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Bio 207 - Lecture 9

Animal matter and energy acquisition, digestion and absorption
Nov. 1517, 2011

Lecture 8 -- Review -- Animal Matter

and Energy and Nutrition -- Benchmarks
Describe the types of life along the energy chain and in nutrient cycle List the principal macronutrients and explain how they contribute to organismic function Compare and contrast the wheres and hows of photosynthesis and cellular respiration Understand the pros and cons of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Explain the roles of several micronutrients in metabolism and describe the effects of their overdoses and deciencies

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Why do organisms need food ?

For growth and reproduction To provide energy (ATP) for
Synthesis of complex molecules
Fats, proteins, glycogen, etc.

Cell motility
Cell division Muscle movement Etc.

Active transport
Molecular pumps
(e.g. Na+/K+ pump)

For metabolic machinery and body repair

Cellular respiration in eurkaryotes

Glycolysis Krebs (citric acid) cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O + 38 ADP***+ 38 P <--> 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + 38*** ATP

***: maximum

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What if oxygen is not available to accept the electrons?

Without O2, pathway to Citric acid cycle is blocked

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Whats nice about anerobic glycolysis? Presence of O is not needed Can produce ATP very quickly, but.

Figure 7.3 Anaerobic glycolysis

The problem with anaerobic glycolysis O not present to accept electrons |NAD| and |FAD| are limited, must be regenerated Lactic acid must be produced to do this But, |lactic acid| correlated with fatigue

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How lactic acid is metabolized when O2 is available

Four main methods of ATP production

Aerobic respiration (using O from air) Anaerobic glycolyis Phosphate stores Aerobic respiration (using O stored in body -e.g. in myoglobin of muscles)

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Figure 7.6 The fueling of intense, sustained muscular work in humans

All of these use aerobic respiration !!

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Figure 7.9 The mechanisms of meeting the ATP costs of world-class competitive running

1 hour

Lecture 8 -- Review -- Animal Matter

and Energy and Nutrition -- Benchmarks
Describe the types of life along the energy chain and in nutrient cycle List the principal macronutrients and explain how they contribute to organismic function Compare and contrast the wheres and hows of photosynthesis and cellular respiration Understand the pros and cons of aerobic and anaerobic respiration Explain the roles of several micronutrients in metabolism and describe the effects of their overdoses and deficiencies

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What are essential nutrients?

Macronutrients
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats
For energy, cell structures, metabolic machinery

Micronutrients
Macroelements
Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, S needed for structural components of body/cells (4% body elements)

Trace elements (<0.1%)

E.g. Fe, Z, Cu,

Vitamins
Small amounts to perform specific functions e.g. cofactors

Minerals

Top 5 elements in human body Second top 5 elements in human body

Trace elements

Toxic elements (many not shown)

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Stoichiometry of the human body

HOCNCaP SNaKClMgSiFeZn Cu IFCrSeMoCo

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)

Minerals recommended daily intake

Calcium 1000 mg/day Chloride 2300 mg/day Chromium 35 mcg/day Copper 900 mcg/day Fluoride 4 mg/day Iodine 150 mcg/day Iron 8 mg/day Magnesium 400 mg/day Manganese 2.3 mg/day Molybdenum 45 mcg/day Phosphorus 700 mg/day Potassium 4700 mg/day Selenium 55 mcg/day Sodium 1500 mg/day Zinc 11 mg/day

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Minerals recommended daily intake

Calcium 1000 mg/day Chloride 2300 mg/day Chromium 35 mcg/day Copper 900 mcg/day Fluoride 4 mg/day Iodine 150 mcg/day Iron 8 mg/day Magnesium 400 mg/day Manganese 2.3 mg/day Molybdenum 45 mcg/day Phosphorus 700 mg/day Potassium 4700 mg/day Selenium 55 mcg/day Sodium 1500 mg/day Zinc 11 mg/day

Functions of Minerals

Important for the nervous system! Calcium (Ca) Cell signaling (e.g. synaptic transmission, muscle activation Sodium (Na) osmolyte, membrane potential Potassium (K) osmolyte, membrane potential Chloride (Cl) osmolyte, membrane potential

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Minerals recommended daily intake

Heme

Calcium 1000 mg/day Chloride 2300 mg/day Chromium 35 mcg/day Copper 900 mcg/day Fluoride 4 mg/day Iodine 150 mcg/day Iron 8 mg/day Magnesium 400 mg/day Manganese 2.3 mg/day Molybdenum 45 mcg/day Phosphorus 700 mg/day Potassium 4700 mg/day Selenium 55 mcg/day Sodium 1500 mg/day Zinc 11 mg/day

ATP

Functions of Trace elements

Some other examples.

