Compressible Fluid Flow (Part II)

Oblique shocks
Normal shocks are really just the starting point for understanding shock systems. Locally, there is always
some (perhaps moving) coordinate system with respect to which the shock is normal. However, it is not
always convenient to work in a moving coordinate system, especially since one has to transform back to a
hardware frame to discuss, e.g. stagnation properties. In the hardware frame of reference, we can
observe and exploit the phenomenon of oblique shocks shock for which the flow velocity is not
perpendicular to the shock front, but rather approaches the front at an angle. The angle the shock front
makes with the flow velocity is called the wave angle and is denoted by ; the deflection angle or wedge
angle is called .
Before we lay out the equations governing oblique shocks, we should consider a key question, namely:
how do our various quantities of interest (total and static pressure and temperature, etc.) transform when
we shift to a frame which is moving with respect to our original hardware frame? That is, we start with a
coordinate frame and flow situation where we know ( ) z y x V , ,
r
, ( ) z y x T
S
, , , etc. (for simplicity we
consider steady flow). If we boost to a frame moving at a speed U
r
with respect to our original system,
how do all these quantities change? In the new frame, the velocity transforms as
( ) ( ) U z y x V z y x V V
r r r r
, , , , . It is important to understand that the static thermodynamic
properties do not change. Why? The static temperature, for example, is just the temperature of a
infinitesimal packet of gas as you would measure it traveling along with the flow. This quantity does not
change when you change reference frames. In the language of physics, the static temperature is a scalar
under rotations and boosts. The total temperature, however, goes from
p
S T
c
V
T T
2
2
+
to
p
S
p
S T
c
UV U V
T
c
V
T T
2
cos 2
2
2 2 2
+
+

+ ,
where is the angle between ( ) z y x V , ,
r
and U
r
, that is, ( ) cos , , UV U z y x V
r r
. Note if U
r
and
( ) z y x V , ,
r
are perpendicular, the cos term disappears. The static pressure does not change, but the
total pressure obeys
1

,
_

S
T
S
T
T
T
P
P
so it changes along with the total temperature.

Suppose we start with a normal shock with, as usual, upstream conditions indicated by subscript x and
downstream by y. Since we want to boost this system in the vertical direction, we indicate the normal
component of the total Mach number with a superscript N. Thus we consider a normal shock with
upstream Mach number
N
x
M and downstream Mach number
N
y
M . Lets look at this from a frame
moving parallel to the shock front with a speed U .
Note the static temperature is the same in the normal and boosted frames. However, the value of total
temperature differs between the normal and boosted frames; we use
N
Tx
T to denote the total temperature in
the normal frame. Note
N
Ty
N
Tx
T T for a normal shock (since there is no heat addition or work
extraction). Note that by the reasoning above, the total temperatures in the boosted frames are given by
P
N
Ty Ty
P
N
Tx Tx
c
U
T T
c
U
T T
2
2
2
2
+
+
so it follows that
Ty Tx
T T (which also follows from having zero energy transfer in the boosted frame).
Also, we know from our study of normal shocks that the downstream Mach number can be written as a
function of the upstream Mach:
( )
( )
2
1
2
1
1
2
2



+

N
x
N
x
N
y
M
M
M .
We have named the angles that the flow makes with the shock front and , for upstream and
downstream flow, respectively. In particular, is the angle that the flow turns as it goes through the
shock. We can use trigonometric relations to eliminate the velocity U from the problem:
( )
N
x
N
x
N
y
N
y
N
x
N
Tx
N
x
N
y
N
Ty
N
y
z M
z M
U
z RT M
U
z RT M

tan
tan
.
N
y
N
Ty
N
y
Sy
N
y
N
y
z RT M
RT M V


N
x
N
Tx
N
x
Sx
N
x
N
x
z RT M
RT M V

U U

The total temperatures cancel as well. Since we know ( )

N
x
N
y
M f M , the entire right hand side of this
equation can be written as a function of
N
x
M . Furthermore,
N
x
M and
x
M are related by
sin
x
N
x
M M . Using some trigonometric identities, the relation between wave angle, deflection
angle, and Mach number can be expressed as
( )
1
]
1

