What is a computer?

A programmable machine, the two principal characteristics of a computer are: 1. It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. 2.It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components: Memory : Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs. Mass storage device : Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives. Input device : Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer. Output device : A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished. Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions.

Therefore this paragraph has been created with a listing of each of the first computers starting with the first programmable computer leading up to the computers of today. Keep in mind that early inventions such as the abacus, calculators, tablet machines, difference machine, etc. are not accounted for in this document. First programmable computer The Z1 originally created by Germany's Konrad Zuse in his parents living room in 1936 to 1938 is considered to be the first electrical binary programmable computer. The first digital computer Short for Atanasoff-Berry Computer, the ABC started being developed by Professor John Vincent Atanasoff and graduate student Cliff Berry in 1937 and continued to be developed until 1942 at the Iowa State College (now Iowa State University). On October 19, 1973, US Federal Judge Earl R. Larson signed his decision that the ENIAC patent by Eckert and Mauchly was invalid and named Atanasoff the inventor of the electronic digital computer. The ENIAC was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania and began construction in 1943 and was not completed until 1946. It occupied about 1,800 square feet and used about 18,000 vacuum tubes, weighing almost 50 tons. Although the Judge ruled that the ABC computer was the first digital computer many still consider the ENIAC to be the first digital computer. See the ENIAC definition for additional information about this computer. Because of the Judge ruling and because the case was never appealed like most we consider the ABC to be the first digital computer. However, because the ABC was never fully functional we consider the first functional digital computer to be the ENIAC. The first computer with RAM MIT introduces the Whirlwind machine March 8, 1955, a revolutionary computer that was the first digital computer with magnetic core RAM and real-time graphics. The first transistor computer The TX-O (Transistorized Experimental computer) and first transistorized computer is demonstrated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956. The first stored program computer The early British computer known as the EDSAC is considered to be the first stored program electronic computer. The computer performed its first calculation on May 6, 1949 and was the computer that ran the first graphical computer game. 2

The first minicomputer In 1960 Digital Equipment Corporation released its first of many PDP computers the PDP-1.

The first personal computer

In 1975 Ed Roberts coined the term personal computer when he introduced the Altair 8800. Although the first personal computer is considered to be the Kenback-1, which was first introduced for $750 in 1971. The computer relied on a series of switches for inputting data and output data by turning on and off a series of lights. The Micral is considered the be the first commercial non-assembly computer. The computer used the Intel 8008 processor and sold for $1,750 in 1973. The first workstation Although never sold the first workstation is considered to be the Xerox Alto, introduced in 1974. The computer was revolutionary for its time and included a fully functional computer, display, and mouse. The computer operated like many computers today utilizing windows, menus and icons as an interface to its operating system. The first laptop or portable computer The first portable computer or laptop is considered to be the Osborne I, a portable computer developed by Adam Osborne that weighed 24 pounds, a 5-inch display, 64 KB of memory, two 5 1/4" floppy drives, and a modem. IBM PCD later released the IBM portable in 1984, it's first portable computer that weighed in at 30 pounds. IBM PCD later announced in 1986 it's first laptop computer, the PC Convertible, weighing 12 pounds. And in 1994 introduces the IBM ThinkPad 775CD, the first notebook with an integrated CD-ROM. The first PC (IBM compatible) computer In 1953 IBM shipped its first electric computer, the 701. Later IBM introduced its first personal computer called the "IBM PC" in 1981. The computer was code named and still sometimes referred to as the "Acorn" and had a 8088 processor, 16 KB of memory, which was expandable to 256 and utilizing MS-DOS. The first PC clone The first PC clone was developed by Compaq, the "Compaq Portable" was release in March 1983 and was 100% compatible with IBM computers and software that ran on IBM computers.