Copper (Cu) (900 mcg/day)-- in cytochrome oxidase last protein in mitochondrial electron transport chain Cu functions as site of redox reaction (electron transfer) Zinc (Zn) (11 mg/day) -- active site of carbonic anhydrase Fluorine (F) (4 mg/day)-- needed for mineralization of teeth and bone Iodine (I) (150 mcg/day)-- part of thyroid hormone

goiter

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Organic molecules not made by animal, but required in small amounts to perform specific functions. B12, K made by microorganisms in gut Animal dependent E.g Vitamin C made by most animals. Thus, it is not a vitamin for them Do not yield usable energy when broken down. Often cofactors or coenzymes -- Assist enzymatic function. Very little known about the vitamins needed in invertebrates, most known about mammals E.g. Cholesterol is a vitamin for insects

Vitamins

Kazimierz Funk (1884-1967)

Vitamins water and fat soluble

Thiamin (B1)
Riboflavin (B2) Niacin (B3) Pantothenic Acid (B5) Pyridoxine (B6) Biotin (B7) Folic Acid (B9) Cobalamin (B12) Ascorbic Acid (C)

Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K

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Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

Absorbed from gut with fat (requires bile salt) Absorbed into lymphatic system Requires protein carriers in blood Stored in fat Generally causes problems due to toxicity (overabundance) rather than deficiency

Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin
A:vision- cornea Immunity Bone and skin Epithelial cells Antioxidant

Deficiency
Infections Night-blindness Keratinization

Toxicity
Bone abnormalities hair loss birth defects Ca stones Abnormal keratinization Interferes with blood clottinghemorrhage Jaundice, brain damage, rbc damage (rare)

Source
Animal fats Green and yellow fruit & veg

D: GI calcium Rickets, absorption, bone osteomalacia mineralization, cell differentiatn E:antioxidant Stabilizes membranes RBC hemolysis

Sunshine Animal fats

Veg oils

K: clotting and Hemorrhage bone proteins reg blood Ca

GI bacteria. Green leafy veg

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Water-soluble vitamins (B, C)

Cannot be stored in body
Need regular supply

Destroyed by prolonged cooking Absorbed directly into blood

Circulate freely in blood. Filtered out at kidneys.

Important in energy utilization, collagen, blood and as antioxidants

Water-soluble vitamins
Vitamin
C: synthesis carnitine

Deficiency

Excess

Food sources Fruit and veg (potato, citrus) Grains, milk meat

collagen, hormones, anti ox neurotransmitters,

B3: coenzymes energy metabolism, glycolysis, Krebs B9: folate DNA and

Scurvy (bleeding Diarrhea gums, joint pain GI

Neurological, fatigue, wasting

none

Macro Anaemia protein synthesis, cell Neurological growth Birth defects

B12: new cell formation, Macrocytic coenzyme, nerve cell fn, Anaemia blood cell formn. Neurological

Masks B12 Legumes, deficiency fortified grain Animal products

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What are essential nutrients?

Macronutrients
Carbohydrates (?), proteins, fats
For energy, cell structures, metabolic machinery

Micronutrients
Vitamins
Small amounts to perform specific functions e.g. cofactors

Macroelements
Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, S needed for structural components of body/cells (4% body elements)

Trace elements (<0.1%)

E.g. Fe, Z, Cu,

What makes for good nutrition?

Balance of carbs/proteins/fats (%)
USDA: 50 / 20 / 30 Zone: 40 / 30 /30

Fiber
Difficult to digest components of plants Aid in maintaining regular bowel movements Can be broken down (fermented) in large intestine by bacteria
Produces short-chain fatty acids Helps stabilize, maintain proper blood glucose, cholesterol levels Stimulates immune system Good for gut tissue (colon cancer prevention?) Etc!

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What makes for good nutrition?