+ +

2 2 cos
1 sin
tan
2
tan
2
2 2
x
x
M
M
.
This is called the --M equation. We can use it to solve for as a function of and M
x
.It is also possible
to invert this equation and solve explicitly for as a function of and M. Before we do so, lets take a
look at the relation among these quantities. If we plot for a range of s, we find that for any given
supersonic upstream Mach number, 0 when ( )
x
M 1 sin
1
or when
o
90 2 . In
between, there is a maximum value of when reaches a value given by
( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

+ + +
+

4 2 2
2 max
2
16
1
2
1
1 1 1
4
1 1
sin
x x x
x
M M M
M
(Try to reproduce this result). See the Figure 1 for a plot of vs for Mach numbers up to 3.5.
Note several interesting features of this plot:
1. For any given value of deflection angle , there are either two, one, or zero solutions for . The large
value of is called the strong shock solution and the small value is called the weak shock solution. Note
that when 0 , the strong shock is a normal shock (
o
90 ) and the weak shock is a Mach wave
( ( )
x
M 1 sin
1
). Whether a given flow situation results in a weak or strong shock depends, as
always, on the boundary conditions. However, for many practical applications, the weak shock solution is
the one that actually occurs.
2. For any given Mach number, there is a maximum value of which gives a solution. If the hardware
configuration is such that the flow must turn more than this angle, the shock detaches and stands off from
the wedge.
3. Consider the weak shock solution. For a given wedge angle , as Mach number decreases from high
supersonic to smaller values, the wave angle increases. Finally, there is a minimum Mach number below
which no oblique shock solution exists.
Note that the normal components of the upstream and downstream Mach numbers are:
( )

sin
sin
y
N
y
x
N
x
M M
M M
Because only
N
y
M , the normal component of the downstream Mach number, is constrained to be
subsonic,
y
M itself can be greater than unity. The line separating the supersonic and subsonic
Figure 1
Flow_z.xls:Oblique Shock Chart 9/27/00:9:43 AM
Oblique Shock Relations
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Wave Angle (degrees)
W
e
d
g
e

A
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4
1.5 1.6
1.7 1.8
1.9 2
2.1 2.2
2.3 2.4
2.5 2.6
2.7 2.8
2.9 3
3.1 3.2
3.3 3.4
3.5 Weak | Strong
Sonic Line
Upstream Mach Number Mx=
Strong shocks,
Subsonic My
Weak shocks,
Supersonic My
downstream conditions is close to the weak/strong dividing line on the --M plot. We can also plot the
downstream Mach number as a function of upstream Mach number, as shown in Figure 2. Note that the
upper limit is the Mach-wave solution (
x y
M M , ( )
x
M 1 sin
1
) and the lower limit is the
familiar normal shock characteristic.
Though not as neat as the --M equation, there is an explicit solution for in terms of and M
x
,
basically by solving the appropriate cubic equation. This can be very useful for some applications, and is
much quicker than the iterative inversion technique with which the ignorant are cursed. Here we quote
directly from the technical note by V. Mascitti
1
:
The equations governing oblique shock relations may be written in the form
0 sin sin sin
2 4 6
+ + + d c b
where

1
]
1

+

2
2
2
sin
2
x
x
M
M
b
( )

1
]
1

+
+
+
+

2
2
2
4
2
sin
1
4
1 1 2
x x
x
M M
M
c
4
2
cos
x
M
d


and
= shock-wave angle
x
M = free-stream Mach number
= deflection angle
= ratio of specific heats
which is cubic in
2
sin , having three real roots, the smallest of which results in a
decrease in entropy. [T]he solution for a cubic having three real roots is
( ) [ ] 3 cos 3 3 sin
2
3
2
2
+ + n c b b
where
( )
2 3
2
2
27
3
2
9
3
cos
c b
d b bc

and 0 n corresponds to the strong shock solution, 2 n results in a decrease in
entropy, and 4 n corresponds to the weak shock solution.

1
Vincent R. Mascitti, A Closed-Form Solution to Oblique Shock-Wave Properties, J. Aircraft, Vol 6,
No. 1 (1968). Note we have replaced with , and M
1
with M
x
, to accord with our notation.
Figure 2
Flow_z.xls:Oblique Mx vs My w delta 9/27/00:9:42 AM
My vs Mx for Oblique Shocks
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
M
x
M
y
Weak | Strong beta=20
beta=25 beta=30
beta=35 beta=40
beta=45 beta=50
beta=55 beta=60
beta=65 beta=70
beta=75 beta=80
beta=85 Normal Shock
delta=0 delta=5
delta=10 delta=15
delta=20 delta=25
delta=30 delta=35
So with this cubic equation solution and the --M equation, we can solve for either angle without
resorting to iterative code.
The ratios of pressures and temperatures across the shock can be easily determined using normal shock
relations, once
N
x
M and
N
y
M have been found. It is useful to recall that
N
Tx
N
Ty
Tx Ty
T T
T T

