Turbo Machinery, Lecture Notes Physics Prof T P Hynes

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH
Module 3A3 - Turbomachinery

Prof Howard Hodson
1 Introduction 1.1 Definition

A Turbomachine is a steady flow device (non-positive displacement) which creates/consumes shaft-work by changing the moment of momentum (angular momentum) of a fluid passing through a rotating set of blades.
1-1
1.2 Examples of Turbomachines

1.2.1 Very Large Machines
MHI 501 single shaft Gas Turbine
1-2
Manufacturers of large gas turbines and steam turbines for industrial power generation include Alstom Mitsubishi Siemens General Electric All use axial flow turbomachines
Three Low Pressure Rotors from a large steam turbine (approx 150 MW per rotor) 1-3
1.2.2 Big 4 manufacturers: General Electric Pratt & Whitney Rolls-Royce SNECMA
Aero Engines & Aero Derivatives
All use axial flow compressors and axial flow turbines except for the smallest of engines (eg helicopters and UAVs) when radial flow compressors are used 1-4
1.2.3 Many types & configurations Most common types centrifugal pump or compressor with axial inflow and radial outflow radial inflow-axial outflow turbine
Radial Turbomachinery
An industrial centrifugal compressor A Small Turbocharger
1-5
The Francis Turbine has an radial flow stator and a radial-axial flow rotor The Kaplan turbine has an radial flow stator and an axial flow rotor
1-6
1.3 Aims of the Course

This course aims to provide an understanding of the principles that govern the fluid dynamic operation of axial and radial flow turbomachines. At the end of this course, you should be able to Identify and understand the operation of different types of turbomachinery. Analyse turbomachinery performance. Understand the causes of irreversibilities within the blade passages Analyse compressible flow through turbomachines.
1-7
1.4 What is in this course?

4 types of machines: o Axial compressors o Axial gas turbines and axial steam turbines, o Centrifugal compressors o Radial inflow-axial outflow turbines Analysis of the flow in bladerows and stages (1D) Dynamic scaling, characteristics of compressors and turbine Compressible Flow Machines Hub-Tip variations in flow properties (2D)
1-8
1.5 Laboratory Experiment

Evaluation of pump performance measure performance parameters study effects of Reynolds number examine the effects of and visualise cavitation
1-9
1.6 Recommended Books

Author Title Dixon, S L Cohen, H., Rogers, G.F.C., and Saravanamuttoo, H.I.H. Cumpsty, N.A. Rolls-Royce Gas Turbine Theory Shelf Mark Fluid mechanics, Thermodynamics of TN 24 Turbomachinery, VK 33
Compressor Aerodynamics The Jet Engine
VS 16 VN 36
1-10
1.7 Notation
Geometric & Flow Parameters 2 2 Ax Annulus area = Ax = ( Rcasing Rhub ) = 2Rmean h Ax A b Passage area = (blade height) (blade pitch) Effective flow area = A = Ax cos axial width of radial impeller (i.e. blade span) Flow angle in absolute co-ordinate system Flow angle in rotating co-ordinate system diameter (usually mean or tip) stage loading coefficient Annulus height, blade height, span = h = rcasing rhub enthalpy Mass flow rate Volumetric flow rate & Flow coefficient =Vx U (or Q D3 in scaling applications) reaction Radius pitch (spacing) of blades slip factor Blade speed (usually at mean radius) = U = 1/2(Ucasing + Uhub)
D h h & m Q
r s U
1-11
V Vx V V V,rel Vrel Suffices: 0 1 2 3 m, mean r rel x y,
Flow velocity Axial velocity Tangential velocity Radial velocity Tangential velocity in rotating co-ordinate system Velocity in rotating co-ordinate system
stagnation inlet to 1st blade row cascade exit or 1st blade row exit / 2nd blade row inlet stage exit / 2nd blade row exit / 3rd blade row inlet value at mean radius radial relative frame of reference (rotating frame) axial tangential
1-12
2 Basic Concepts 2.1 Stagnation (total) and Static (True Thermodynamic) Quantities
1 q wx Control Volume 2
Assuming gravity can be neglected, application of the SFEE to the above gives
q wx Now, the stagnation (total) specific enthalpy h0 is given by: h0 h + 1 V 2 2 so the SFEE can be written: q wx = h02 h01 In a turbomachine, the work exchange occurs because of changes in momentum (velocity) so the importance of the kinetic energy in the SFEE cannot be ignored. V2 V2 = h + 2 h + 1 2 1 2 2
2-13
Therefore, especially when we are dealing with individual stages (i.e. single rotor+stator combinations), we must specify if the p, T and h that we are using are the
stagnation (total) pressure, temperature and specific enthalpy or the static (ie true thermodynamic) pressure, temperature and specific enthalpy.
For a perfect gas, the static and stagnation temperatures T and T0 are related to h and h0 by h0 h = c p (T0 T ) = 1 V 2 2 It is T0 rather than h0 that is measured experimentally. This can be done by mounting a thermocouple inside something like a Pitot tube.
By working in terms of stagnation (total) quantities
kinetic energy effects are automatically taken care of, analyses are easier (stagnation quantities are easier to measure than static quantities).
Note that if the type is not specified or implied, it is usually safer to assume that the p, T and h represent the stagnation pressure, stagnation temperature and stagnation specific enthalpy.
2-14
2.2 The air-standard Joule (Brayton) cycle

The closed air-standard Joule/Brayton cycle is the
is the simplest model of the open circuit gas turbine is the basic standard against which we assess practical applications is a very good model of the actual engine
Assumptions:
All processes are reversible cp and are constant around the cycle No pressure change (i.e. no losses) in the heat exchangers In the compressors and turbines, everything happens so quickly that there is no time for any heat transfer, i.e., they are adiabatic
In this course, we will assume all of the above except that we will often allow irreversibilities to occur.
2-15
. Q in
CONTROL SURFACE
2 3
Shaft . WC Turbine
. . . Wx=W T-W C
1 4
. Q out
Closed Circuit Gas Turbine
2-16
You should be able to show that the efficiency is given by
cycle
where rt is the isentropic temperature ratio
rt = T2 T ( = 3 = rp 1) T1 T4 p2 p = 3 p1 p4
1 = 1 rt
and rp is the pressure ratio

rp =
For the ideal cycle
cycle depends only on the pressure ratio rp. (for a real gas turbine, it also depends on the ratio T3 T1 ). cycle increases monotonically with increasing rp.
2-17
2.3 Irreversible Turbomachines: Isentropic efficiencies

We are used to dealing with these in the context of entire turbines (gas or steam) or entire compressors. However,
The same definitions can also be applied to individual rotor+stator combinations (i.e. stages)
The isentropic efficiencies are defined as the ratio of the
the actual work and the isentropic work

that occur between
the specified inlet conditions and the specified exit pressure
Therefore, especially when we are dealing with individual stages, we must specify if the p, T and h that we are using are the stagnation (total) or the static values.
2-18
2.3.1 Although you may not have realised it, in Part I you have been using stagnation (total) quantities to define the isentropic efficiencies. These are used when
Total-Total Isentropic Efficiencies
the kinetic energy of the flow is very small or where the kinetic energy of the flow leaving one component (eg stage) is not wasted by a downstream component
Compressor Gas or Steam Turbine
h (or T)
02 02s
h (or T)
03
w wis
04
wis
01
w
04s
Entropy s
ideal work h h = 02 s 01 actual work h02 h01
tt tt
Entropy s
actual work h03 h04 = ideal work h03 h04 s
2-19
2.3.2 We use these definitions when
Total-Static Isentropic Efficiencies
the kinetic energy of the flow leaving one component (eg stage) is wasted by a downstream component
This most often happens when we waste the exit kinetic energy of an entire turbomachine, e.g.
in the exhaust duct of a steam turbine when a fan or pump exhausts directly into the atmosphere
The total-static efficiency is always less than the total-total efficiency. The difference is due to the socalled leaving loss (i.e. the exit KE)
2-20
Compressor
Gas or Steam Turbine
h (or T)
02 02s
P03
h (or T)
03
Exit KE
2s
wis, no exit KE
wis, no exit KE
wactual
04
Exit KE
04s
P04
01
P4
4s
Entropy s
Entropy s
actual work h03 h04 = ideal work h03 h4 s
ts
ideal work h h ts = 2 s 01 actual work h02 h01
Total-Static Isentropic Efficiencies
wactual
2-21
2.3.3 The inlet and exit conditions to a turbine are: inlet: exit: T04 = 874 K P04 = 1.2 bar T03 = 1000 K P03 = 2.0 bar P4 = 1.17 bar
Example
Calculate both the total-to-total and total-to-static isentropic efficiencies. Assume the flow is a perfect gas with = 1.4. total-to-total: T04 s = T03 P04 P03
( 1)
1.2 = 1000 2.0
( 0 .4 ) 1 .4
= 864.2 K
tt
actual work h03 h04 T T 1000 874 = = 03 04 = = 0.928 ideal work h03 h04 s T03 T04 s 1000 864.2
( 1)
total-to-static:
P T4 s = T03 4 P03
1.17 = 1000 2.0
( 0 .4 ) 1 .4
= 857.97 K actual work h03 h04 T03 T04 1000 874 = = = = 0.887 ideal work h03 h4 s T03 T4 s 1000 857.97
ts
2-22
2.4 The Rankine Steam Cycle