Phytonutrients (Phytochemicals)
Biologically active components of plants that are not considered to be essential for human health, but are likely to be beneficial to human health

Possible benefits
Immune system Antibacterial, antiviral Reduces inflammatory responses Antioxidants May help prevent cancer, cardiovascular disease

Lec. 9 Animal Matter & Energy Acquisition, Digestion, Absorption -- Benchmarks

List some of the ways that animals catch and acquire food Describe the roles of the main organs involved in digestion Note some of the ways that digestive systems can vary from vertebrate to vertebrate Explain how each major macronutrient is processed by the digestive system, and this processing is influenced by hormones Describe the major mechanisms involved in absorbing nutrients across the gut

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How do I eat thee?

Let me count the ways
How many ways are there to get lunch?
Probably more than there are choices at McDonalds

What kinds of different feeding mechanisms can you think of? Examples???

Simple ways to eat

Endocytosis

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Simple ways to eat Absorption through body wall

E.g. tapeworms and other endoparasites

Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm)

Dennis Kunkel.

Food processing in the stomach of a clam

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Mechanical methods of feeding

Fluids (nectar/blood suckers/milk)
E.g. aphids, hummingbirds, mammals/birds/parasites young

mucus traps)

Small particles (filter feeders/ cilia/

amoeba, mussels, whales, flamingos

Large particles (capture and swallow prey/graze plants/wood borers/ scrapers) snakes, birds, deer, termites

Feasting on small particles

Whales, sharks, some fishes, and flamingos are filter feeders

Gill rakers

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Short food chains deplete energy less than long food chains do

Feasting on large particles

Animals that chomp and chew

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Animal Matter & Energy -- Digestion

Benchmarks
List some of the ways that animals catch and acquire food Describe the roles of the main organs involved in digestion Note some of the ways that digestive systems can vary from vertebrate to vertebrate Explain how each major macronutrient is processed by the digestive system, and this processing is influenced by hormones Describe the major mechanisms involved in absorbing nutrients across the gut

O.K. The food is in our body. Now what????

Digestion
The breaking down of food substances so that they are suitable for.

Absorption
The passing of nutrients into the body
i.e. Across the gastrointestinal tract into bodily tissues

The big picture..

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Animal food is made up of large organic molecules that cannot be directly absorbed into body
Carbohydrates (MW up to 1,000,000)
Mostly starch but also glycogen, cellulose and other large polymers Must be broken down to simple sugars for absorption

Proteins (MW 100,000 to 3,000,000)

Peptide bonds form primary structure Must be broken down to single amino acids or di- and tripeptides for absorption

Fats (MW >> simple sugars and amino acids)

Usually triglycerides Must be broken down to free fatty acids and monoglycerides

The Digestive process

All organic compounds can be oxidized to yield energy Large molecules must be broken down by hydrolytic enzymes to simple forms

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The Digestive process

All organic compounds can be oxidized to yield energy Large molecules must be broken down by hydrolytic enzymes to simple forms

The Digestive process

All organic compounds can be oxidized to yield energy Large molecules must be broken down by hydrolytic enzymes to simple forms Each class of nutrient has a different set of enzymes involved in breakdown and transport into the epithelium Both extracellular and intracellular digestion occur
Extracellular: digestive cavity, gland or tract Intracellular: in vacuole or in cytosol
Hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose

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Comparative digestive trackology

Human

Digestive systems in vertebrates

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Human digestive system

Key gastrointestinal tract (GIT ) regions

Mouth: Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically by chewing and saliva is added as a lubricant. Esophagus: A conduit between the mouth and stomach, uses peristalsis to move food down Stomach: Where the real action begins - chemical digestion of proteins initiated and foodstuffs reduced to liquid form.

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Key GIT regions (cont.)

Liver/Gall bladder: The center of metabolic activity in the body - major role in digestion is to provide bile salts to the small intestine, important for fat digestion and absorption. Pancreas: Endocrine (insulin/glucagon -sugar metabolism) and exocrine organ digestive enzymes. Small Intestine: The most exciting place to be: chemical digestion and nutrient absorption Large Intestine: Water absorption, bacterial fermentation of fiber, fecal formation

Control of digestion -- three phases

Cephalic
secretions in response to sight, smell thought of food.