The first Apple computer Steve Wozniak designed the first Apple known as the Apple I computer in 1976. The first computer company The first computer company was the Electronic Controls Company and was founded in 1949 by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, the same individuals who helped create the ENIAC computer. The company was later renamed to EMCC or Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation and released a series of mainframe computers under the UNIVAC name. The first multimedia computer In 1992 Tandy Radio Shack becomes one of the first companies to release a computer based on the MPC standard with its introduction of the M2500 XL/2 and M4020 SX computers. Other major computer company firsts Below is a listing of some of the major computers companies first computers. Compaq - March 1983 Compaq released its first computer and the first 100% IBM compatible computer the "Compaq Portable." Dell - In 1985 Dell introduced its first computer, the "Turbo PC." Hewlett Packard - In 1966 Hewlett Packard released its first general computer, the "HP2115." NEC - In 1958 NEC builds its first computer the "NEAC 1101." Toshiba - In 1954 Toshiba introduces its first computer, the "TAC" digital computer.

Another way of the history of computer

1939

Hewlett-Packard is Founded. David Packard and Bill Hewlett found Hewlett-Packard in a Palo Alto, California garage. Their first product was the HP 200A Audio Oscillator, which rapidly becomes a popular piece of test equipment for David Hewlett Packard in and their Bill engineers. Walt Disney Pictures ordered eight of the 200B Palo model to use as sound effects generators for the 1940 movie Fantasia.

Alto,California Garage

1946

ENIAC In February, the public got its first glimpse of the ENIAC, a machine built by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert that improved by 1,000 times on the speed of its contemporaries.

UNIVAC I The UNIVAC I delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau was the first commercial computer to attract widespread public attention. Although manufactured by Remington Rand, the machine often was mistakenly referred to as the "IBM UNIVAC." Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than $1 million each.F.O.B. factory $750,000 plus $185,000 for a high speed printer.

The Kenbak-1, the first personal computer, advertised for $750 in Scientific American. Designed by John V. Blankenbaker using standard medium-scale and small-scale integrated circuits, the Kenbak-1 relied on switches for input and lights for output from its 256Kenbak-1 byte memory. In 1973, after selling only 40 machines, Kenbak Corp. closed its doors.

1979 Atari introduces the Model 400 and 800 Computer. Shortly after delivery of the Atari VCS game console, Atari designed two microcomputers with game capabilities: the Model 400 and Model 800. The two machines were built with the idea that the 400 would serve primarily as a game console while the 800 Advertisment for Atari 400 and 5

would be more of a home computer. Both sold well, 800 computers though they had technical and marketing problems, and faced strong competition from the Apple II, Commodore PET, and TRS-80 computers.

1981

IBM introduced its PC, igniting a fast growth of the personal computer market. The first PC ran on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used Microsofts MS-DOS operating system.

Commodore introduces the Commodore 64. The C64, as it was better known, sold for $595, came with 64KB of RAM and featured impressive graphics. Thousands of software titles were released over the lifespan of the C64. By the time the C64 was discontinued in 1993, it had sold more than 22 million Early Publicity still for the Commodore 64 units and is recognized by the 2006 Guinness Book of World Records as the greatest selling single computer model of all time.

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap

Total Computer system

Hardware Input Devices Output Devices CPU Backing Storage

Software

Live ware Operators Programmers

Firmware Bootstrap pro.

System Software Ope. Sys. Ant.Vir.

Application Software

Languages Pascal VB JAVA

Packages Word Processing Spreadsheets Database

1.0 Hardware
To understand the basic components of computer hardware, it is very appropriate to consider a normal clerical system as an analogy. The table compares the computer system hardware with a manual clerical system. Hardware can be classified in to main categories which can following, Input Device Output Devices CPU Backing Storage

Input Devices

There are wide Varity of input devices to input data, text, graphics, images and sounds. As a result the use of computer has extended to many areas in organizations. Input unites are used to feed data and instructions to the computer system. And provide the interface between the outside world and the computer system for this purpose. There are most common examples.

Keyboard

Mouse

Scanner

Dig. Camera

Latest Input devices

Output Devices
To be effective, the computers most produce the information in the best possible from to a given situation. To achieve this goal a wide variety of output devices had been developed in the past. Here are some output devices.

Monitor Speaker I/O System

Printer

Latest Output devices

Computer Storage.

Secondary Storage
Alternatively referred to as external memory and auxiliary storage, secondary storage is a storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten regardless if the computer has power. For example, a floppy disk drive and hard disk drive are both good examples of secondary storage devices. As can be seen by the below picture there are three different storage on a computer, although primary storage is accessed much faster than secondary storage because of the price and size limitations secondary storage is used with today's computers to store all your programs and your personal data.