This is the basis of almost every practical steam cycle for large scale power generation.
. Qin from combustion gas
03
T
2
steam generator
3
. WP feed pump
1
steam turbine
02
4
condenser . Qout to cooling water . WT
01
04s 04
You should already know that per unit mass of steam circulating, the feed pump work input is given by combining the SFEE with Tds = dh dp/ and assuming that the water is incompressible 2-23
w pump
h02 h01
(h02 s h01 )
pump
01
02 s
pump
dp
p02 p01
pump
where pump is the total-total isentropic efficiency of the feed pump and is the density of water.1
The heat input in the boiler and heat rejected in the condenser are given by
qin = h03 h02
and
qout = h04 h01
The turbine work output is given by
wT = h03 h04 = isentropic (h03 h04 s ) where isentropic is the total-total isentropic efficiency of the whole turbine.
1 The final part of this expression is much more accurate and convenient to use than interpolating for liquid enthalpies in the steam tables.
2-24
2.5 Summary
We must always specify if the p, T and h that we are using are the stagnation (total) pressure, temperature and specific enthalpy or static (ie true thermodynamic) pressure, temperature and specific enthalpy.
For compressors: tt For a gas or steam turbine: tt actual work h03 h04 = ideal work h03 h04 s ideal work h02 s h01 = actual work h02 h01
ts
ideal work h2 s h01 = actual work h02 h01 actual work h03 h04 = ideal work h03 h4 s
ts
For incompressible pumps, if w pump is the actual specific work input tt =

p02 p01 w pump
ts =
p2 p01 w pump
2-25
3 Flow Velocities and Velocity Triangles 3.1 Basic Coordinate Systems and Velocities
Earlier, we defined a turbomachine as a steady flow device which creates/consumes shaft-work by changing the moment of momentum of a fluid passing through a rotating set of blades.
Therefore, we must consider the moment of momentum rotation about an axis
As a result, we use an x-r- coordinate system x = axial direction r = radial direction = tangential/circumferential direction we need to work in the stationary (absolute) and rotating (relative) frames of reference 3-26
In the stationary frame, we have Vx = axial velocity Vr = radial velocity
Vx Vr r x V V
V = tangential/circumferential/swirl velocity
We note that: The sign convention used throughout this course (and by much of industry) is that tangential/circumferential/swirl velocities are positive if they are in the same direction as the rotation of the rotor.
3-27
The analysis of the flow through rotating blade rows (rotors) can be greatly simplified by working in a frame of reference so that the rotors appear to be at rest.
V V,rel r r
Vr
Axial view of the components of the absolute and rotor relative velocity vectors
We first note that in the both frames of reference, we have Vx = axial velocity Vr = radial velocity
3-28
and that the two (stationary/absolute and rotational/rotor relative) frames of reference are related according to the vector expression absolute velocity = relative velocity + rotational velocity
Since Vx and Vr are the same in both frames of reference, the only difference between the absolute and relative velocities is due to the magnitude of the circumferential velocity.
In fact,
V = V,rel + r
where
V,rel = rotor relative tangential/circumferential/swirl velocity
and r = U = blade speed
3-29
For axial machines: Vx >> Vr For radial machines, at the outer radius Vx << Vr and at the inner radius, depending on whether the flow is mainly axial or radial, Vx >> Vr or Vx << Vr
3-30
3.2 Mean-line Analyses

Design methods for turbines, compressors and pumps usually involve a number of separate processes.
The first step is to use 1-D calculations along mean radius, i.e. mean-line analyses to examine mean radius velocity triangles before and after each bladerow
In doing so, we assume that the span (hub-tip length) of the blades is small in relation to the mean radius so that the variation of the flow in the hub-tip direction can be neglected the mean radius = rmean = (rcasing + rhub) / 2
3-31
Axial Flow Pump
3-32
3.3 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Turbine Stage (Stator+Rotor)

For simplicity, we will assume that the variation of the flow in the radial direction is small the radial component of velocity is negligible (Vr=0) there is no change of radius (r) through the stage the blade speed ( r = U ) is constant the variation of the flow in the circumferential direction is small we can examine the flow by looking an unwrapped (ie development of) cylindrical surface of revolution, i.e. by using the cascade (xy or x-r) plane
We recall that flow angles are positive if they are in the same direction as the rotation of the rotor.
Now, turbines use stators to create a moment of momentum which is then removed in the rotor. 3-33
V
2 2
V V2
x
Vx2
V2,rel 2,rel
2,rel
V2,rel V2,rel Vx2
V1 V1
Vx1
STATOR
ROTOR
Axial Turbine Stator Exit/Rotor Inlet Velocity Triangle Viewed Radially
3-34
At the inlet of our stator axial velocity

1
tangential velocity
V
1 1
At the exit/outlet of our stator axial velocity

2
Finally, we note that (see later):

the absolute exit flow angle of a stator & the relative exit flow angle rel of a rotor tend to be independent of the operating condition even when the inlet flow angle to the same bladerow or the velocities change.
Now, we again note that the analysis of the flow through rotating blade rows (rotors) can be greatly simplified by working in a frame of reference so that the rotors appear to be at rest.
We recall that the axial velocity Vx 2 is the same in both frames of reference and that
V 2 = V 2, rel + r = V 2, rel + U
where r = U
V 2, rel = V 2 U
Therefore, the rotor relative inlet flow angle is given by

V V U U tan 2, rel = 2, rel = 2 = tan 2 Vx 2 Vx 2 Vx 2
We now look at the rotor exit.
tangential velocity
V
2 2
= V2 sin
Vx 2 = V2 cos
3-35
= V1 sin
3-36
Vx1 = V1 cos
Blade Speed
V2
U2
V2,rel 2,rel
x
3
1
1
V V
1
3,rel
V3
U3
Vx1 V3,rel STATOR ROTOR

Velocity Triangles for an Axial Turbine Stage Viewed Radially
3-37
At rotor exit, we note that

V 3 = V 3, rel + U
and that
+U V V U tan 3 = 3 = 3, rel = tan 3, rel + Vx 3 Vx 3 Vx 3
If we study the velocity triangles of the turbine as we have drawn them, we should notice that
2 >> 1 and 3, rel >> 2, rel - turbine blades make the flow more tangential Vx1 Vx 2 Vx3 V2 >> V1 and V3, rel >> V2, rel
- this is very common - turbine blades accelerate the flow - boundary layers thin and losses in efficiency are small
3-38
3.3.1
The flow leaving an axial turbine stator blade row has a velocity 700 ms-1 at an angle of 70. The rotor has a blade speed of 500 ms-1. The flow leaving a rotor blade row also has a relative velocity of 700 ms-1 at a relative angle of -70. Neglect any radial velocities and assume that the axial velocity is constant through the stage Calculate the relative flow angle at rotor inlet and the absolute flow angle at rotor exit.
Example
The stator exit/rotor inlet axial velocity is
The stator exit/rotor inlet absolute tangential velocity is
The stator exit/rotor inlet relative tangential velocity is
V 2 ,rel = V
2
The stator exit/rotor inlet relative flow angle is

V 157.8 2, rel = tan 1 2, rel = tan 1 = 33.4 239.4 Vx 2 (sign indicates same direction as blade speed)
The rotor exit axial velocity is

Vx3 = Vx 2 = 239.4 ms-1
The rotor exit relative tangential velocity is

V
3, rel 3, rel
= V3, rel sin
The rotor exit absolute tangential velocity is

V 3 = V 3, rel + U = -657.8 + 500 = -157.8ms-1 (sign indicates opposite direction as blade speed)