Gastric
Food in stomach activates mechanoreceptors and chemo-receptors Causes secretion of gastrin by the stomach
Stimulates secretion of stomach acids by up-regulation of proton pumps

Intestinal
controlled by many hormones produced by gastrointestinal tract when food enters duodenum
E.g. Secretin, cholecystokinin, VIP, somatostatin, enkephalin

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Water, electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-) Secretion stimulated by thought or presence of food. Decreased by sympathetic nervous system (NE) dry mouth when scared. The enzyme amylase digests starch. Mucins lubricate food making it easier to slide down esophagus.

The mouth / Saliva

Motility of the Alimentary Canal

Propulsion- peristalsis Mechanical - churning, grinding, segmenting & stirring Control of motility smooth muscle hormones +ACh, -NE

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Chief cells produce pepsinogen

Converted to pepsin by low pH in stomach Enzyme that breaks peptide bonds

Stomach

Parietal cells produce HCl, intrinsic factor

HCl breaks down peptide bonds HCl activates gastric enzymes (Pepsin) acidity kills many bacteria, virii in food Intrinsic factor necessary for absorption of B12

Goblet cells produce mucus

Helps prevent stomach from digesting itself.

The end result?

Chyme (acidic)

Small intestine
Duodenum

3 Divisions
Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Major site of digestion of fats, carbs Site of virtually all absorption Receives secretions from

Jejunum

Ileum

itself Pancreas LIver

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Small intestine secretions

Brunners glands at entrance to duodenum produce alkaline mucoid fluid (succus entericus) to neutralize acid in chyme. Hormones: secretin, gastrin, GIP as well as digestive enzymes

Pancreatic enzymes
Proteolytic Trypsinogen Chymotripsinogen Procarboxypeptidase Amylolytic (carbs) Amylase Lipolytic (fats) Lipase

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Organic salts made from cholesterol, water salts and pigments (derived from breakdown of hemoglobin). Important in digestion of fats. Highly alkaline. Neutralizes acids from stomach. Like a detergent -- breaks down fats into smaller particles for digestive enzymes to act upon

Bile
(courtesy of bile ducts on liver)

Gastrointestinal secretions
Organ / Secretion Sailivary glands / Saliva Stomach / Gastric juice Duodenum / Succus entericus Daily amt. (L) 1+ 1-3 1 pH Composition

6.5 1.5

Amylase, bicarbonate Pepsinogen, HCl, rennin (infants), intrinsic factor

7-8 Enterokinase, peptidases, maltase, lactase, sucrase, lipase, nucleases 7-8 Trypsinogen, chymotripsinogen, etc Fats and fatty acids, bile salts and pigments, cholesterol

Pancreas / Pancreatic juice Gall bladder / Bile See Ch. 15 pg. 652

7-8

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Produces no secretions of its own Some small molecule, ion and excess water absorption Compaction of feces Site of bacterial digestion in many species
Production of vitamins B12 and K

Large intestine

Animal Matter & Energy -- Digestion

Benchmarks
List some of the ways that animals catch and acquire food Describe the roles of the main organs involved in digestion List some of the ways that digestive systems can vary from vertebrate to vertebrate Explain how each major macronutrient is processed by the digestive system, and this processing is influenced by hormones Describe the major mechanisms involved in absorbing nutrients across the gut

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Comparative digestive trackology

Human

Digestive system complexity

Depends upon the diet Diets high in easily broken down foods, such as proteins, have simple guts Diets high in fiber that requires fermentation by microorganisms much more complicated and much larger

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Four-chambered stomach

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Rumen fermentation vat" Reticulum

Functionally similar to rumen

Omasum
Bible tripe! (Niubaiye -- )

Rumen fermentation vat Reticulum

Functionally similar to rumen

Omasum
Bible tripe! (Niubaiye -- )

Abomasum
True stomach

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Rumen/reticulum
Large fermentation vat home of bacteria that break cellulose into smaller, digestible components e.g. fatty acids and perform other digestive functions

Omasum
Absorbs water, magnesium, some fatty acids

Abomasum
True stomach Functions like stomach of other mammals

www.elmhurst.edu

What exactly is fermentation?

Extraction of energy using an endogenous electron acceptor (such as NAD+) instead of an exogenous electron acceptor (such as O2) C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + CO2

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What exactly is fermentation?