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 Finally, although off-line storage could be considered secondary storage, we've separated these into their own category because this media can be easily removed from the computer and stored elsewhere.

Internal Storage
There few types of internal storage. Primary storage, Main storage, Immediate access storage, RAM And ROM.

RAM
Pronounced ram, acronym for random access memory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is the most common type of memory found in computers and other devices, such as printers. There are two different types of RAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory). The two types differ in the technology they use to hold data, with DRAM being the more common type. In terms of speed, SRAM is faster. DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second while SRAM does not need to be refreshed, which is what makes it faster than DRAM. DRAM supports access times of about 60 nanoseconds, SRAM can give access times as low as 10 nanoseconds. Despite SRAM being faster, it's not as commonly used as DRAM because it's so much more expensive. Both types of RAM

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are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off. In common usage, the term RAM is synonymous with main memory, the memory available to programs. For example, a computer with 8MB RAM has approximately 8 million bytes of memory that programs can use. In contrast, ROM (read-only memory) refers to special memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics. Most personal computers have a small amount of ROM (a few thousand bytes). In fact, both types of memory (ROM and RAM) allow random access. To be precise, therefore, RAM should be referred to as read/write RAM and ROM as read-only RAM. Latest RAM s.

The XDR2 memory architecture is the world's fastest memory system solution capable of providing twice the peak bandwidth per device when compared to a GDDR5-based system. Further, the XDR2 memory architecture delivers this performance at 30% lower power than GDDR5 at equivalent bandwidth. Designed for scalability, power efficiency and manufacturability, the XDR2 architecture is a complete memory solution ideally suited for high-performance gaming, graphics and multi-core compute applications. Initial systems can achieve memory bandwidths of over 500GB/s into an SoC. Each XDR DRAM can deliver up to 38.4GB/s of peak bandwidth from a single, 4-byte-wide, 9.6Gbps XDR2 DRAM device, and the XDR2 architecture supports a roadmap to device bandwidths of over 50GB/s.

DDR3 Memory Interface Solution

The Ram bus DDR3 memory interface solution is a high-performance, low-cost PHY tailored for consumer electronics. Ram bus' consumer DDR3 PHY solution is capable of supporting data rates of up to 1600 mega transfers per second (MT/s) in a low-cost wire bond package. It incorporates patented innovations such as on-chip Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs), Delay-Locked Loops (DLLs), Flex Phase Timing Adjustment circuits, Output Driver Calibration, and On Die Termination (ODT) Calibration to provide a complete memory solution. The PHY also provides backwards compatibility for DDR2 SDRAM applications.

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ROM
Pronounced ram, acronym for read-only memory, computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile, whereas RAM is volatile. Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programs such as the program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are used extensively in calculators and peripheral devices such as laser printers, whose fonts are often stored in ROMs. A variation of a ROM is a PROM (programmable read-only memory). PROMs are manufactured as blank chips on which data can be written with a special device called a PROM programmer .

Types of ROM Chips

PROM
Short for Programmable Read Only Memory, Programmable ROM, or PROM is a computer memory chip capable of being programmed. Once the PROM has been programmed, the information written is permanent and cannot be erased or deleted. A good example of a PROM is the computer BIOS.

EPROM
Short for Eras able Programmable Read-Only Memory, ERPOM is a memory chip that was invented by Dov Frohman that can be read from but not stored to. However, if exposed to ultraviolet light and can be reprogrammed if needed. Hardware manufactures use EPROM when it may be needed that the data contained on the EPROM needs to be changed. An EPROM chip is easily distinguishable by a small glass circle that exposes the chip that can be reprogrammed.

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EEPROM
Short for Electrically Eras able Programmable Read-Only Memory, EEPROM is a PROM that can be erased and reprogrammed using an electrical charge. Unlike most memory inside a computer, this memory remembers data when the power is turned off. EEPROM is often used to store information for the computer's BIOS.

Latest Storage devices.