The rotor exit absolute flow angle is
V
2
= Vx3 tan 3, rel =
V 157.8 = tan 1 3 = tan 1 = 33.4 239.4 Vx 3 (sign indicates opposite direction as blade speed)
= V2 sin
2=
2=
Vx 2 = V2 cos
700 cos70 = 239.4 ms-1
700 sin70 = 657.8 ms-1
U = 657.8 500 = 157.8 ms-1
3-39
239.4 tan(-70) = -657.8 ms-1 (sign indicates opposite direction as blade speed)
3-40
3.4 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Compressor Stage (Rotor+Stator)

For simplicity, we will again assume that the radial component of velocity is negligible (Vr=0) the variation of the flow in the radial direction is small there is no change of radius (r) through the stage the blade speed ( r = U ) is constant the variation of the flow in the circumferential direction is small we can examine the flow by looking an unwrapped (ie development of) cylindrical surface of revolution, i.e. by using the cascade (xy or x-r) plane
Now: compressors use rotors to create a moment of momentum which is then removed in the stator to create a further pressure rise.
3-41
V1
Blade Speed U
1
U
3
V2
V3 V3
1,rel
2 2,rel
V2,rel
Vx3
V1,rel
ROTOR
STATOR
Velocity Triangles for an Axial Compressor Stage Viewed Radially
3-42
If we study the velocity triangles of the compressor as we have drawn them, we notice that 2 >> 3 and 1, rel >> 2, rel - compressor blades make the flow more axial Vx1 Vx 2 Vx3 - this is very common - compressor blades decelerate the flow (by about 30%) - static pressure rises - boundary layers thicken & separation is a big risk - losses in efficiency are higher than in turbines - more stages for same pressure change cf. turbines. V2 > V3 and V1, rel > V2, rel
3-43
3.5 Summary
We use two frames of reference that are related according to the vector expression absolute velocity = relative velocity + rotational velocity where
V 2 = V 2, rel + U
r = U
In axial flow turbines (stator + rotor): blades make the flow more tangential often Vx1 Vx 2 Vx3 flow accelerates (thin boundary layers) so good efficiency. In axial flow compressors (rotor + stator): blades make the flow more axial often Vx1 Vx 2 Vx3 flow decelerates (boundary layers thicken) so lower efficiency more stages needed for same pressure change cf. turbines. 3-44
4 Mass Flow Rates/Forces/Work/SFEE 4.1 The calculation of mass flow rate in axial turbomachines
The ability to apply the law of conservation of mass to a turbomachine blade row is fundamental to many turbomachine calculations.
sc o s
2rel
2rel
sc o s
1r el
Control Volume
1rel
Inlet and exit flow areas of an axial compressor rotor in x-r plane
4-45
First, we examine the flow at inlet to and exit from a 2D compressor rotor of blade span h and blade pitch s in the relative frame. We assume that the blade span h is small in relation to the mean radius the geometry and flow conditions (velocities and angles) are constant across the span.
Conservation of mass gives for one blade passage

2V2 ,rel A2 ,rel 2V2 ,rel
or, more generally, if Ax = hs which is the cross-sectional or frontal area of the passage, then
& m passage = Vrel ( Ax cos rel ) = V ( Ax cos ) = constant

where the flow area ( Ax cos ) is always measured perpendicular to the velocity vector failure to observe this important simple rule has serious consequences when dealing with compressible flow (you have been warned!)
& m passage =
( h s cos 2 ,rel )=
1V1,rel
( h s cos1,rel )
4-46
It also happens that the above can be written as (hence the previous warning)
& m passage = Vrel ( Ax cos rel ) = V ( Ax cos ) = Vx Ax
Now, if there are Z blades, then the total mass flow rate through the compressor rotor is & & mcompressor = Zm passage = Vrel ( Z Ax cos rel ) = V ( Z Ax cos ) = Vx ( Z Ax )
h Rcasing Rhub R
Axial (r-) and Meridional (x-r) views of a 1-stage compressor ) ) )
R S
4-47
For the compressor, the mean radius defined as

rmean = rca sin g + rhub
Now
Zs = 2rmean
so the area of the annulus is

2 2 Ax = Zsh = 2rmean h = rcasing rhub rcasing + rhub = rcasing rhub
)(
Therefore, whether we examine a complete bladerow or just one blade passage:
& m = AV = VAx cos = Vrel Ax cos rel = Vx Ax = const

where Ax is the annulus area or the passage area as appropriate.
4-48
This is why in compressors: flow is turned to be more axial Inlet flow area > Exit flow Area Flow decelerates Static pressure rises in each bladerow
And in turbines: Flow is turned to be more tangential Inlet flow area < Exit flow Area2 Flow accelerates Static pressure falls in each bladerow
2 This is generally true - except for the true impulse rotor where there is no change in pressure and consequently no change in relative velocity across the rotor (see section 5.3.2)
4-49
4.1.1
Example
The axial turbine in Example 3.3.1 has a constant mean radius of 0.5 m and the blade span is constant and equal to 0.075 m. The inlet stagnation temperature to the stage is 1800 K and the inlet stagnation pressure is 30 bar. The flow is isentropic. Assume that the gas has the properties of air. Neglect any radial velocities. Calculate the mass flow rate of the turbine.
We already know
V2 = 700 ms-1 Vx 2 = 239.4 ms-1
There is no work done in the stator therefore, the SFEE

q wx = h2 + 1 V22 h1 + 1 V12 2 2
)(
)
h02
= h01
can be written where

h0 h + 1 V 2 2
4-50
Therefore
c pT01 = c pT02 = c pT2 + 1 V 2 2
The static temperature at stator exit is therefore

T2 = 1800 0.5 7002 = 1556.2 K 1005
The density can be obtained from
2
= = = 4.029 kg/m3
02
T 2 T02
1 ( 1)
P T = 02 2 RT02 T02
1 ( 1)
3,000,000 1556.2 287.5 1800 1800
1 (1.4 1)
The turbine mass flow rate is therefore

& m = 2V2 A2 = 2V2 ( Ax 2 cos rel ) = 2Vx 2 Ax 2
2Vx 2 (2rmean h )=4.029 239.4 2 3.14159 0.5 0.075 =
& m=
227.3 kg/s
4-51
4.2 Axial and Tangential Forces on a 2D Blade

We examine the flow at inlet to and exit from a 2D compressor blade of span h and pitch s.
Note that The blades and control volume have a span h The upper and lower boundaries are streamlines (this is for convenience) and they are exactly one pitch s in the circumferential direction
o No mass crosses the upper and lower boundaries o No net pressure forces are exerted on the two boundaries
The forces shown are those on the flow The force on each blade is equal and opposite to that on the flow in one passage The forces are (mainly) created by the pressure differences between the suction and pressure surfaces of the blades
4-52
F
V2
s cos
Fx
s co s
1
V
1
ace S urf c e on rfa cti Su Su re ss u Pr e
Control Volume
Forces on an Axial Compressor Stator
We start by recalling that Force on flow = rate of change of momentum of flow 4-53
Hence, the Axial Momentum Equation is

& Fx + p1hs p2 hs = m passage (Vx 2 Vx1 )
& Fx = ( p2 p1 ) Ax + m passage (Vx 2 Vx1 )

Ax = hs
where
and
& m passage = 1Vx1 Ax = 2Vx 2 Ax
We note that when the axial velocity remains constant through a bladerow (often true) axial force (thrust bearings) mainly a result of the inlet to exit pressure difference.
The Tangential Momentum Equation is

& F = m passage (V 2 V 1 )
If the mean radius changes, we use the analogous Moment of Tangential Momentum Equation Torque on fluid = rate of change of moment of momentum
& Torque = T = m passage (r2V 2 r1V 1 )
4-54
4.3 Euler's Work Equation

By combining the moment of momentum equation (radiustangential momentum equation) with the SFEE it is possible to derive Euler's Work Equation even for the case where there is a change of radius. This is the most important equation in the analysis of turbomachinery.
Control Volume
r1 r2
Rotor

4-55
We consider a control volume which is formed by a narrow streamtube and which contains a row of rotor blades that
& has a mass flow rate m
has angular velocity produces a torque has a flow which enters at a mean radius r1 has a flow which leaves at a mean radius r2
We first observe that Torque exerted by flow on blade row = shaft output torque = Therefore:
= (rate of change of moment of momentum of fluid )

