POWER GENERATION SYSTEM THROUGH FOOT STEPS

By, D. Anuroop Reddy ID No: 08H51A0210

Abstract
Power Generation through footsteps is a very useful system because nowadays the power demand creating much more problems in industries and home applications. In this thesis we are constructing an Electrical system to generate power by simply walking or running on the foot step and this system is basically Non Conventional energy system. Nonconventional energy system is very essential at this time to our nation. Here the force energy produced from foots of human Beings is converted in to electrical energy. And the control mechanism carries the rack & pinion, D.C generator, battery and inverter control. We have discussed the various applications and further extension also. The D.C generator used in this project is Permanente Magnet D.C generator. The Generator is coupled to the Ply wheel Shaft with the help of Spur Gear Mechanism. The Output of the generator is 12 Volts. This 12 Volt is stored in a 7 Amp-Hour Battery. The battery type is Lead-Acid battery. The battery is connected to the inverter which is used to convert the D.C 12 Volt to the 230 Volt A.C. By increasing the capacity of battery and inverter circuit, the power rating is increased.

Contents
1. Introduction 1.1 Block Diagram 2. Inside View of Electrical Power Generating System

2.1 Foot Step Arrangement Springs 2.2.1 Silicon etched probe can used as springs 2.3 Sprocket 2.4 Rack & Pinion 2.5 Chain Drive System 2.6 Gear Wheel 2.7 Flywheel 2.8 Permanent Magnet DC Generator 2.9 Lead acid battery 2.10 Inverter
2.10.1 Circuit of 12V DC to 120/230V AC Inverter with IC 555 2.11 Field Controller 2.12 Types of Loads 3. Advantages and Disadvantages

2.2

3.1

Advantages 3.2 Disadvantages

1. Introduction
Walking is the most common activity in day to day life. When a person walks, he loses energy to the road surface in the form of impact, vibration, sound etc, due to the transfer of his weight on to the road surface, through foot falls on the ground during every step and this type of energy is Non Conventional. This energy can be tapped and converted in the usable form such as in electrical form by constructing an Electrical Power Generating System. 1.1 Block Diagram

The constructed electrical power generating system mainly consists of:

Foot Step Arrangement Rack , Pinion and Chain Sprocket Arrangement DC Generator Inverter Loads like light, TV, PC, Radio etc.,

2. Inside View of Electrical Power Generating System

2.1 Foot Step Arrangement

The material use for foot step arrangement should be of light weight so that springs can move perfectly in upward and downward direction during its motion and the floor should be well balanced.

2.2 Springs
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are usually made out of spring steel. Small springs can be wound from pre-hardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. According to Hooke's law of elasticity the extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load applied to it. So when a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it exerts is proportional to its change in length.

Where x is the displacement of the spring's end from its equilibrium position (a distance, in SI units: meters); F is the restoring force exerted by the spring on that end (in SI units: N or kg-m/s2); and k is a constant called the rate or spring constant (in SI units: N/m or kg/s2).

To determine this quantitative relationship between the amount of force and the amount of stretch, objects of known mass could be attached to the spring. For each object which is added, the amount of stretch could be measured. The force which is applied in each instance would be the weight of the object. A regression analysis of the force-stretch data could be performed in order to determine the quantitative relationship between the force and the amount of stretch. The data table below shows some representative data for such an experiment.

Mass (kg) 0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.400 0.500

Force on Spring Amount of (N) Stretch (m) 0.000 0.490 0.980 1.470 1.960 2.450 2.940 3.920 4.900 0.0000 0.0021 0.0040 0.0063 0.0081 0.0099 0.0123 0.0160 0.0199

The equation for this line is

Stretch = 0.00406Force + 3.43x10-5 (m) So if we take the average weight of the person walking on the step is 50-80 kg then the force is in between 490N and 588N. Then the extension / stretch of spring is between 1.989m and 3.183m Let us assume maximum and minimum weight applied on the springs is 30 and 110 kg. Then the stretch should be between 1.193 and 4.376. So the average spring constant is 29.00232/m and the range of spring constant should be between 15.082 and 25.137 Note: The spring constant k, is a function of the spring's dimension and material property. It is

expressed as:
Where G: modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) d: diameter of spring wires D: diameter of spring coil n: number of active coils (see below) The spring displacement then becomes:

