s s u r e r o p i n t h e p i p i n g . d S o n o w w e n a v e s u p e r h e a t , r e h e a t , a n d r e g e n e r a t i v ee e d f w a t e r h e a r i n gi n o u r s y s r e m ( d i a g r a m a b o v e ) a n d i t i s b e c o m i n g v e r y e f ; i c i e n t , d s s t e a m c y c l e s g o . w i t h s y s i e m so f t h i s k i n d , t h e r n n a fe f f i c i e n c i e s o f a b o u t 3 ? o , 6c a n b e o b t a i n e d - t h a : i s , 3 2 o i oo f t h e h e a t e n e r g y i n r h e f u e l w i l l b e c o n v e r t e ci n r o e l e c t r i c i t y . Y o u m a y w c n c e r w h y t h i s f i g u r e i s s o l o w . T h e r e a s o n ,a s i m p l i e d e a r i i e : 'i n r h i s r r e a t i s e , r i e s i n t h e f a c : t h a t m o s r o f t h e h e a r i s c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e c o n d e n s e rc o c i i n g w a t e r . U n f o r t u n a i e i y ,: h i s l o w e f f i c i e n c y i s a c o n s e e u e n c e f t h e o s e c o n d l a w o i t h e r m o d y n a mi c s a n d t h e r e i s D r a c t i c a l l y nothing tha: engineers an do about it. tf the iemperature c o f t h e s t e a n n : : h e e x h a u s t o f t h e t u r b i n e c o u l c j5 e b r o u g h t a d o w n t o a c s o i u t ez e r o , w e c o u f d r e c c v e r a l m o s i a l l o f t h e heat energyin :he fuel, but we live in a wortc where the a m b i e n t t e m o e r a t u r ei s s o r n e 4 9 0 F a b o v e a b s o l u t e z e r o , a n d t h e r e i s n c e c o n o m i c a lw a y b y w h i c h w e c a n r e d u c e t h e t e m p e r a t u r eo f t h e e x i t s t e a m b e l o w a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e . O f c o u r s e , e c c u l d d o i t b y r e f r i g e r a t i o n ,b u t t h e r e f r i g e r a w t i o n s y s t e m w o u i d r e g ui r e p o w e r a n d s o w e w o u l d g ai n n o t h i n g . I n c i e e i ,w e w o u l d l o s e e f f i c i e n c y . We have now incorporated into ou r system about all the known methods far improving the efficiency. Funher improvement can be made in any sysrem by going to still h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s n d t e m p e r a t u r e s , b y r e fi n e m e n $ i n t h e a c o n d e n s i n g s y s t e r n ,a n d b y t h e f u n h e r r e d u c t i o n o f h e a t l o s s e s h e r e v e rt h e y o c c u r b y i m p r o v e d e q u i p m e n t , i n s u l a w tion, and recoveryof m inor wastes, but the gains to be e x p e c t e db y t h e s em e a n sa r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . I n l a r g e p o w e r sSations, owever,each increment, each fraction of a perh cent in the overall efficiency is wonhwhile becausesuch s t a t i o n su s e m i l l i o n s o f t o n s o f c o a l a y e a r , a n d e v e n s m a l l g a i n s i n t h e r r n a le ff i c i e n c y r e f l e c t l a r g e s a v i n g si n f u e l c o s t s . A s i n d i c a t e c a r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n ,m o d e r n s t e a m - e l e c t r i c e n e r a t i n gs t a t i o n s u s e l e s s t h a n o n e - t h i r d g the amount of coaf for the same kilowatt outDut that they d i d i n e a r l y y e a r s .T h i s s a v i n g h a s b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y c o n t i n u a lr e f i n e m e n t s u c h a s d e s c r i b e di n t h e s e p a g e s . s I t i s o b v i o u s ,t h e n , t h a t i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a p o w e r s t a t i o n , every effon hasto be made to keep the temperaturei, press u r e s ,a n d t h e v a c u u m i n t h e c o n d e n s e r a t t h e i r o p t i m u m valuesat all iirnes. A change in any one of these values affects the efficiency of the systern as a whof e, In the con-