& = m(r2V 2 r1V 1 )

& & Wx = = m(r2V 2 r1V 1 )
[eqn 1]
4-56
The SFEE is:

& & & & Q Wx = m h2 + 1 V22 rel m h1 + 1 V12rel 2 , 2 ,
(
[eqn 2]
) (
For adiabatic flow (and using stagnation enthalpy), SFEE becomes

& & Wx = m(h02 h01 )
Combining these two expressions for the shaft-power gives:

& & & Wx = m(h02 h01 ) = m(r2V 2 r1V 1 )

Now r = U = mean radius blade speed. Thus Euler's Work Equation is:
& & & Wx=m(h02 h01 )=m(U 2V 2 U1V 1 )
Which means that To transfer work either from or to a turbomachine, a change in the moment of momentum of the flow must occur through a rotating bladerow
So turbines use stators to create a moment of momentum which is then removed in the rotor compressors use rotors to create a moment of momentum which is then removed in the stator to create a further pressure rise
and that Euler's work equation is valid for: (1) steady flow (2) adiabatic flow (3) compressible flow (4) changing streamline radius ( r1 r2 ) (5) viscous flow in the rotor (6) stators (or time average of a periodic flow) (must modify for turbine blade cooling) (any Mach number) (radial or axial machines) (no viscous effects on stationary walls) (no work because U = 0 h01 = h02 )
Note that the SFEE can also be written as:
Rothalpy = h0 UV
constant along a streamline 4-58
4-57
wx=h02 h01=U 2V
2 U1V 1
4.3.1
Calculate the rise in stagnation temperature across a row of axial compressor rotor blades given that the inlet tangential velocity is 75 ms-1, the exit tangential velocity is 175 ms-1 and the mean blade speed is 250 ms-1 at both inlet and exit. Also determine the exit stagnation pressure if the inlet stagnation conditions are 1 bar and 300 K and the rotor is isentropic.
Example
Eulers work equation gives
Now, for air (a perfect gas)
(T02 T01 ) =
(h02 h01 ) 25000 = = 24.9 K 1005 cp

3.5
Finally, because the rotor is isentropic

T P02 = P01 02 T01
5 324.9 = 10 300
( 1)
4.3.2
Example
Using Eulers work equation, calculate the work done per kg of mass flow and the total power output of the axial flow turbine of our previous example (see 3.3.1 and 4.1.1)
We already know that the stator exit/rotor inlet absolute tangential velocity is
V 2 = 657.8 ms-1
the rotor exit absolute tangential velocity is
and the mass flow rate is

& m = 227.3 kgs-1
So, using Eulers work equation
and the power output is

& & Wx = mwx = 227.3 407,800 = 92.7 MW
wx = U 2V
2 U 3V 3
= U (V
2 V 3 ) = 500 (657.8 + 157.8) = 407,800
= -157.8 ms-1
= 132190 Pa 4-59
J/kg 4-60
-wx=h02 h01=U 2V
2 U1V 1 =
250 ( 175 75 ) = 25 kJ/kg
Blade Speed
V2
U2
V2,rel 2,rel
x
3
Vx1
1
3,rel
V3
U3
V1 V3,rel STATOR ROTOR
V1
4-61
4.4 SFEE in a rotating frame

It is often easier to analyse the performance of rotor blade rows by working in the relative frame. a rotor then appears at rest and "looks" very similar to a stator row
Also, we know from Part I thermodynamics: the values of the true thermodynamic properties such as pressure, temperature and enthalpy are the same in both the absolute and relative frames.
We now define Absolute stagnation enthalpy Relative stagnation enthalpy

h0 = h + 1 V 2 2
2 h0, rel = h + 1 Vrel 2
This means that the stagnation conditions are different in the absolute and relative frames. 4-62
This is alright because we already know from Part I thermodynamics the amount of work (changes in stagnation enthalpy) perceived depends on the frame of reference of the observer.
Recall that Euler's Work equation
can be written in terms of the rothalpy:

Rothalpy = h0 UV = constant along a streamline
Therefore:
h0 UV = h + 1 V 2 UV = const 2

So, the SFEE in stationary and rotating frames of reference for stators and rotors becomes
Rothalpy = h0 UV = h0, rel 1 U 2 = constant along streamline 2
which for a perfect gas, can also be written as

c pT0 UV = c pT0, rel 1 U 2 = const 2
h0 UV
2 = h0, rel 1 U 2
2 h0 UV = h + 1 Vrel 2 2 1U 2
h0 UV = h + 1 Vx2 + Vr2 + V2, rel U 2 = const 2
h0 UV = h + 1 Vx2 + Vr2 + V U 2
)2 U 2
= const
= const
= const
h0 UV = h + 1 Vx2 + Vr2 + V2 UV = const 2
4-63
4-64
h02 h01 = U 2V
2 U1V 1
We note that for stators

U=0 h0 UV = const h0 = const no work
And for rotors,

h0, rel
2 1U 2
If r = const U = const h0, rel = const (often true for axial machines).
4.4.1
Example
As in our previous example (see 3.3.1 and 4.3.2), the flow leaving a turbine stator blade row has a velocity of 700 ms-1 at an angle of 70. The rotor has a blade speed of 500 ms-1. The flow leaving the rotor blade row has a relative velocity 700 ms-1 at a relative angle of -70. Neglect any radial velocities and assume that the axial velocity is constant through the stage The inlet stagnation temperature to the stage is 1800 K. Assume that the gas has the properties of air. Calculate the rotor relative inlet and exit stagnation enthalpies. Also calculate the rotor absolute exit stagnation enthalpy. Use this value to determine the work done per kg of mass flow.
We already know that the stator exit/rotor inlet absolute tangential velocity is
V 2 = 657.8 ms-1
and the rotor exit absolute tangential velocity is
and Eulers work equation gave
wx = h02 h01 = U 2V
2 U 3V 3
= U (V
4-65
= const
= -157.8ms-1
2 V 3 ) = 500 (657.8 + 157.8) = 407,800
J/kg
4-66
Blade Speed
V2
U2
V2,rel 2,rel
x
3
Vx1
1
3,rel
V3
U3
V1
4-67
The rotor inlet absolute stagnation enthalpy is

h0 = c pT0 =1005 1800 = 1,809,000 J/kg
Now,
h0 UV
2 = h0, rel 1 U 2
= const
So, the rotor inlet relative stagnation enthalpy is
h02, rel = h02 UV

2
+ 1 U 2 = 1,809,000 - 500 657.8 + 0.5 500 2 = 1,605,100 J/kg 2

h03, rel = h02, rel = 1,605,100
and the rotor exit relative stagnation enthalpy is
So, the rotor exit absolute stagnation enthalpy is
h03 = h03, rel + UV
1 2 3 2U
= 1,605,100 500 157.8 0.5 500 2 = 1,401,200 J/kg
and the work done

wx = h02 h03 = 1,809,000 1,401,200 = 407,800 J/kg
as before.
4-68
4.5 Summary
& Fx = ( p2 p1 ) Ax + m passage (Vx 2 Vx1 )

& F = m passage (V 2 V 1 )
The Moment of Tangential Momentum Equation

& Torque = T = m passage (r2V 2 r1V 1 )
Euler's Work Equation is:

& & & Wx=m(h02 h01 )=m(U 2V
2 U1V 1 )
Rothalpy is defined as
Rothalpy = h0 UV = h0, rel 1 U 2 = constant along a streamline 2
5 Turbomachinery Design Parameters 5.1 Flow Coefficient

Defined as:
=
it describes the squareness of the velocity triangles.
Vx U
Axial turbines with = 0.37 (solid line) and = 0.53(dashed line) where =0.5 & =1.0:
4-69
5-70
or
wx=h02 h01=U 2V
2 U1V 1
5.2 Stage Loading Coefficient

Defined as:
U2
V2 V2,rel U ROT OR
h0 = U2
S AT T OR
(UV )
It affects the skew of the velocity triangles
V3 U
V3,rel
Two axial turbines with = 0.5 and = 0.5: Solid line = 1.7; dashed line = 1.0
5-71
5.3 Reaction
Defined as
h = rotor hstage
it affects the asymmetry of velocity triangles and blade shapes
V2,rel
V2,rel U
Most axial machines have relatively high efficiencies (typically, > 90%) so that
Tds = dh dp
dh
dp
V V3,rel
3
and we see that reaction also describes changes in pressure across rotor compared to across the stage
Two axial turbines with and = 0.37: Solid line = 0.5, = 1.0; dashed line = 0.25, = 1.5
5-72
5.3.1
Evaluate the degree of reaction for a turbine that has symmetric velocity triangles and a constant radius.
Blade Speed
Example: The 50% Reaction Turbine
V2
U2
V2,rel 2,rel
x
3
Vx1 1 V1
U3
3,rel
V3
5-73
Now reaction is
(h2 h3 ) h hrotor = rotor = = hstage hstator + hrotor (h1 h2 ) + (h2 h3 )