Cantilever 15 Series 16 Series

Resonant Frequency, kHz min 265 150 typical 325 170 max 400 190

Spring Constant, N/m

Min 20 25

typical 40 40

max 75 60

2.2.1 Silicon etched probe can used as springs

Silicon etched probe tip of the NSC/CSC series has a conical shape. Typical probe tip radius=10 nm

SEM image of uncoated silicon SPM

SPM probe tip

SEM micrograph of Silicon etched probe tip end

Schematic drawing of the probe chip. Cantilever and probe

Full tip cone angle*=40 Tip aspect ratio more than 3:1 (4:1 typical) Total tip height 20-25 m Probe material n-type silicon (phosphorus doped) Probe bulk resistivity**0.01-0.05 Ohm*cm *The full cone angle may be less than 40 at the last 200 nm of the tip end. **The surface of Silicon has a native oxide layer that makes the probe non-conducting. The thickness of the native oxide film is 1-4 nm.

2.3 Sprocket
Each of several projections on the rim of a wheel that engage with the links of a chain or with holes in film, tape or paper is called as Sprocket. Example:

2.4

Rack & Pinion

Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation into linear motion or linear motion into rotation. The rack is the flat toothed part and the pinion is the gear. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns.

Ft = Transmitted force, Fn = Normal force, Fr = Resultant force = pressure angle, Fn = Ft tan , Fr = Ft/Cos

Power (W)& Torque (Nm): Assuming rotational losses as zero

N =Speed in rpm, g= 9.8 m/s, K= Spring Constant, x= displacement of the spring

2.5 Chain Drive System

The chain drive system uses a continuous roller chain with support track and idler sprockets. The roller shafts are fitted with sprockets, which engage the drive chain. Chain drive is usually used in very oily applications, dirty conditions, and in extreme temperature conditions. A chain is made up of a series of links with the links held together with steel pins. This arranges makes a chain a strong, long lasting way of transmitting rotary motion from one gear wheel to another. Chain drive has one main advantage over a traditional gear train. Only two gear wheels and a chain are needed to transmit rotary motion over a distance. With a traditional gear train, many gears must be arranged meshing with each other in order to transmit motion. When working out gear / velocity ratio and the rpm of chain driven gears it must be remembered that the chain is ignored. This means the you simply find out the teeth per gear wheel and the rpm and use the same method of calculating as you would with a normal, meshing gear system (see gear work sheets)

Note: The following formulae can be used in the design and selection of chain belt drive

2.6

Gear Wheel
A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear; however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple relationship. As the velocities v of the points of contact of the two pitch circles are the same, therefore

Where input gear GA has radius rA and angular velocity, and meshes with output gear GB of radius rB and angular velocity. r 1/n 2.7

Flywheel

A flywheel is a mechanical battery (a mechanical means of storing energy - simply a mass rotating about an axis).
Overview

Flywheels store energy mechanically in the form of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is energy of motion. The kinetic energy of an object is the energy it possesses because of its motion. As energy is transferred into a flywheel, as it spins, it builds up kinetic energy that can be released when necessary. The flywheel has been used since ancient times, the most common traditional example being the potter's wheel. In the Industrial Revolution, James Watt contributed to the

development of the flywheel in the steam engine, and his contemporary James Pickard used a flywheel combined with a crank to transform reciprocating into rotary motion. A flywheel is a heavy rotating disk used as a storage device for kinetic energy. They come as an alternative energy storage device. Flywheels resist changes in their rotational speed, which helps steady the rotation of the shaft when an uneven torque is exerted on it by its power source such as a piston-based, (reciprocating) engine, or when the load placed on it is intermittent (such as a pistonbased pump). Flywheels can also be used by small motors to store up energy over a long period of time and then release it over a shorter period of time, temporarily magnifying its power output for that brief period. Recently, flywheels have become the subject of extensive research as power storage devices; see flywheel energy storage.