13

a t, d e n s e r f o r e x a n n D l eh e v a c u u m m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d t i t s , c v h i g h e s t a i u e3 y t h e u s e o f t h e c o l d e s ta v a i l a b i e i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r . S i n c s : n e c i r c u l a t i n gw a t e r u s u a l l y i s C i ' a w n f r O m r i v e r so r l a x e s ,t h e t e m p e r a t u r ev a r i e st h r o u g h o u i t h e y e a r , w a r m i n g u c i n s u i i m e r a n d b e c o m i n gc o o l e r i n v / i n t e r . T h i s m e a n s ,g e n e r a l l y i, h a t a b e n e r v a c u u m c a n b e r n a i n t a i n e d t i n t h e w i n : e : ' : h a ni n t h e s u m m e r ,a n d a S O m e w n ag r e a t e r p o w e rp r o i u c : i o n i s p o s s i b l e . O n e e l e m e n ri n p o w e r s t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d a an ever increasing mount of attention in recent years is that havinc:c do with the delivery of pure feecwaterto b the boiier. i''iciern high-pressure oilers evaooraieseveraf m i t l i o n p o u n c so f w a t e r p e r h o u r , a n d t h e y d o t h i s 2 4 h o u r s a d a y , 3 6 5 C a y s a y e a r . W i t h s u c h t r e m e n d o u sr a t e s o f e v a p o r a t i o n i r i s o b v i o u s t h a t i f t h e w a t e r d e l i v e r e dt o s u c h , boilers coniained even small amounts of scale-forming o m a t e r i a l s i,n e i n t e r n a l h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s f t h e b o i i e r s w o u l d b e c o r n es o c o a t e d w i t h s c a l e t h a t o v e r h e a t i n g a n d soon s u b s e q u e n; ia i i u r ew o u l d r e s u l t . B e c a u s eo f : n i s , e l a b o r a t e s y s t e m s o f c h e m i c a i f e e d w a t e r t r e a r m e n t h a v e b e e n d e v e i o p e dw h i c h n o t o n l y r e c j u c et h e s c a l e - f o r r n i n m a t e r i a l st o p r a c t i c a l l y z e r o b u t a i s o r e d u c e g the oxygen :cntent to reduce corrosion. Oxygen in hot water is an extremely ccrrosive agent. Sometimes these f e e d w a t e rr ; ' e a t m e n ts y $ e m s i n v o l v e e v a p o r a t o r si n w h i c h raw waier is evaporated by steam extraCted frOm the turbine anc inen condensed.Other systems use ion ex' , c h a n g e i y c e o e m i n e r a l i z e r s o r c h e r n i c a l t r e a t i : n e n tw h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e s: n e s c a l e - f o r mn g m a t e r i a l s i n t h e f o r m o f i b s l u d g e e f o r e : h ew a t e r e n t e r st h e b o i l e r . I t s h o u l Cb e o b v i o u st h a t t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r t h a t n e e d b e a d d e d r o i n e s y s r e mw h i l e i t i s i n o p e r a t i o n i s s m a l l , s i n c e a all the sieaii flowing through the turbine is conciensed nd r e t u r n e c it o i n e b o i l e r . T h e r e a r e s r n a l l l o s s e s ,h o w e v e r , which have to be replaced by what is known as makeup w a t e r .T h i s m a k e u p i s t h e w a t e r t h a t h a s t o b e t r e a t e d . Another iaccr that has beccme important in the operation o f l a r g e p o w e r s t a t i o n s i s t h e e m i s s i o no f d u s t a n d f l y a s h f r o m t h e n a c k s . I n p l a n t s w h e r e m a n y t h o u s a n c j so f t o n s o f ' c o a l a r e b u r n e d a d a y , t h e e m i s s i o no f f i n e a s h f r o m t h e stacks can beccme a serious nuisance