For the stator
h0 stator = h + 1 V 2 = 0 2
h2 + 1 V22 = h1 + 1 V12 2 2 h1 h2 = 1 V22 1 V12 2 2
For the rotor (U=const):

h0, rel 1 U 2 = const 2
h03, rel = h02, rel
h3 + 1 V32rel = h2 + 1 V22 rel 2 , 2 , h2 h3 = 1 V32rel 1 V22 rel 2 , 2 ,
5-74
Hence
(1 V32,rel 1 V22,rel ) 2 2 = (1 V12 1 V22 )+ (1 V32,rel 1 V22,rel ) 2 2 2 2

V2 = V3,rel
But, by symmetry
and
V2 ,rel = V3 = V1
(V22 V12 ) = (V22 V12 )+ (V22 V12 ) = 0.5
i.e. the turbine has 50% reaction
In fact: All turbines and compressors with symmetric velocity triangles have 50% reaction
5-75
5.3.2
Example: The impulse turbine
An axial turbine stage has a rotor in which the inlet and exit velocities are identical. This is known as an impulse stage. Find the degree of reaction of such a stage. For simplicity, you may assume that the flow is axial at inlet to and exit from the stage.
Consider the following velocity diagram. We note that

V3, rel = V2, rel
We will assume that there is no change of radius. So, from the rothalpy equation
h0, rel 1 U 2 = const 2
h03, rel = h02, rel
h3 + 1 V32rel = h2 + 1 V22 rel 2 , 2 , h2 h3 = 1 V32rel 1 V22 rel = 0 2 , 2 ,
5-76
So
= hrotor (h2 h3 ) = =0 hstage ( h1 h3 )
We also note that for an isentropic rotor,

Tds = dh dp
V2,rel U
dh
dp
V3,rel
So, many people refer (incorrectly) to an impulse rotor as one where there is no static pressure change.
V2 U V3
Velocity triangles for an impulse turbine with no inlet or exit swirl
5-77
5.3.3
Example
Evaluate the reaction, the flow coefficient and the stage loading coefficient of the turbine in examples 3.3.1, 4.1.1,4.3.2 and 4.4.1. Note that the absolute flow angle at inlet to the stator is the same as the absolute flow angle at rotor exit.
Since the turbine has symmetric velocity triangles,
= 50%
Also,
Vx 239.4 = = 0.479 U 500
=
and
h0 U2
wx U2
407,800 5002
= 1.63
5-78
5.4 Summary
Stage design is about selecting , and at the design point.
The flow coefficient =
Vx describes the squareness of the velocity triangles U h0 U2
The stage loading coefficient = defines "skewness" of the velocity triangles
The reaction =
asymmetry of velocity triangles/blade shapes approx. changes in pressure across rotor compared to the stage
hrotor describes hstage
5-79
6 The Scaling of Incompressible Turbomachines 6.1 Introduction

We shall
form non-dimensional groups and invoke the principles of geometric and dynamic similarity
to:
represent the performance of turbomachines in a way which is convenient and rational describe the operating point of a compressor & turbine perform scaling calculations for allow for changes in conditions or size
We will deal with (low Mach number) incompressible flow machines. Examples are:
Industrial fans Hydraulic pumps/turbines High pressure steam turbines
6-80
We will not consider the effects of:

changes in Reynolds number compressibility cavitation
6-81
6.2 Turbine Characteristics

Eulers work equation for an axial turbine with constant axial velocity and blade speed (radius)
h0 = (h01 h03 ) = U(V 2 V3 ) > 0
may be written as
h0 = U(Vx tan 2 (Vx tan 3,rel U))
and the stage loading is

= h V 0 = x (tan 2 tan 3,rel ) 1 U2 U
= (tan 2 tan 3,rel ) 1
6-82
V1
1 1
STATOR
Vx V2,rel U
V2
2
U
V2
Exit Flow Angle 2
2
ROTOR
72 70 -30 0 Incidence, i=1 -1 +30
V2
Vx
3
3,rel
V3 U U
V3,rel V3
V3,rel
Cascade test results for an axial flow turbine
Effect of changing blade speed U on velocity triangles
6-83
We note from the previous page that

2 > 0
and
3, rel < 0 and both are approximately constant
and that changing

changes 1 (= 3 ) and 2, rel but not 2 and 3, rel
so
increases with when = 0, no work is extracted so max. rpm reached for given mass flow (runaway condition)
0 -1
Ideal Turbine Characteristic
6-84
6.3 Fan/Pump Characteristics

Eulers work equation for an axial pump with constant axial velocity and blade speed (radius)
h0 = U (V 2 V 1 )
may be written as
h0 = U ((Vx tan 2, rel + U ) Vx tan 1 )
and the stage loading becomes
=
U2 =
h0 Vx (tan 2,rel tan 1 ) + 1 = 1 (tan 1 tan 2,rel ) U
Test results show that

the exit flow angles 1 and 2, rel are approximately constant
and the velocity triangles show that

changing changes 1, rel and 2
6-85
V
1
V1,rel 1,rel 1 U ROTOR
V1
V2
Exit Flow Angle 2
36 34 32 30 -30 0 Incidence, i=1 -1
V2,rel 2,rel
V2 2 U
+30
STATOR
Cascade test results for an axial flow compressor
Effect of changing blade speed on axial compressor velocity triangles
6-86
Now,
2, rel < 0
and
1 > 0
1 ideal actual
decreases with
Now, for incompressible flow,

P0
Tds = dh dp/
= h0 Ts = h0,isen
so that
h0
U2
Therefore
when = 0, max. pressure rise should occur in practice this is limited by separation of the boundary layers (stall).
6.4 More usual incompressible stage parameters

We have already seen that only one independent parameter = Vx U determines
the operating point of a given stage.
In the case of a compressor3, this is because Vx U fixes

the relative flow angle in to the rotor the flow pattern in the rotor the relative flow angle & losses out of the rotor the flow angle into the stator the flow pattern in the stator the flow angle & losses out of the stator the non-dimensional operating point of the stage/machine
The argument for a turbine is very similar
h0 ,isen = P0 h0
U2
P0 = =
h0
6-87
6-88
In context of overall performance, and especially during the initial design process, it is more usual to work with a different definition of the flow coefficient:
=
D 3 =
& m
D 3
AxVx V x U Rmean Ax
as this also defines the operating point of the machine. Note that Q is the volumetric flow rate.
h0 U2
Similarly, we prefer the power coefficient to the stage loading coefficient where
= 3D5
=
& mw x
Vx h0 AxVx h0 U U2 D 2 D 2 D 2
Finally, we note that for incompressible flow,
pump
= h0 =
h0,isen
h0
P0
where the efficiency depends on the Reynolds number.
6-89
Therefore, we often replace the power coefficient by the efficiency and the pressure coefficient
= 2 D 2
1
P0 =
2D 2
1 h0
U2
1 h0
These dimensionless groups apply equally to axial machines and radial flow machines (where D is usually the outer diameter of the rotor)
P0 2 D 2
Theoretical
Us e
fu lr an ge
Actual
0
3
Typical characteristic for a centrifugal fan
6-90
6.5 Summary
Changing the flow coefficient = Vx/U changes the incidence onto the stator and rotor blades.
In terms of velocity triangles, we see that:

o Stage Loading Coefficent
U2
= = f
Vx = f ( ) U
h0
V = f x = f ( ) U
o Efficiency
or
o Pressure Rise Coefficient =
P0
2 D 2 = f
Q = f ( ) D 3 Q = f = f ( ) D 3
Q = f = f ( ) D 3
o Efficiency o Power Coefficient
= 3D5
mwx &
6-91
7 Radial Flow Machines (Pumps, Compressors and Turbines) 7.1 Introduction