How They Function

Like a wound up rubber band, a flywheel stores energy. When the energy is neeeded, the flywheel slows down its rotation and releases the stored energy. A momentum wheel is a type of flywheel useful in satellite pointing operations, in which the flywheels are used to point the satellite's instruments in the correct directions without the use of thrusters. The kinetic energy stored in a rotating flywheel is

Where is the moment of inertia of the mass about the center of rotation and (omega) is the angular velocity in radian units. A flywheel is more effective when its inertia is larger, as when its mass is located farther from the center of rotation either due to a more massive rim or due to a larger diameter. Note the similarity of the above formula to the kinetic energy formula , where linear velocity mass is comparable to the rotational inertia. is comparable to the rotational velocity, and the

Flywheels can take an electrical input to accelerate the rotor up to speed by using the built-in motor, and return the electrical energy by using this same motor as a generator. Flywheels are one of the oldest and most common mechanical devises in existence. They may still prove to serve us as an important component on tomorrow's vehicles and future energy needs. Flywheels are one of

the most promising technologies for replacing conventional lead acid batteries as energy storage systems for a variety of applications, including automobiles, economical rural electrification systems, and stand-alone, remote power units commonly used in the telecommunications industry. Recent advances in the mechanical properties of composites have rekindled interest in using the inertia of a spinning wheel to store energy. In addition to energy density, flywheel energy storage systems (FES) also offer several important advantages over chemical energy storage. The rate at which energy can be exchanged into or out of the battery is limited only by the motor--generator design. Therefore, it is possible to withdraw large amounts of energy in a far shorter time than with traditional chemical batteries. Indeed, research into exploiting this property of FES systems to get short, intense bursts of energy is ongoing with the most notable projects being a magnetic tank gun and a fusion ignition system. Of course it is also possible to quickly charge FES batteries making them desirable for application in electric cars where the charge time could be dropped from a matter of hours to a matter of minutes.
Advantages

Flywheels store energy very efficiently (high turn-around efficiency) and have the potential for very high specific power compared with batteries. Flywheels have very high output potential and relatively long life. Flywheels are relatively unaffected by ambient temperature extremes.
Disadvantages

Current flywheels have low specific energy. There are safety concerns associated with flywheels due to their high speed rotor and the possibility of it breaking loose and releasing all of it's energy in an uncontrolled manner. There are losses in converting electrical energy to mechanical and back to electrical. Flywheels are a less mature technology than chemical batteries, and the current cost is too high to make them competitive in the market.
2.8

Permanent Magnet DC Generator

A basic DC generator has four basic parts: Magnetic field Single conductor, or loop Commutator and Brushes The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent magnet. A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles. As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop. When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the flux lines are cut, as given in equation. The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.

E g=KN Where E g= generated voltage K = fixed constant = magnetic flux strength N= speed in RPM The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the "left-hand rule" for generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the direction of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow. In the generator shown in Figure, for example, the conductor closest to the N pole is traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner. Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a counter-clockwise direction in the loop.

Left-Hand Rule for Generator

Commutator Action: The commutator converts the AC voltage generated in the rotating loop into a DC voltage. It also serves as a means of connecting the brushes to the rotating loop. The purpose of the brushes is to connect the generated voltage to an external circuit. In order to do this, each brush must make contact with one of the ends of the loop. Since the loop or armature rotates, a direct connection is impractical. Instead, the brushes are connected to the ends of the loop through the commutator. In a simple one-loop generator, the commutator is made up of two semi cylindrical pieces of a smooth conducting material, usually copper, separated by an insulating material, as shown in Figure. Each half of the commutator segments is permanently attached to one end of the rotating loop, and the commutator rotates with the loop.

Commutator Segments and Brushes

The brushes, usually made of carbon, rest against the commutator and slide along the commutator as it rotates. This is the means by which the brushes make contact with each end of the loop. Each brush slides along one half of the commutator and then along the other half. The brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they will pass from one commutator half to the other at the instant the loop reaches the point of rotation, at which point the voltage that was induced reverses the polarity. Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one commutator segment to the next. This means that one brush is always positive with respect to another. The voltage between the brushes fluctuates in amplitude (size or magnitude) between zero and some maximum value, but is always of the same polarity. In this manner, commutation is accomplished in a DC generator. One important point to note is that, as the brushes pass from one segment to the other, there is one important point to note is that, as the brushes pass from one segment to the other, there is an instant when the brushes contact both segments at the same time. The induced voltage at this point is zero. If the induced voltage at this point is not zero, then extremely

high currents would be produced due to the brushes shorting the ends of the loop together. The point at which the brushes contact both commutator segments, when the induced voltage is zero, is called the "Neutral plane"