and in most comm u n i t i e s o r d i n a n c e sh a v e b e e n e n a c t e d r e q u i r i n g p o w e r s t a t i o n st o r e i u c e t h e e m i s s i o no f f l y a s h a n d d u s t t o a m i n i m u m . T h i s n a sn o t b e e n a n e a s yp r o b l e m t o s o l v e a n d m a n y e r n i l l i o n s i c o l l a r sh a v e b e e n s p e n t i n d e v e l o p i n g q u i p m e n t o f o r c o l l e c t i n g u c h d u s t b e f o r e i t e n t e r st h e s t a c k s . s A number of different methods are in use. In one type of system, the flue gases are passed between electrically c h a r g e d p l a i e s .T h e i n t e n s e e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d c h a r g e s t h e d u s t p a n i c i e s ,e u s i n g t h e m t o b e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e p l a t e s . A f t e r t h e c u f i h a s a c c u m u l a t e d t o a c e n a i n t n i c k n e s so n t h e p l a t e si : i s s c r a p e d o r k n o c k e d o f f . I n o t h e r s y s t e m s , o t h e f l u e g a s i s u r h i r l e dt h r o u g h c y c l o n e s e p a r a t o r s r p a s s e d t h r o u g h s p r c v so f w a t e r . I n a n y c a s e , w h a t e v e r s y s t e m i s u s e d ,t h e y e i ? e x p e n s i v ea n d i n v o l v e h i g h o r c i e r so f e n g i n e e r i n g k i l li n t h e i r d e s i g n . s A l l n e w c c a l - f i r e db o i l e r s w i l l p r o b a b l y a l s o h a v e t o b e e q u i p p e d w i : h f l u e g a s d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n s y s t e m st o r e m o v e T sulfur oxides from the flue gases. his is another highly c o m p l e xs y s i e r n h a t i n c r e a s e s p e r a t i n g p r o b l e m s . o t

T h e c o m p l e t ep l a n t o S o f a r w e n a v e b e e n c o n c e r n e d n l y w i t h t h e s t ? a r ne n d o f t h e p o w e r s y s t e m ,a n d h a v e o n l y m e n t i c n e C: n e e l e C t r i c g e n e r a r o ri n p a s s i n g . T h i iss d u e t o t h e f a c t i h a : r n o s t o f t h e i e c o n o m i e st h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d n t h e o p e r a t i o no f a s t e a m s e l e c t r i cg e n e r a l i n g t a t i o nl i e o n t h e s t e a ms i o e .T h e m o d e r n e l e c t r i c - o e n e r a l o irs a n e x t r e m e l y r e l i a o l e a n C e f f i c i e n t m a c h i n e .' M o d e r n g e n e r a t o r sh a v e e f f i c i e n c i e s a s h i g h a s 9 9 Y o s o i n e a d c j i t i o n a lg a i n s t h a t c a n b e m a i e i n t h e i m ' p r o v e m e n t o f g e n e r a t o r ss s m a l l . i A s p o i n t e c o u t a t t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h i s b c o k i e : , a n e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o !c o n s i s t s a s i c a l l yo f a m a g n e t s c i n ni n g i n s i d e a ' b . g r o u p o ; c c i l s o f w i r e . A s t h e r o t a t i n g r " n a g n e l i fci e l d c u t s t h e c o n v o i u t i o n so f t h e s t a t i o n a r Vc o i l s , e l e f i r i c c u r r e n t s are set uO in the coiis, and by properly ccnnecting them C u r r e n t so f a l m o s t a n y r e q u i r e d v o l t a g e c a n 3 s p r o d u c e d . Mocjern generators produce current anvwhere between 13 , 0 0 0 a n c j 2 6 , 0 0 0 v o l t s . W h e r e t h e e l e c l r i c i l y h a s t o b e t r a n s mi n e d o v e r l o n g c j i s t a n c e st,h e g e n e r a i s r v o l t a g e i s A S t e p p e du c b y m e a n s O f t r a n s f O r m e r s . t t ' a n s ; c r m e r i s a c s o r t o f e l e c t r i c a ll e v e r b y m e a n s