Many types & configurations
Most common turbomachine Less well understood
the centrifugal pump or compressor more complex 3-D flows than in axials cast, fabricated, machined from solid optimized designs for low volume production low maintenance/hazardous environments
Low cost Short development cycle Mechanically robust Large frontal area Pressure ratios
limits aero applications to small engines typically 3:1 or greater
7-92
To begin with, we note that for radial machines: Vx << Vr at the outer radius Vx >> Vr or Vx << Vr at the inner radius
For example, the turbocharger has a turbine rotor (and a compressor rotor) where Vx << Vr at the outer radius (i.e. Vx 0 ) But Vx >> Vr at the inner radius (i.e. Vr 0 )
The radial fan however often has Vx << Vr at the outer radius (i.e. Vx 0 ) and Vx << Vr at the inner radius (i.e. Vx 0 )
7-93
7.2 Application of Eulers Work Equation to a Radial Rotor

Though we have so far examined Eulers work equation in the context of axial machines, the proof was not restricted to this type of machine. Here, we recall that the flow
enters at a mean radius r1 leaves at a mean radius r2
Control Volume
so that
U1 U2
r1
r2
Rotor

2 U1V 1 )

We also note that Euler's Work Equation is:

& & & Wx=m(h02 h01 )=m(U 2V
or
and that
1

Rothalpy = h01 U1V
= h02 U 2V
2 2 = h01, rel 1 U1 = h02, rel 1 U 2 = const 2 2
wx = h02 h01= U 2V
2 U1V 1
7-94
7.3 Velocity Triangles for a 90 degree Radial Inflow Turbine

1 Scroll
Stator 2 U2 Rotor Flow 3 Radial View V3 Rotor Exit U1 V3,rel V2 Axial View V2,rel Rotor Inlet
Velocity triangles for a radial inflow turbine with stator vanes
Note that
the exit velocity triangle looks very similar to that from an axial flow turbine
7-95
From velocity triangles at design conditions V2 = U2

Euler's Work Equation reduces to
&
V3 = 0
Wx = h0 = UV2 = U22
h0 U22 = 1.0
In fact, it is usually found that

work done is mainly a n of the square of the impeller tip speed U2
2
A similar analysis shows that 1 2
7-96
7.4 Velocity Triangles for a 90 degree Centrifugal Compressor

3 Scroll
Diffuser 2
U2
Rotor
V2,rel V2
1
U1 V1 V1,rel
Axial View Rotor Exit Radial View Rotor Inlet
Flow
Velocity triangles for a centrifugal compressor with a radial rotor and stator vanes
Note that
the inlet velocity triangle is similar to that from the 1st stage of an axial flow compressor exit relative velocity does not quite follow blade shape this is known as slip
7-97
7.5 Application of SFEE to a Radial Rotor

We can consider a compressor or turbine. Whichever we chose, the Rothalpy equation is
Rothalpy = h0 -UV = h0 ,rel - 1 U 2 = constant 2
If we take the rotating frame part, the above can be written as

h0 ,rel - 1 U 2 = constant 2
2 h0, rel = h + 1 Vrel 2

h0
2 h + 1 Vrel - 1 U 2 = constant 2 2 2 (h0- 1 V 2 ) + 1 Vrel - 1 U 2 = constant 2 2 2
h = h0 1 V 2 2
2 ( 1 U 2 1 Vrel + 1 V 2 ) = constant 2 2 2
So,
wx = h03 h02 =
2 2 ( 1 U 2 1 Vrel + 1 V 2 )3 ( 1 U 2 1 Vrel + 1 V 2 ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
7-98
So for a radial inflow turbine:
wx =
1 (U 2 3 2
2 U 2 ) 1 (V32 V22rel ) + 1 (V32 V22 ) < 0 rel 2 2
U3 < U2 1 Minimise 2 V2,rel2 1 Minimise 2 V32

Radial INflow 2,rel 0 3 0
And for compressors/pumps
-wx =
1 (U 2 2 2
2 U1 ) 1 (V22rel V12 ) + 1 (V22 V12 ) > 0 rel 2 2
U 2 > U1 2 Minimise 1 2 V2,rel 1 Minimise 2 V12

Radial OUTflow 2,rel 0 1 0
7-99
7.6 Example
In a radial turbine, the flow leaving the ring of stator blades has a static temperature of 1000 K and velocity 600 ms-1 at an angle of 70 to the radial direction. At entry to the rotor wheel the blade speed is 500 ms-1 whilst at flow exit it is 100 ms-1. Calculate the relative stagnation temperature at entry and exit of the rotor wheel
Stator 2 2 Rotor Flow 3 Radial View V 3 Rotor Exit V3,rel U1

7-100
V2 U2
Axial View V2,rel Rotor Inlet
At entry the flow is radial-tangential and at exit the flow is axial-tangential
V
1
V 1,rel = V 1 U = 563.8 500 = 63.8 ms -1
Now:
h0 ,rel
T01rel = T1 + Vr2 + V 2 ,rel / 2c p 1 1
T01rel = 1000 + (205.2 2 + 63.82 ) / (2 1005) = 1022.97 K

Rearranging SFEE in relative frame:
2 2 T01,rel U1 2c p = T02, rel U 2 2c p 2 2 T02, rel = T01,rel U1 U 2
( )
T02, rel = 1022.97 + (1002 -5002 ) / (2 1005) = 903.57 K
7.7 Summary
In radial machines
Application of SFEE leads to turbines where most work is obtained for:

and for compressors/pumps:
Radial Inflow Near radial blades at rotor inlet (2,rel 0) No exit swirl (3 0)
Radial Outflow Near radial blades at rotor exit (2,rel 0) No exit swirl (1 0)
Work exchange is mainly a n of the square of the impeller tip speed
2 1U 2
= V sin
= 600 sin 70 = 563.8 ms -1 = const
Vr1 = V cos
= 600 cos 70 = 205.2 ms -1
)( )
( )
) (2c p )
7-101
7-102
8 Losses In Turbomachines 8.1 Introduction

Strictly, we should define the losses in terms of the entropy created but, we usually determine the losses from stagnation pressure measurements and, when
h0 = const
we find that
T0 ds = dh0 dp0 0
and in the particular case of incompressible flow ( = const )
T0 ds = dp0 0 T0 s = p0
So viscous effects (including those due to shock waves) are usually quantified using
Stagnation Pressure Loss Coefficients
8-103
Development of blade surface boundary layers and wakes in an axial compressor
8-104
8.2 The 2D (Linear) Cascade

Linear or 2D cascades
produced by development of cylindrical surfaces

provide data on
mean flow angles losses

but only valid when in the turbomachine
radius change is small from inlet to exit of bladerow effects of twist, lean, sweep, rotation are small
therefore
can only really apply to axial machines
8-105
Example of linear cascade wind tunnel
In a cascade experiment, at exit, the pitchwise (ie tangential) variation of velocity, flow angle, stagnation pressure and static pressure are usually measured.
Downstream of the blade row the stagnation pressure is pitchwise non-uniform and below the isentropic value. The average exit stagnation pressure can be defined by:
+s / 2
P02 =
2 ( y ) Vx 2 ( y ) P02 ( y ) dy s / 2 +s / 2
s / 2
2 ( y) Vx 2 ( y) dy
8-106
Notes:
Flow accelerates as expected for a turbine

0.0 0 1.0 1 2
P01 -P0(y) P01 - p2
0.1
Between the wakes, flow is isentropic (no shock waves in this case) Losses appear only in the wakes
0.9
p1 -p2 (y) P01 - p2

0.8 0 1 2
Exit flow is almost parallel so static pressure is uniform

V2 V1
2.5 0 3.0
y s
Typical midspan wake traverse results for a turbine cascade (4A3 Cascade Experiment)
8-107
8.3 Stagnation pressure Loss Coefficients