CPU
Pronounced as separate letters it is the abbreviation for central processing unit. The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor. Since the 1970's the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other CPU implementations. 14

The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs are small and square and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside. The CPU is inserted directly into a CPU socket, pin side down, on the motherboard. Each motherboard will support only a specific type or range of CPU so you must check the motherboard manufacturer's specifications attempting to before replace or

upgrade a CPU. Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go directly on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat. Two typical components of a CPU are the following: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations. The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

List of Intel microprocessors

12 32-bit processors: P5 micro architecture

o o

12.1 Original Pentium 12.2 Pentium with MMX Technology

13 32-bit processors: P6/Pentium M micro architecture

o o o o o o o o o o o

13.1 Pentium Pro 13.2 Pentium II 13.3 Celeron (Pentium II-based) 13.4 Pentium III 13.5 Pentium II and III Xeon 13.6 Celeron (Pentium III Coppermine-based) 13.7 Celeron (Pentium III Tualatin-based) 13.8 Pentium M 13.9 Celeron M 13.10 Intel Core 13.11 Dual-Core Xeon LV

14 32-bit processors: Net Burst micro architecture 15

o o o o o o

14.1 Pentium 4 14.2 Xeon 14.3 Mobile Pentium 4-M 14.4 Pentium 4 EE 14.5 Pentium 4E 14.6 Pentium 4F

15 64-bit processors: IA-64

o o

15.1 Itanium 15.2 Itanium 2

16 64-bit processors: Intel 64 Net Burst micro architecture

o o o o

16.1 Pentium 4F 16.2 Pentium D 16.3 Pentium Extreme Edition 16.4 Xeon

17 64-bit processors: Intel 64 Core micro architecture

o o o o o

17.1 Xeon 17.2 Intel Core 2 17.3 Pentium Dual Core 17.4 Celeron 17.5 Celeron M

18 32-bit processors: Intel 32 Intel Atom 19 64-bit processors: Intel 64 Nehalem micro architecture
o o o o o

19.1 Intel Pentium 19.2 Core i3 19.3 Core i5 19.4 Core i7 19.5 Xeon

A CPU socket or CPU slot

A CPU socket or CPU slot is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical connections between a device (usually a microprocessor) and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows the CPU to be replaced without risking the damage typically introduced when using soldering tools.

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Common sockets utilize retention clips that are designed to apply a constant force, which must be overcome when a device is inserted. For chips that sport a high number of pin outs, either zero-insertion force (ZIF) sockets or land grid array (LGA) sockets are used instead. These designs apply a compression force once either a handle (for ZIF type) or a surface plate (LGA type) is put into place. This provides superior mechanical retention while avoiding the added risk of bending pins when inserting the chip into the socket. CPU sockets are used in desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs). Because they allow easy swapping of components, they are also used for prototyping new circuits.

Function
A CPU socket is often made up of plastic, a metal lever or latch, and metal contacts for each of the pins or lands on the CPU. Most packages are keyed to ensure the proper insertion of the CPU. CPUs with a PGA package are inserted into the socket and the latch is closed. This has the effect of physically securing and protecting the CPU as well as causing an electrical connection between all the CPU pins and the socket. In the case of LGA, the CPU is placed onto the socket and a latch is closed over the CPU, securing it. Most CPU sockets are designed to support the installation of a heatsink. It must be able to protect the CPU from the weight of the heatsink (often very heavy in weight relative to the CPU) particularly during the installation and removal, while also ensuring that the heatsink makes good thermal contact with the CPU.

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Year Socket name of introd uction DIP 1970s Intel Intel 8088 Intel PLCC ? Intel Intel 80386 Socket 1 Socket 2 Socket 3 Socket 4 1991 1989 Intel 80486 Intel 80486 Intel 80486 Intel Pentium Intel Socket 5 AMD IDT WinChip Pentium K5 C6 PGA 320 50-66 MHz PGA PGA PGA PGA 169 238 237 273 16-50 MHz 16-50 MHz 16-50 MHz 60-66 MHz 80186 80286 PLCC 68, 132 6-40 MHz 8086 DIP 40 5/10 MHz CPU families Packa ge Pin count Bus speed