o f w h i c n v c l t a - o e s a n b e s t e p p e d u p o r r e c j u c e dt o a n y c i e s i r e dv a l u e . T r a n s f o r m e r s ; a r e t h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t l a r g e m a c hi n e s m a n h a s y e t d e v i s e d h s o m e o f t n e l a r g e ru n i t s h a v ee f f i c i e n c i e s i g h e r ' : n a n 9 9 o , t o . Now, in ine light of all this, let us finallv reiraw the diagram of cur power plant (page15) to inccr3crate everyt h i n g w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d . A s y o u s e e , i t ; " i a sb e c o m e a h i g h l y c c r n p f e x a f i a i r i n v o l v i n gm a n y b r a n c n e so f s c i e n c e physics, chemistry, metallurgy, thermocynarnics, hydrau, l i c s , s t r u c i u r a le n g i n e e r i n ge l e c t r i c i t y ,e t c . C o m p l e x a s i t m a y s e e m ,t h i s d i a g r a m i s s i i l l c n l y t h e s i m ' p l e s t o f s c h e m a t i cd i a g r a m s ;a n a c t u a l p o w e r c l a n t l a y o u t h a s i n i t c o u n t l e s so t h e r s m a l l a n d l a r g e d e v i c e s a n d s u b s y s t e m s n o t s h o w n o r o n l y i n d i c a t e do n t h i s 3 ! ' a w i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , s o f a r i n t h i s t r e a t i s ew e h a v e s a i C n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e c o m o u s t i o nc o n t r o l s y s t e m . l t i s i n d i c a t e c o n t h i s d i a ' g r a m m e r e l y i n b a r e d e t a i l , s h o w i n g o n l y t h e b a s i cd e v i c e s . Actually the combustion control system in a large plant w o u l d r e q u i r e a l a r g e s e p a r a t ed r a w i n g , s i n c e i t i s v e r y i m ' portant and the operation of the station woulci be vinually i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t i t . I n i t s s i m p l e s t f o r m , i t c o n s i s t so f a t d e v i c e w h i c h i s s e n s i t i v e o s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n si n s t e a m p r e s ' s u r e . T h i s d e v i c e ,i n t u r n , c o n t r o l s a v a r i e t Yo f r e l a y s a n d w ? c t u a t i n g m e c h a n i s m s h i c h a u t o m a t i c a l l yc o n t r o l t h e f l o w o f f u e l , a i r , a n d w a t e r t o t h e b o i l e r i n a c c c r d a n c ew i t h t h e varying ioadconditions. T h e d i a g r a m a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e s r e h e a t a n d b o t h h i g h- a n d l o w - p r e s s u r et u r b i n e s . A f t e r t h e s t e a m h a s p a s s e dt h r o u g h e the high-pressurturbine, it is returned to the boiler and, a f t e r b e i n g h e a t e d a g a i n ,i t i s d e l i v e r e dt o t h e l o w - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e . A l s o , t h e r e a r e t w o s e t s o f w a t e r n e a t e r s ,t h r e e h l o w - p r e s s u r e e a t e r st a k i n g e x t r s c t i o n s t e a m f r c m t h e l o w h p r e s s u r et u r b i n e , a n d t w o h i g h - p r e s s u r e e a t e r s u s i n g e x u t r a c t i o n f i e a m f r o m t h e h i g h - p r e s s u rte r b i n e . 3 e t w e e n t h e two sets of heaters is a deaerating heater in wh ich the oxygen in the f eedwater is boiled off . Oxygen in boiler i w a t e r a t h i g h p r e s s u r e ss e x t r e m e l y c o r r o s i v ea n d m u s t b e removed before the water is deliveredto the boiler. This i s d o n e b y t h e d e a e r a t i n gh e a t e r w h i c h , i n e i f e c t , i s m e r e l y p a l a r g ei a n k o f w a t e r b o i l i n gu n d e r a t m o s o h e r i c r e s s u r e .