The stagnation pressure loss coefficient is defined as
Y p=
Loss of (relative) Stagnation pressure due to irreversibility Reference (Isentropic) Dynamic Pressure
Since the stagnation pressure can change due to adiabatic+reversible=isentropic changes in the stagnation enthalpy (or stagnation temperature),
the loss is evaluated relative to the isentropic case in

o the absolute frame of reference for stators/cascades o the rotating frame of reference for rotors
There are many different definitions for loss coefficient so take care when consulting text books and other published works.
The loss coefficient definitions used in this course are:
8-108
For compressors
- we are interested in how much is costs to slow down the flow across a bladerow - loss coefficients always based on inlet conditions - most common is:
Yp P01 - p1
P02, isen =
- P02 usually P01 - P02 P01 - p1
For turbines
- we are interested in how much is costs to speed up the flow across a bladerow - always based on exit conditions - most common are
Yp P02 - p2
P02,isen - P02 = P01 - P02 P02 - p2
usually
8-109
V1
1 1
ROT OR
V2 Exit Flow Angle 2 36 34 32 30 -30 0 + 30 0.08
Exit Flow Angle 2
2
72 70 -30 Profile L Coeffic ient Y oss p 0.08 0 + 30
V2
Profile Loss Coefficient Y p 0.04
0.04
0.00 -30
0 Incidence, i= 1-1
+ 30
0.00 -30
0 Incidence, i= 1-1
+ 30
Typical cascade test results for an axial flow compressor
Typical cascade test results for an axial flow turbine
8-110
Note that when the losses refer only to those due to the blade surface boundary layers and wakes (e.g., at the mid-span of a 2-D cascade) then we often call the stagnation pressure loss coefficient the profile loss coefficient. We note that changing 1
results in a change of incidence i = 1 1 does not change 2 (until the boundary layers separate at high i ) does not change the losses (until the boundary layers separate at high i )
8-111
8.3.1
Example
At a particular operating point, an axial turbine rotor blade row has relative inlet Mach number M1,rel = 0.6, a relative exit Mach number M2,rel =1.05 and a loss coefficient Yp = 0.05. If the relative stagnation pressure at inlet to the rotor row is 8.0 bar, calculate the relative stagnation pressure at exit. The loss coefficient is defined as
Since we have a rotor blade row, we will work with relative flow quantities. We will assume that there is no change in radius
Yp
P02, rel ,isen - P02 P02, rel - P2 Yp =
P01, rel - P02, rel P02, rel - P2 P01, rel P02, rel - 1 1 - P2 P02, rel
P01, rel P02, rel
= 1 + Y p 1 -
P 2 P02, rel
8-112
But
P2 1 2 = 1 + M 2r 2 P02, rel
= 1 + 0.2 1.052
( 1)
)3.5 = 0.4979
P02, rel
P02, rel
= P01, rel / 1.025 = 8 / 1.025 = 7.80
P01, rel
= 1 + 0.05(1 - 0.4979 ) = 1.025
bar
8-113
8.4 Summary
The creation of entropy is usually determined from the losses of stagnation pressure
Linear or 2D cascades apply to axial machines only and provide data on
mean flow angles losses
The stagnation pressure loss coefficient is evaluated relative to the isentropic case and is defined as
Y p=
Loss of Stagnation pressure due to irreversibility Reference (Isentropic) Dynamic Pressure
Compressor losses are normalised by inlet conditions Turbine losses are normalised by exit conditions
8-114
9 Compressible Flow through Turbomachines

Many turbomachines involve compressibility effects (Mach > 0.3). To calculate the performance of these machines, very similar methods are used as those for cases where the flow is considered incompressible. The most relevant compressible flow relations, which are all tabulated as functions of Mach number for
=1.4 and =1.333, are:

T 1 = 1 + M2 T0 2
1 1 M2 = 1 + 2 0
1
p 1 1 = 1 + M2 2 p0
V 1 = 1 M 1 + M2 2 c pT0
1 +1
1 2
& m c pT0 Ap0 =

Ap =
2 1 1 M 1 + M2 2 1
m c pT0 &
2 1 M 1 + M2 2 1
The most important is

Ap0
& m c pT0
& since we usually know m and p0 and T0 are often constant
9-115
& m c p T0 Ap0
1
= 1
1 2 M 1 + M 2
1 +1 2 1
T 1 2 = 1 + M T0 2
p 1 2 M = 1 + p0 2
1 2 = 1 + M 0 2
1 1
Ma ch Number
9-116
9.1 Relative Flow Quantities

We have already observed that in the absolute frame of reference that
& T p m c pT0 , , , T0 p0 Ap0
T and p (in fact all static quantities) are the same in both the absolute and relative frames
V , .. = f (M ) c pT0
Therefore, in the relative frame

& m c pT0, rel p T , , , T0, rel p0, rel Ap0, rel
Vrel , .. = f M rel c pT0, rel
So, we can use the same tables for both absolute and relative flows providing
we use the appropriate stagnation quantities (e.g. T0 or T0, rel ) we use the appropriate Mach numbers( M or M rel ) A is the effective flow area measured NORMAL to the appropriate flow vector (V or Vrel )
9-117
9.2 Compressibility and Conservation of Mass
sc os
2rel
2rel
sc os
1r el
Control Volume
1rel
Inlet and exit flow areas of am axial compressor rotor in x-r plane
9-118
Conservation of mass gives for one blade passage

2V2 ,rel 1V1,rel
or, more generally, if Ax is the cross-sectional area
& m = Vrel ( Ax cos rel ) = V ( Ax cos )

where
the effective flow area ( A= Ax cos ) is always measured perpendicular to the velocity vector. failure to observe this important simple rule has serious consequences when dealing with compressible flow because m c pT0 Ap0 depends on the true flow area &
We will examine the flow at inlet to and exit from a compressor rotor of pitch s and constant span h in relative frame.
Conservation of mass also means that in absence of radius change ( T01,rel = T02,rel ) and loss ( P01,rel = P02,rel )
(hs cos1,rel )P01,rel = F(M1,rel )

=
& m c pT01,rel cos 2,rel cos1,rel
(hs cos 2,rel )P02,rel
& m c pT02,rel
This is useful because we can find M 2,rel given M 1,rel ,.1, rel and 2, rel or we can find 2, rel given M 1,rel ,.1, rel .and M 2,rel or
& m passage =
(hs cos 2 ,rel )=
(hs cos1,rel )
9-119
= F(M 2,rel )
cos 2,rel cos1,rel
9-120
9.3 Example: Flow Through an Axial Compressor Rotor

For the high Mach number compressor rotor blade described below, find the static pressure ratio (p2/p1) across the rotor, the absolute exit flow angle (2) and the exit Mach number (M2).
Geometrical Data: mean radius (constant) blade height (span, constant) h Ax 0.0942 m2 0.050 m r 0.300 m
annulus cross-sectional area
Operating Conditions: blade speed mass flow rate inlet stagnation pressure (abs) inlet stagnation temperature (abs) absolute inlet swirl T01 340 K p01 1.4 bar 16.0 kgs-1 U . m 250 ms-1
1
10
9-121
Blade Performance (at above operating point): rotor pressure loss coefficient rotor relative exit angle Yp 0.034
2,rel -35.0
Assume that the working fluid is air with
=1.4
R=287 Jkg-1K-1 cp=1005 Jkg-1K-1
9-122
Step 1 First, we draw velocity triangles:

Blade Speed U V1 V
2
U V1,rel V2,rel
ROTOR
Note that the velocities (and the velocity triangles) may be converted to Mach numbers (and geometrically equivalent triangles) by dividing by the local sound speed RT .
9-123
We note that the flow area normal to the flow vector (this is very important) is given by
A = Ax cos 1
Then, in the absolute frame, we find the inlet flow conditions using
& m c pT01
Ap01
=
& m c pT01
Ax cos 1 p01
16 1005 340 0.0942 cos10 1.4 105
= 0.720
Using the tables gives M1 = 0.350 and V1/ c p T01 = 0.219 T1/T01 = 0.976 P1/P01 = 0.919
V1 = 128.0 ms-1 T1 = 331.8 K P1 = 1.287 bar
9-124
Step 2 From the triangles, we observe that Vx1 = V1cos1 = 126.1 ms-1 V1 = V1sin1 = 22.2 ms-1 V1,rel = V1 U = 227.8 ms-1 V1,rel = 260.4 ms-1 1,rel = -61.0 M1,rel = V1/ c p T1 = 0.713
From the Tables, we find that: T1/T01,rel = 0.908 P1/P01,rel = 0.713 P01,rel = 1.805 bar Note that we could also have used T01,rel = T1 + (V1,rel)2/2cp = 365.5 K
T01,rel = 365.4 K
9-125
Step 3 Here, we examine the rotor in the relative frame, applying the loss and flow turning
Now, a fixed radius combined with the Rothalpy equation ( h0 UV = h0, rel 1 U 2 = constant ) 2
Hence
T01,rel = T02,rel = 365.4 K
P02,rel ,isen = P01,rel = 1.805 bar
Loss Coefficient (given) YP =
P01,rel P02,rel = 0.034 P01,rel P1