Note in particular that

( )
( )
N
y
N
x
N
Tx
N
Ty
Tx
Ty
M G
M G
P
P
P
P

despite the fact that
N
Tx Tx
P P and
N
Ty Ty
P P , since the entropy rise across the shock can be expressed
in terms of either normal or oblique total conditions:
N
Tx
N
Ty
Tx
Ty
N
Tx
N
Ty
N
Tx
N
Ty x y
Tx
Ty
Tx
Ty
P
P
P
P
P
P
T
T
R
s s
P
P
T
T

ln ln
1
ln ln
1
However, be cautious about applying relations derived for normal shocks. For example,
( )
( )
( )
( )
y
x
N
y
N
x
M G
M G
M G
M G

Since the flow changes direction across an oblique shock, one cannot simply assume that the oblique-
frame stream thrusts
x
F and
y
F are equal, which is the technique used to derive the expression for total
pressure ratio for the normal shock case.
It is helpful to depict the relation of the oblique shock and normal shock processes on a T-s diagram.
x y
T
T
T
T
N
T
Sy
T
Sx
s
y
s
x
u
2
/2c
p
The static property ratios can be determined as follows. The relation z T T
S T
, where
2
2
1
1 M z

+ ,
is always true for perfect gases. Hence we can find
Sx Sy
T T from either
N
y
N
x
N
x
N
Tx
N
y
N
Ty
Sx
Sy
z
z
z T
z T
T
T
or
y
x
x Tx
y Ty
Sx
Sy
z
z
z T
z T
T
T
.
The static pressure ratio can be handled similarly, except that the total pressure ratio is different from 1:
( )
( )
1
1
1

,
_

N
y
N
x
N
Tx
N
Ty
N
x
N
Tx
N
y
N
Ty
Sx
Sy
z
z
P
P
z P
z P
P
P
or
1
1
1

,
_

y
x
Tx
Ty
x Tx
y Ty
Sx
Sy
z
z
P
P
z P
z P
P
P
.
Figure 3 shows the total pressure ratio versus Mach number for oblique shocks, with lines of constant
superimposed.
Supersonic aircraft designers often exploit the properties of oblique shocks to achieve good inlet pressure
recovery at high flight Mach numbers. This chart makes clear why. The advantages of an oblique shock
inlet are analogous to the advantages of a swept wing by allowing the freestream air to pass through the
shock at an oblique angle, the strength of the shock is reduced because only the normal component of the
flow is compressed. There is often a tradeoff with inlet weight and complexity, as ramped inlets frequently
require variable geometry to achieve acceptable performance at all angles of attack and sideslip, across a
range of Mach numbers. In addition, the flow coming out of an oblique shock is almost always still
supersonic, often necessitating more ramps to generate oblique shocks. A final normal shock is almost
always a part of the shock system as well. Good pressure recovery in high Mach number flight requires
that the flow be slowed enough to enter the terminal normal shock at a low supersonic Mach number.
Figure 3
Flow_z.xls:PR vs Mx 9/27/00:9:43 AM
Total Pressure Ratio for Oblique Shock
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Mx
P
T
y
/
P
T
x
delta=5
delta=10
delta=15
delta=20
delta=25
delta=30
delta=35
Normal Shock
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
As a complement to oblique shocks, we now consider the so-called Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan. We have
seen that when a supersonic flow enters a concave corner, an oblique shock can result if the Mach number
is high enough, and a detached shock will form otherwise.
If, on the other hand, the corner is convex, instead of a shock that slows and compresses the flow, we
observe a flow that is accelerated and expanded. The flow disturbance associated with the corner is called
a Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan. In contrast with a compact shock wave with a few mean-free-paths
thickness, the Prandtl-Meyer fan extends over a finite angle, and is composed of Mach waves emanating
from the corner. The downstream Mach number is greater than the upstream Mach number, and is a
function of the upstream Mach number and the deflection angle.
Strictly speaking, the structure depicted above is a centered Prandtl-Meyer fan a general fan can occur
outside any concave surface in supersonic flow. However, the essential features of external supersonic
expansion can be discussed in the context of centered fans.
Unlike the oblique shock, the PM fan is an extended object. We find that it is necessary to analyze the
flow on a differential basis, that is, we analyze an infinitesimal deflection and derive a differential
equation that can be integrated to give the expansion as a function of deflection angle. We proceed to
derive the relation governing small angle changes across a Mach wave. Just as in the case of an oblique
shock, we note that the transverse component of velocity is the same on both sides of the Mach wave
only the normal component of velocity changes. In the following we let the infinitesimal deflection be
d .
It is more convenient in this case to work directly with the velocity before and after the infinitesimal
deflection. Exploiting a familiar trick to eliminate the transverse velocity, we see that the ratio of the
cosines of the included angles is
( )
( ) ( ) V
dV
dV V U
V U
d
+
+