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The necessity for proper feedwater treatm ent has at ready b e e n m e n t i o n e d . O n t h e d i a g r a m , t h e f e e d w a r e rt r e a t i n g s y s . t e m i s m e r e l y i n d i c a t e d . l t c o n s i s t s o f a c h e mi c a l r r e a t i n g system feeding into the plant system through an evaporator. Afl the makeup into the plant sysrem passes hrough the t evaporator. Thus the makeup water (the water which has to b e a d d e d t o t h e s y s t e m c o n t i n u a l l y t o r e p l e n i s hw a r e r l o s t b y f e a k a g ea n d b l o w d o w n l e n t e r s t h e s y s t e m i n t h e f o r m o f v a p o r , w h i c h i s d e l i v e r e d ,? s s h o w n , t o t h e d e a e r a t i n gf e e d w a t e r h e a t e r . l n t h e e v a p o r a t o rt h e i n c o m i n g w a t e r i s h e a t e d by exhaust steam from the boiler feed pump turbine or o t h e r s t e a m d r i v e n a u x i l i a r i e s .A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , a d e m i n e r a l i z e rm a y b e u s e d i n s t e a d o f a n e v a p o r a t o r . Note that the boiler feed pump turbine receives reamfrom s t h e m a i n s t e a m h e a d e rt h r o u g h a r e d u c i n g v a l v e a n d a d e s u p e r h e a t e r . l t i s n o t u s u a l t o u s e s up e r h e a t e d s t e a m f o r s m a l l a u x i l i a r y t u r b i n e sf o r s e v e r a f e a s o n s . i r s t , t h e m e t a l s r F that must be used with superheated steam are very exp e n s i v e ;a n d s e c o n d ,h i g h t h e r m a f e f f i c i e n c y i s n o r s o i m ponant in an auxiliary turbine sincethe heat in the exhaust is returned to the system. lt becomesexpedient,therefore t o f i r s t r e d u c et f r e h i g h - p r e s s u r e t e a m f r o m t h e m a i n s t e a m s s y s t e m t o a l o w e r p r e s s u r eb y m e a n s o f a r e d u c i n g v a l v e and then to dauperhear th e steam by spray ing warer into
POWER ENGIruEERING

i t . I n t h i s w a y , l o w - p r e s s u r es a t u r a t e d s t e a m i s c j e l i v e r e d , to the auxiliary turbines. The diagram shows a symbof labeled ' Because of the continual recycling of the water *fin." t h r o u g h t h e b o i l e r a n d b e c a u s e o f s t i g h t l e a k a g e si n t h e s y s t e m , t h e b o i l e r w a t e r t e n d s t o i n c r e a s ei t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i m p u r i t i e s { c a l e - f o r m i n g s a f t s .T o k e e p t h i s c o n c e n t r a tion to a minimum, it is necessarto blow down the boiler y p e r i o d i c a l l y o r c o n t i n u o u s l y .I n s m a l l p o w e r p l a n r s , t h i s i s done periodically by the operaror by merely opening a b l o w o f f v a l v e f o r a f e w s e c o n d sa n d b l o w i n g o u t t h e w a t e r in the lowest paft of the boifer where the concentration is h i g h e s t . l n l a r g e p l a n t s ,t h e a m o u n t o f h e a t l o s t b y s u c h b l o w d o w n p r a c t i c et e n d s t o b e r a t h e r h i l h , s o c c n r i n u o u s blowdown syflems are used. With such systems a small amount of water is withdrawn continuously and run t h r o u g h a h e a t e x c h a n g e rn w h i c h t h e h e a t f r o m t n e b l o w i d o w n i s t r a n s f e r r e dt o t h e i n c o m i n g f e e d w a t e r . T h e s e a r e s o m e o f t h e t h o u s a n da n d o n e d e t a i l so f a m o d e r n p o w e r p l a n t t h a t m a k e i t t h e c o m p fe x t h i n g i t i s . l t i s n o t t h e i n t e n t h e r e t o c o n s i d e r a fl t h e s e d e t ai l s b u t m e r e l y t o point out that they exist.Little has been saidabout control e x c e p t b r i e f m e n t i o n o f t h e c o m b u s t i o n c o n t r o f. T h e t a t t e r ,

15