IDT WinChip 2 Socket 6 Intel 80486 Intel Socket 7 1994 Intel AMD K6 AMD Super Socket 7 1998 AMD Rise Cyrix MII Socket 8 1995 Intel Pentium Pro Intel Slot 1 1997 Intel Pentium III Slot 2 Socket 463/ Socket NexGen Socket 499 Slot A 1999 Alpha 21164A AMD Athlon Slot Slot 587 242 100 MHz NexGen Nx586 PGA 463 1998 Intel Pentium II Xeon Slot 330 100-133 MHz Pentium II Slot 242 66-133 MHz PGA 387 60-66 MHz AMD K6-2 K6-III mP6 PGA 321 66-100 MHz Pentium Pentium MMX PGA 321 50-66 MHz PGA 235

18

Slot B

Alpha 21264 Intel Pentium III Celeron Cyrix III

Slot

587

Socket 370

1999

Intel VIA VIA C3

PGA

370

66-133 MHz

100-200 MHz This AMD Socket 462/ Socket A 2000 AMD AMD AMD AMD Athlon Athlon Athlon Athlon Duron XP XP-M MP PGA 462 is a double data rate bus having a 400 MT/s (megatransfers/seco nd) fsb in the later models Socket 423 Socket 478/ Socket N Socket 495 Socket 603 Socket 604 Socket 754 Socket 940 Socket 479 2000 2000 Intel Pentium 4 Intel Intel Intel Pentium Pentium 4 Celeron 4 EE PGA 478 400-800 MT/s (100200 MHz) PGA 423 400 (100 MHz) MT/s

AMD Sempron

Intel Pentium 4 M 2000 Intel Celeron PGA 495 400-533 MT/s (100133 MHz) 400-1066 MT/s

2001

Intel Xeon

PGA

603

2002

Intel Xeon AMD Athlon 64

PGA

604

(100-266 MHz)

2003

AMD AMD Turion 64

Sempron PGA

754

200-800 MHz

2003

AMD Opteron Athlon 64 FX Intel Pentium M

PGA

940 479[9]

200-1000 MHz 400-533 MT/s (100133 MHz)

2003

Intel Celeron M AMD Athlon Athlon Athlon 64 64 64 FX X2

PGA

Socket 939

2004

AMD AMD

PGA

939

200-1000 MHz

AMD Opteron LGA 775/ 2004 Intel Intel Pentium Pentium 4 D LGA 775 1600 MHz

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Socket T

Intel Intel Intel Intel Intel Celeron Pentium Core Core 2 2

Celeron D XE Duo Quad

Intel Xeon

Latest Processor sockets.

LGA 1366/ Socket B Intel Core i7 (800 series) Intel Core i5 (700, 600 LGA 1156/ Socket H 2009 series) Intel Core i3 (500 series) Intel Xeon (X3400, L3400 series) Intel Pentium (G6000 series) Intel Celeron (G1000 series) LGA 1248 LGA 1567 LGA 1155/ Socket H2 LGA 2011/ Socket R Future (2011/ Q3) Year Socket name of introd uction CPU families Packa ge Pin count Bus speed Intel Sandy Bridge B2 LGA 2011 4.8-6.4 GT/s (2011/ Q1) Intel Sandy Bridge-DT LGA 1155 2.5 GT/s 2010 Intel Intel Itanium 9300series Intel Intel Xeon 6500/7500series LGA 1248 4.8 GT/s LGA 1156 2.5 GT/s 2008 Intel Core i7 (900 series) LGA 1366 4.8-6.4 GT/s

2010

LGA

1567

4.8-6.4 GT/s

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CONTROL UNIT The control unit maintains order within the computer system and directs the flow of traffic (operations) and data. The flow of control is indicated by the dotted arrows on figure 1-1. The control unit selects one program statement at a time from the program storage area, interprets the statement, and sends the appropriate electronic impulses to the arithmetic-logic unit and storage section to cause them to carry out the instruction. The control unit does not perform the actual processing operations on the data. Specifically, the control unit manages the operations of the CPU, be it a single-chip microprocessor or a fill-size mainframe. Like a traffic director, it decides when to start and stop (control and timing), what to do (program instructions), where to keep information (memory), and with what devices to communicate (I/O). It controls the flow of all data entering and leaving the computer. It accomplishes this by communicating or interfacing with the