P02,rel = 1.787 bar 2,rel = -35
Exit angle (given)
9-126
Step 4 Here, we find the rotor exit conditions in the relative frame:
& m c pT02, rel
Ax cos 2, rel P02, rel
= 0.0942 cos(35) 1.787 105 M2,rel = 0.340 = 0.703
16 1005 365.4
Using the tables (=1.4) gives:
The other flow properties are obtained (from tables): V2,rel/ c pT02,rel = 0.213 V2,rel = 129.1 ms-1 T2 = 357.0 K P2 = 1.649 bar V2,rel = M2,rel RT2 = 128.8 ms-1 T2/T02,rel = 0.977 P2/P02,rel = 0.923 Note that we could also have used
The static pressure ratio is then given by P2 1.649 P1 = 1.287 = 1.28 9-127
Step 5 Here, we, convert back to absolute flow conditions downstream of the rotor Vx2 = V2,relcos2,rel = 105.8 ms-1 < Vx1 due to compressibility V2,rel = V2,rel sin2,rel = -74.0 ms-1 V2 = V2,rel + U = 176.0 ms-1 V2 = 205.4 ms-1 2 = 59.0 M2 = V2/ c pT2 = 0.542
From the Tables (=1.4), we find that: T2/T02 = 0.945 T02 = 377.8 K T0 = 377.8 340 = 37.8 K
Using Euler's Work Equation, we can check this result: h02 h01 = U(V2 V1) = 38.45 kJkg-1
T0 = 38.3 K 9-128
9.4 Summary
The functions of Mach number
& T p m c pT0 , , , T0 p0 Ap0
V c pT0
can be used in absolute or relative frames so long as correct values (absolute or relative) are used. Remember: Effective flow area = A = Ax cos Conservation of mass means that if we know T01, P01, T02 and P02 , we can use
to find
o M 2,rel given M 1,rel ,.1, rel and 2, rel o 2, rel given M 1,rel ,.1, rel .and M 2,rel etc
10 Hub-Tip Variations 10.1 Introduction

So far, we have made significant progress using 1-D mean-line analyses turbomachine
The next stage is to use Simple Radial Equilibrium theory or Streamline Curvature calculations to examine the hub-tip variations in, for example, the circumferential averages of the velocities Vx, Vr and V flow angle at the inlet and exit of each bladerow.
1 1
( Ax cos 1 )P01
9-129
( Ax cos 2 )P02
2 2

10-130
& m c pT01 = f(M1 ) = T01 P02 cos T02 P01 cos = f(M 2 ) T01 P02 cos T02 P01 cos
& m c pT02
10.2
We will assume Analysis applies in stationary frame (i.e. all velocities are absolute, even for a rotor) Axisymmetric flow ( = 0 ) Curvature of the streamlines in the Meridional (x-r) plane is negligible (no accelerations normal to the stream surface) Radial velocity Vr is negligible Isentropic Flow4
Simple Radial Equilibrium
x
4
Simple Radial Equilibrium theory does not require this but this is a convenient and common simplification
10-131
p+dp dr r p V
Under these circumstances, we are dealing with the equilibrium of a swirling flow where the pressure forces create the centripetal acceleration:
dr
Now, for isentropic flow
1 dp V 2 = r
Tds = dh
dp
=0
10-132
Now if Vr = 0 h0 h + 1 V 2 2
dh 1 dp V 2 = = dr dr r

dh 0 = dh + V dVx + V dV x dr dr dr dr
h0 = h + 1 Vx2 + 1 V2 2 2
Substituting for dh/dr gives
dh0 V 2 dV dV = + Vx x + V dr r dr dr
10-133
This can be re-arranged to give the Simple Radial Equilibrium equation for isentropic flow dh0 dV V d (rV ) = Vx x + dr dr r dr
For incompressible flow, the above becomes
dr
1 dp0 = Vx
dVx V d (rV ) + dr r dr
We see that for a given radial distribution of stagnation enthalpy (or stagnation pressure) rV (which results from the radial distribution of work according to Eulers equation) Vx the flow angle = tan 1 (V Vx ) are all dependent on each other
10-134
10.3
Free vortex means rV = constant The majority of axial machines do not deviate far from a free vortex design.
Example: Free Vortex Compressor Rotor
Consider the case where the stagnation enthalpy is radially uniform at inlet
10-135
In this case we have h01 = const rV 1 = const = C1 rV 2 = const = C2 Now, upstream of the rotor, the SRE gives dh 01 = V dVx1 + V 1 d (rV 1 ) x1 dr dr r dr
0 = Vx1
dVx1 dr Vx1 = const
The specific work at a radius r is given by Eulers work equation wx = (UV ) = (rV 1 rV 2 ) = (C1 C2 ) = constant But wx = h01 h02 10-136
Therefore, by the same argument as above,
h02 = const Vx 2 = const
Conservation of mass for incompressible flow therefore gives
Vx1 = Vx 2 = Vx = const
Finally, the radial distributions of the absolute and relative flow angles are given by
1 = tan 1
V 1 1 C r 1 = tan V Vx x
1, rel
2 = tan 1 V 2 1 C2 r = tan V Vx x
V 1, rel 1 V 1 r 1 C1 r r = tan 1 = tan = tan V Vx Vx x
10-137
2, rel = tan 1
Blade Speed
V 2, rel 1 V r 1 C r r 2 2 = tan V = tan Vx Vx x
r
V1
1
U1
1,rel
V2
2
V1,rel
U2
2,rel
V2,rel
ROTOR
Mean line rotor velocity triangles
10-138
So, a free vortex design has a uniform work distribution across the span constant axial velocity varying blade shape (inlet and exit angles) along the span
Hub Mean Tip
HUB
MEAN
TIP
10-139
60.00
rmean
Example:
40.00
1 = 0
20.00 0.00
Abs Inlet Abs Exit Rel Inlet Rel Exit
and at mean radius:

angle
=
U2 = 0.408
h0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 -20.00 -40.00 -60.00 -80.00
r/rtip
V = x = 0.952 U
10-140
10.4
The Simple Radial Equilibrium equation for isentropic flow is dh0 dV V d (rV ) = Vx x + dr dr r dr For incompressible flow, the above becomes dVx V d (rV ) + dr r dr
Summary
dr
So the radial distributions of rV Vx the flow angles = tan 1 (V Vr ) cannot be chosen independently
1 dp0 = Vx
As a result of the above blade shapes (i.e. inlet and exit angles) vary along the span. 10-141

Turbo Machinery, Lecture Notes Physics Prof T P Hynes

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IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

Module 3A3 - Turbomachinery

1 Introduction 1.1 Definition

1.2 Examples of Turbomachines

MHI 501 single shaft Gas Turbine

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

Aero Engines & Aero Derivatives

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

An industrial centrifugal compressor A Small Turbocharger

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

1.3 Aims of the Course

1.4 What is in this course?

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

1.5 Laboratory Experiment

1.6 Recommended Books

Compressor Aerodynamics The Jet Engine

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

V Vx V V V,rel Vrel Suffices: 0 1 2 3 m, mean r rel x y,

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

By working in terms of stagnation (total) quantities

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

2.2 The air-standard Joule (Brayton) cycle

Closed Circuit Gas Turbine

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

You should be able to show that the efficiency is given by

and rp is the pressure ratio

For the ideal cycle

2.3 Irreversible Turbomachines: Isentropic efficiencies

The isentropic efficiencies are defined as the ratio of the

the actual work and the isentropic work

the specified inlet conditions and the specified exit pressure

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

Total-Total Isentropic Efficiencies

2.3.2 We use these definitions when

Total-Static Isentropic Efficiencies

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

Gas or Steam Turbine

ideal work h h ts = 2 s 01 actual work h02 h01

Total-Static Isentropic Efficiencies

1.2 = 1000 2.0

1.17 = 1000 2.0

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

2.4 The Rankine Steam Cycle

condenser . Qout to cooling water . WT

qout = h04 h01

The turbine work output is given by

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

For incompressible pumps, if w pump is the actual specific work input tt =

Therefore, we must consider the moment of momentum rotation about an axis

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

In the stationary frame, we have Vx = axial velocity Vr = radial velocity

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

and r = U = blade speed

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

3.2 Mean-line Analyses

Axial Flow Pump

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

3.3 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Turbine Stage (Stator+Rotor)

V2,rel V2,rel Vx2

IIA Paper 3A3 Fluid Mechanics II: Turbomachinery/HPH

At the inlet of our stator axial velocity

At the exit/outlet of our stator axial velocity

Finally, we note that (see later):