h o w e v e r . o n s : i t u t eo n l y o n e e l e m e n to f t h e s t a i i o nc o n ' c s a t r o l a s a w h o i e .T o d a y ,m o s t p o w e rs i a t i o n s r ec o n t r o l l e d q s e f r o m a s i n - o ic c n t r o lr o o mw h e r e u a n t i t i e f r o r na l l p a r t so f a r i, t h e p l a n t a r er r e a s u r e dn d i c a t e d ,e c o r d e d n d ' i n t e g r a t e d . g T h e m o c i e r ng e n e r a t i n s i a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m ' i; m s p l e t e l y a u t o m a t e d y s t e m s a n h a s c j e v i s e dt h a s t o b e becauseit w,ouldbe virtually impossiblefor operatorsto conirol all the varyingquantitiesin' watch and ac3urately o v o l v e di n t h e c c e r a t i o n f t h e p l a n t .I n d e e di,t h a sb e c o m e e t i m p o s s i b l eo k e e pt r a c k o f a l l t h e p r e s s u r ets . m p e r a t u r e s . w o a l i q u i d l e v e l s n d s p e e d s f a l l t h e v a r i o u sm a c h i n e s i t h ' o u t s o m e t v p e o f a u t o m a t i cm o n i t o r i n go r s u o e r v i s o r y of all and announcing the huncireds system for recording i t e m si n v o l v e i . of The oroteciivefeatures the station are complexand inv o l v e d . l n c a s eo f t r o u b l e d u e t o f a i l u r e o f a p i e c e o f fault on the externalelectrical apparatusor an electrical rapidly. lf the load on a largegen' system,eventshappen failed erator suddenlvdroppedand the turbine governors normallyrotating at 3600 rpm, would to act, the macnine, from cen' and would explocje its suddenly increase speecj just a few seconds. The 40-ton rotor trifugal force within generator spinningat 3600 rpm has a of a modern eiectric rotational energy of 650 million foot'pounds. This is approximateiythe same kinetic energy that a 40'ton jet o a i r l i n e rw o u l i h a v ea t a s p e e d f 5 0 0 m i l e sp e r h o u r . O n supplv faiied, the boiler, side, if the feecjwater the boiler o p r o d u c i n gs a y ,a m i l l i o np o u n d s f s t e a mp e rh o u r ,w o u l d , run drv in 90 seconos. typesof equipmentare valuedin terms Since thesevarious of millions or dollars, it is obvious that every possible measuremusi be taken to insuretheir protection.There not which measure only the speed are complex insiruments to of a turbo-oenerator a iraction of a revolution'but also and the vibration charac' the degreeof shan eccentricity indicatorshowsthe An machine. expansion teristicsof the e x p a n s i o o f t h e t u r b i n ec a s i n g . n axial showsthe generaiorsomewhatdiffer' The large ciia-oram hereit is shownsymbolically' ently than the earlydiagrams; which, so far, with an exciter,a device Also. it is associated lu has not been mentioned. purposeis to supgly the magnetizingcurrentfor the rotatingmagnet. the rotating magnet is not ln an actual electricgenerator permanentmagnetsuch as is indicated in the simply a magnet would not provide A earlier diagrams. permanent is field,so an electromagnet used. magnetic a strongenough is An elec:rornagnet magnetizedby electricity flowing through coils wound around the magnet structure.In the generator verYpowerful direct current is a caseof a lar-oe sent through the coils on the rotor. Thesewindings are known as the field coils,sincethey producethe magnetic field in the generator. to To supply the field coilswith current makesit necessary provide an arrangement slidingcontactsto conciuctthe of current from the stationarvto the rotating pan of the to necessary providea separate machine.Also, it becomes t excite hefieldcoils. source f currento o B a s i c a l l yh e r e i s h o w i t i s d o n e ,t h o u g h i n a n a c t u a lg e n ' , erator the shapeof the rotor is quite different from the t s i m p l eb a r m a g n es h o w ni n t h i sd i a g r a m . Two collector rings are mounted on the main generator shaft as shovrn.Theserings are connectedto the ends of