Extraction of energy using an endogenous electron acceptor (such as NAD+) instead of an exogenous electron acceptor (such as O2) C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + CO2 Anaerobic glycolyis is an example
Lactic acid produced by oxidation of pyruvate

Carried out by bacteria in digestive processes

What are the advantages of being a ruminant? ,

Ability to regurgitate and remasticate Absorption of the products resulting from bacterial fermentation of cellulose in rumen
Bacteria produce cellulases Short-chain fatty acids

Urea absorbed from blood in rumen/reticulum used by bacteria to build amino acids protein These bacteria later digested! Bacteria synthesize B vitamins & essential amino acids

Cellulomonas

www.standardsingenomics.org

Copious production of CO2 and CH4 (methane!) contributes to global warming!!

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Specialized colons and caeca in herbivorous mammals

Larger herbivores Smaller herbivores Site of bacterial breakdown (anaerobic fermentation) of hard-todigest plant materials (e.g. cellulose)

POOP

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Digestive system plasticity

Structure of digestive system can change due to food availability and quality Squirrel stomach can increase by 3x or 4x within a few months of hibernation Snake GI tract can double in mass in two days!!
Even if overall morphology doesnt change, surface area can increase.

Poor Sparky..

Animal Matter & Energy -- Digestion

Benchmarks
List some of the ways that animals catch and acquire food Describe the roles of the main organs involved in digestion Note some of the ways that digestive systems can vary from vertebrate to vertebrate Explain how each major macronutrient is processed by the digestive system Describe the major mechanisms involved in absorbing nutrients across the gut

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Carbohydrate digestion
(e.g. glycogen, starch, sucrose) Buccal cavity (mouth)
Amylase

Stomach
In ruminants

Small intestine
Amylase
From pancreas

Disaccharidase
At brush border

Large intestine
Bacterial digestion
(in herbivores)

Protein digestion
Stomach
Pepsin HCl

Small intestine
Trypsin, chymotripsin
From pancreas

Carboxy-, aminopeptidases
From pancreas

Enterokinase Peptidases
At brush border

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Lumen Mucosa Villi

Absorption
Structural amplification of the gut mucosa and villi

Structural amplification villi/microvilli

Villi Epithelial cell

Micro-villi

Brush border

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Brush border enzymes

(final step of digestion for carbs and proteins)
Maltase
Maltose

Brush border

Sucrase
Sucrose

Lactase
Lactase

Peptidases
Small peptides

Structural amplification of surface area

~50x ~10x 1

Cylindrical surface area of lumen

Surface area of lumen plus villi

Surface area of lumen of villi plus microvilli

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Absorption in the gut how does stuff get from one side to the other?
Simple diffusion
Fatty acids, monoglycerides, cholesterol Water, some ions
Through water-filled pores

Faciltated diffusion (often w/

secondary active transport)

Monosaccharides Amino acids

Na+/K+ pump moves Na+ out of epithelial cell Na+ flows down gradient, from intestinal lumen into cell Glucose co-transported with Na+ into cell. Glucose flow down their gradient, into capillaries Similar mechanisms used for absorption of galactose & amino acids Fructose flows down its gradient using facilitated diffusion

Glucose co-transport across GIT wall

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Fat digestion
Small intestine
Bile salts
From gall bladder Emulsify fats
Breaks down into droplets which are then easier for digestive enzymes to break down

Lipase
From pancreas Breaks down triglycerides to monoglycerides, glycerol, and free fatty acids

Fatty acid absorption

Fatty acids cleaved by hydrolysis (lipase) Emulsified to provide increased surface area for lipases Use bile salts to increase hydrophilic properties Fat broken down into small micelles, cross the cell membrane

(wikipedia.com)

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Fatty acid absorption

Triglycerides reformed in smooth endoplasmic reticulum Packed into chylomicrons (lipoprotein particles) in Golgi complex Drain into lymphatic system

A chylomicron (wikipedia.com)

Where do the nutrients then go?

Fatty acid metabolites enter lymphatic system Lymph drains into vena cava

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Where do the nutrients then go?

Other compounds (sugars, amino acids) flow into capillaries Flow into hepatic portal system, which sends blood to liver Glycogen formed and broken down in liver Roles of insulin, glucagon

END

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