1
cos
cos
The left-hand side of this equation can be rewritten and Taylor expanded for small d :
( )
( )
( ) ( ) + + +
+

tan 1 tan sec sec cos sec cos

cos
cos
d d d
d
&
Oblique shock compression Mach wave Prandtl-Meyer expansion

V+dV V
U U
+d
Thus we find

d
V
dV
tan
1
Now the wave angle is related to the Mach number by ( ) M 1 sin
1
.
Hence 1 1 tan
2
M .
It remains to express the ratio V dV in terms of Mach number. Since the total temperature does not
change across the Mach wave, we write
2
2
1
1 M
RT
M V
T

+

Differentiating this expression gives the relation

2
2
1
1
1
M M
dM
V
dV

+

Combining this with the result above gives the Prandtl-Meyer relation
2
2
1
2
1
1
M
M
M
dM
d

+

It is conventional to integrate this function from 1 M and call the resulting function ( ) M :
( ) ( ) 1 tan 1
1
1
tan
1
1
2 1 2 1

+


+


M M M
For any finite deflection , we thus find that the deflection is related to the upstream and downstream
Mach numbers though the Prandtl-Meyer function:
( ) ( )
1 2
M M
Determining a downstream Mach number given an upstream Mach number and a deflection thus requires
inverting the function ( ) M either numerically or graphically.
This function is plotted in the Figure 4.
1
2
M
M
1

Figure 4
Flowfunc.xls:PM nu 9/27/00:9:45 AM
Prandtl-Meyer Function (M)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
M
(M)
Note a key difference between Prandtl-Meyer expansions and the shock process: while shocks increase
entropy and result in a loss of total pressure, expansions do not. The total pressure along a streamline
passing through a Prandtl-Meyer fan does not change. Along with a constant total temperature, this
means that the static pressure and temperature can be determined simply from the upstream and
downstream Mach numbers:
2
1
1
2
z
z
T
T
S
S
and
1
2
1
1
2

,
_

z
z
P
P
S
S
The variation of static properties through a fan can be summarized by the ratio to sonic condition
properties, that is, by plotting
*
S S
T T and
*
S S
P P . The variation of these ratios with Mach number is
shown in Figure 5. Since the Prandtl-Meyer process is isentropic, it is simply a vertical line on a T-s
diagram.
The Diamond Airfoil
Our basic toolkit of compressible flow is nearly complete. As an example of the type of problem we are
now equipped to solve, consider a so-called diamond airfoil immersed in a supersonic flowfield. This is a
2d airfoil with the profile of a thin rhombus with chord length c and thickness t. If the Mach number is
high enough that all shocks remain attached, the Mach numbers, pressures, and temperatures can all be
calculated for the inviscid part of the flowfield. In particular the static pressure distribution over the airfoil
surface can be calculated. Predictions for lift and drag per unit span can be assembled, simply from
oblique-shock and Prandtl-Meyer expansion theory.
Applying dimensional analysis, we find that the lift and drag can be expressed as lift and drag coefficients
that are functions of upstream Mach number and thickness ratio c t . Finally, the airfoil can be set at an
angle of attack , resulting in different pressure distributions on the upper and lower surfaces. Again, if
all the shocks are still attached, the lift and drag coefficients can be expressed as a function of M
0
, c t ,
and .
c
t
M
0
Oblique
shock
PM Fan Oblique
shock
Figure 5
Flowfunc.xls:PM Ps and Ts 9/27/00:9:46 AM
Static T and P ratios for Prandtl-Meyer Fan
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
M
Ts/Ts*
Ps/Ps*