Commutation in a DC Generator

Field Excitation: The magnetic fields in DC generators are most commonly provided by electromagnets. A current must flow through the electromagnet conductors to produce a magnetic field. In order for a DC generator to operate properly, the magnetic field must always be in the same direction. Therefore, the current through the field winding must be direct current. This current is known as the field excitation current and can be supplied to the field winding in one of two ways. It can come from a separate DC source external to the generator (e.g., a separately excited generator) or it can come directly from the output of the generator, in which case it is called a Self-excited generator. In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to the generator output. The field may be connected in series with the output, in parallel with the output, or a combination of the two. Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or another DC source. It is generally more expensive than a self-excited generator. Separately excited generators are, therefore, used only where self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases where the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or where the generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during normal operations. But in this case the separately excited DC generator is used because the controller design is simple.

Terminal Voltage: DC generator output voltage is dependent on three factors: (1) The number of conductor loops in series in the armature (2) Armature speed and (3) Magnetic field strength. In order to change the generator output, one of these three factors must be varied. The number of conductors in the armature cannot be changed in a normally operating generator, and it is usually impractical to change the speed at which the armature rotates. The strength of the magnetic field, however, can be changed quite easily by varying the current through the field winding. This is output voltage of a DC generator.

Varying Generator Terminal Voltage

DC Generator Ratings: A DC generator contains four ratings.

Voltage: Voltage rating of a machine is based on the insulation type and design of the machine. Current: The current rating is based on the size of the conductor and the amount of heat that can be dissipated in the generator. Power: The power rating is based on the mechanical limitations of the device that is used to turn the generator and on the thermal limits of conductors, bearings, and other components of the generator. Speed: Speed rating, at the upper limit, is determined by the speed at which mechanical damage is done to the machine. The lower speed rating is based on the limit for field current (as speed increases, a higher field current is necessary to produce the same voltage).

Internal Losses:
There are four internal losses that contribute to lower efficiency of a DC generator.

Copper losses Eddy-current losses Hysteresis losses Mechanical losses

Each of these is described in the paragraphs that follow.

Copper Losses

Copper loss is the power lost as heat in the windings; it is caused by the flow of current through the coils of the DC armature or DC field. This loss varies directly with the square of the current in the armature or field and the resistance of the armature or field coils. Armature: Ia Ra Field: If Rf
Eddy-Current Losses

As the armature rotates within the field, it cuts the lines of flux at the same time that the copper coils of wire that are wound on the armature cut the lines of flux. Since the armature is made of iron, an EMF is induced in the iron, which causes a current to flow. These circulating currents within the iron core are called eddy-currents. To reduce eddy-currents, the armature and field cores are constructed from laminated (layered) steel sheets. The laminated sheets are insulated from one another so that current cannot flow from one sheet to the other.
Hysteresis Losses

Hysteresis losses occur when the armature rotates in a magnetic field. The magnetic domains of the armature are held in alignment with the field in varying numbers, dependent upon field strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the particles not held in alignment, by one complete turn during each rotation of the armature. This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat. The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss. To reduce hysteresis losses, most DC armatures are constructed of heat-treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss. After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low value.
Mechanical Losses

Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the commutator, or air friction (called windage), which is caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation. Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing friction. Brush friction is reduced by assuring proper brush seating, using proper brushes, and maintaining proper brush tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction.