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b t h e f i e l d w i n c j i n g . S t a t i o n a r y r u s h e sm o u n t e d o n t h e c o l ' lector ringsconduct the exciting current f rom the source to o the wincjings n the rotatingmember of the generator. The direct current needed to excite the fieid winding is t s u s u a l l y s u p p i i e db y a s e p a r a t e m a l l d i r e c t - c u r r e n g e n e r a t o r mounteC on the sameshaft as the main rotor- Such a small i d - c a e n e r a t o ri s c a l l e d t h e e x c i t e r b e c a u s e t f u r n i s h e s t h e e x c i t a t i o n c u r r e n tf o r t h e m a i n g e n e r a t o r . T h e e x c i t e r c i r c ui t a l s o p r o v i d e sa m e a n so f c on t r o l l i n g t h e v o l t a g e o f t h e m a i n g e n e r a t o r .t s y v a r y i n g t h e e x c i t a t i o n current bV means of the field rheostat,the voltage of the generator can be controlled between normal operating l i m i t s . T h e s p e e d o f t h e g e n e r a i o r , h o w e v e r ,i s c o n t r o l l e d by the steam-turbinegovernor and this control is ex' c e e d i n g l yc l o s e . t n f a c t , t h e g e n e r a t o rs p e e d i s s o c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d t h a t i t s e r v e sa s o u r t i m e s t a n d a r d . M o s t o f u s t h e s ed a y s m e a s u r e o u r t i m e D V m e a n s o f s y n c h r o n o u se l e c t r i c c l o c k s . T h e s e c l o c k s c i e c e n du p o n t h e c o n s t a n i s p e e d o f t h e g e n e r a t o r . Means are provided to check this speed in relation to a c c u r a t e i n c j e p e n d e n tc l o c k s a t t h e N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f t S t a n d a r c i s T e m p e r a t u r e r e c o r d e r sm e a s u r e h e t e m p e r a t u r e . deep in the interiors of the windings of the generator; differentiaf relays guard against internal electrical fa ilure o f t h e m a c h i n e . E l a b o r a t e h y d r o g e n c o o l i n g s Y s t e m sa r e p r o v i d e d t o r e m o v e h e a t f r o m t h e g e n e r a t o ra n d , b y m e a n s s o f h y d r o g e n c o o l e r s i n t h e c o n c j e n s a t e y s t e m ,t h i s h e a t i s returned to the feedwater. No heat is lost that possibly can b e s a v e d .E v e nt h e h e a t p r o d u c e d i n t h e b e a r i n g si s r e t u r n e d to the feedwater by means of the oil coolers in the con' d e n s a t es y s t e m . F r o m a f l t h i s , i t s h o u l d b e c l e a rt h a t a m o d e r n p o w e r p l a n t e n g i n e e rh a st o b e a s p e c i a l i s to f a v e r y h i g h o r d e r . A l t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m o p e r a t e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y , i t s t i l l n e e d s t h e g ui d ' w a n c e o f e n g i n e e r s h o a r e t h o r o u g h l y c o n v e r s a n tn o t o n l y w i t h d e t ai l s o f t h e e g ui p m e n t b u t w i t h t h e b a s i cp r i n c i p l e s i u p o n w h i c n i t o p e r a t e s .P o w e r e n g i n e e r i n g s a f i e i d c a l fi n g t f o r t h e h i g h e s te n g i n e e r i n g a l e n t i n b o t h d e s i g na n d o p e r a t i o n . l t p r o v i d e sa n o c c u p a t i o n t h a t i s a t o n c e s t i m u l a t i n g , a n d c h a l l e n g i n ga n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a f f o r d s s t e a d y e m ployment in a rapidly growing field with practically unlimited opportunity. A l s o , d e s p i t et h i s r a t h e r l o n g t r e a t i s eo n p o w e r p l a n t d e s i g n s a n d o p e r a t i o n ,i t s h o u l d b e o b v i o u st h a t i t i s , b a s i c a l l y , t i l l onfy aprimer. END
POWER ENGINEERING