2.9Lead Acid Battery

Lead-acid batteries store energy using a reversible chemical reaction between lead plates and dilute sulphuric acid (electrolyte). There are three basic types of lead acid battery - starter batteries: used to start engines in cars etc, deep-cycle batteries: used in renewable energy applications and camping etc, and marine batteries: used both for starting and for deep cycle applications. Different Types of Lead Acid Battery: Starter batteries have many thin lead plates which enable them to discharge a lot of energy very quickly - i.e. to start a vehicle. However, if a starter battery is discharged deeply (more than 20-25% depth of charge), its plates can be permanently damaged and the lifetime of the battery greatly reduced. Deep cycle batteries have fewer thicker lead plates, and so cannot discharge energy so quickly, but can be cycled deeply and recharged many times without damaging the battery. Deep cycle batteries are designed to provide a steady current over a long period of time. Batteries and Renewable Energy: In renewable energy systems multiple batteries are usually connected together to make a battery bank. Click here to find out the correct way to connect batteries into a battery bank. Ideally a deep cycle battery should not be discharged below 40% charge, and should be kept fully charged whenever possible in order to maximize its useful lifetime. When selecting a battery (or battery bank) for a renewable system, this should be considered. Inside a Lead Acid Battery: A 12 volt lead acid battery is actually made up of six identical 2 volt cells. Each cell contains lead plates of different compositions sitting in dilute sulphuric acid. Lead dioxide plates (linked to the positive terminal of the battery) react with the acid to form lead sulphate giving up electrons (leaving the plate positive). The pure lead plates (linked to the negative terminal of the battery) react with the sulphate ions to also form lead sulphate. The pure lead plates therefore supply two positive charges and so are left negative. The passage of electrons from the lead oxide plates to the pure lead plates is the current of electricity generated by the cell which can be used. When the battery is recharged, the lead sulphate in each cell is broken down resulting in lead dioxide being redeposited on the positive electrode, and lead being
replaced on the negative electrode.

When batteries are frequently deeply discharged then sulphation build up occurs. Sulphur molecules from the battery acid (electrolyte) start to coat the lead of the plates. Once the lead is coverered in sulphur the battery is dead and cannot be recharged. Sulphation starts occuring once the charge of a starting battery descends below 75%. Therefore lead acid batteries must be looked after well if they are to remain useable for a long time. Click here to read our article on battery desulphation - a method to bring dead batteries back to life.
2.9.1 Lead Acid Battery Charger Using Max773 IC

This battery charger circuit uses a flyback converter topology, and implements a currentlimited power supply to charge lead-acid batteries. Here is the schematic diagram of the charger circuit:

The flyback transformer provide isolation and voltage input range flexibility, event at supply voltage lower that the battery voltage. Monitoring the charging current is done by sensing the output using MAX471 current sense amplifier. The result of the output current monitoring is then used to give a feedback to a threshold detector, to detect if the value falls below the predetermined

threshold. This detection is used to switch the charger into trickle mode, when a lower voltage is applied for lower charging current.

2.10 Inverter
An inverter is a power electronic device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are usually used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. It will be useful for emergency electric source
2.10.1 Circuit of 12V DC to 120/230V AC Inverter with IC 555

This is a DC-to-AC inverter circuit diagram which produces an AC output at line frequency and voltage. The 555 is configured as a low-frequency oscillator, tunable over the frequency range of 50 to 60 Hz by Frequency potentiometer R4.

Parts List: R1_________ 10K R2_________ 100K R3_________ 100 ohm R4_________ 50K pot meter, Linear C1,C2______ 0.1uF C3_________ 0.01uF C4_________ 2700uF Q1_________ TIP41A, NPN, or equivalent Q2_________ TIP42A, PNP, or equivalent L1_________ 1uH T1_________ Filament transformer, your choice

The 555 feeds its output (amplified by Q1 and Q2) to the input of transformer T1, a reverseconnected filament transformer with the necessary step-up turns ratio. Capacitor C4 and coil L1 filter the input to T1, assuring that it is effectively a sine wave. Adjust the value of T1 to your voltage.

2.11 Field Controller

Here the 1-3 transformer is used to convert the single phase supply to three phase supply and this is converted almost to a Square Wave varying from +V to V using a Phase controlled 3-3 Cycloconverter. So the square wave obtained is used for exciting the field windings to get the flux in one direction for positive half cycle and opposite direction to the before during negative cycle. One thing which should be necessary is frequency of square wave is equal to the twice of the input sinusoidal wave which is the output inverter.

2.12 Types of Loads

All the household usage electrical devices, machines can be used as loads. For example

TV, Personal Computers, Lights, Radio.

3. Advantages and Disadvantages

3.1 ADVANTAGES Power generation is simply walking on the step Power also generated by running or exercising on the step No need fuel input Battery is used to store the generated power 3.2 DISADVANTAGES

Only applicable for the particular place. Mechanical moving parts is high Initial cost of this arrangement is high. Care should be taken for batteries