arithmetic-logic unit, memory, and I/O areas. It provides the computer with the ability to function under program control. Depending on the design of the computer, the CPU can also have the capability to function under manual control through man/machine interfacing. The control unit consists of several basic logically defined areas. These logically defined areas work closely with each other. Timing in a computer regulates the flow of signals that control the operation of the computer. The instruction and control portion makes up the decision-making and memory-type functions. Addressing is the process of locating the operand (specific information) for a given operation. An interrupt is a break in the normal flow of operation of a computer (e.g., CTRL + ALT + DEL). Control memory is a random-access memory (RAM) consisting of addressable storage registers. Cache memory is a small, high-speed RAM buffer located between the CPU and main memory; it can increase the speed of the PC. Read-only memory (ROM) are chips with a set of software instructions supplied by the manufacturer built into them that enables the computer to perform its I/O operations. The control unit is also capable of shutting down the computer when the power supply detects abnormal conditions. ARITHMETICLOGIC UNIT The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs all arithmetic operations

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CPU speedy is improving its abilities. Here are latest CPUs

AMD Talks Llano & Radeon HD 6800 Written by Rob Williams on October 19, 2010 In AMD Processors AMD invited both media and vendors down to Los Angeles last week to learn about the company's upcoming products and technologies, such as the Fusion-based Llano CPU (err, APU) and Radeon HD 6800 series. We were there, and have some preliminary information on both, as well as some light information about the event itself.

Intel's Core i5-655K & i7-875K Unlocked Processors Written by Rob Williams on May 28, 2010 In Intel Processors Most of today's desktop CPUs, including budget models, tend to be good for overclocking. But for those who are looking for the ultimate in tweaking ability, Intel's mainstream models have left a bit to be desired. With the K series, though, it aims to remedy that situation by offering unlocked models at affordable prices. Phenom II X6 1090T - AMD Enters the Six-Core Arena Written by Rob Williams on April 28, 2010 In AMD Processors In March, it was Intel's turn, and this month, it's AMD's. That's right, we're at the point when Phenom II X6's are hitting the market and giving consumers a much less expensive six-core CPU to chose from. We're taking a look at AMD's top-end offering, the 1090T BE, and also a brief look at the company's new 890FX chipset. Intel's Core i7-980X Extreme Edition - Ready for Sick Scores? Written by Rob Williams on March 10, 2010 In Intel Processors It's official. We're now entering the six-core realm, thanks to Intel's Gulftown. The first model, Core i7-980X, is more than capable of delivering the sick scores that our title suggests, and along with it, we can begin to see some major benefits of the 32nm process. To sweeten the deal further, Intel even includes an effective new CPU cooler. Intel's Core i3-530 - The Budget Powerhouse? Written by Rob Williams on March 4, 2010 In Intel Processors When Intel launched its Westmere-based line-up this past January, one of the more interesting models released was the Core i3-530. The big

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reason was its budget $120 price tag. But if there's one thing that can make a budget chip interesting, it's overclocking, and fortunately, there's huge potential where this chip is concerned.

Dream Processor for the Graphics Industry Intel Core i7 Extreme

The previous article was an introduction to Speed King Intel i7 Core 975 Extreme Edition flagship processor. As only an introduction is not enough to completely describe the processor, we conducted several tests with the processor and prepared a review that targets the Graphics and the Animation industry. If you need a one line conclusion Quad-Core and Multi-Core Xeon Intel released relabeled versions of its quad-core (2x2) Core 2 Quad processor as the Xeon 3200-series (product code 80562) on 7 January 2007.[10] The 2x2 "quad-core" (dual-die dual-core[11]) comprised two separate dual-core die next to each other in one CPU package. The models are the X3210, X3220 and X3230, running at 2.13 GHz, 2.4 GHz and 2.66 GHz, respectively.[12] Like the 3000-series, these models only support single-CPU operation and operate on a 1066 MHz front-side bus. It is targeted at the "blade" market. The X3220 is also branded and sold as Core2 Quad Q6600, the X3230 as Q6700. Model Speed (GHz) L2 Cache (MB) FSB (MHz) TDP (W) X3210 2.13 2x4 1066 100/105 X3220 2.40 2x4 1066 100/105 X3230 2.66 2x4 1066 100

Motherboard
The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, 23

keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset. On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely. Motherboard is sometimes abbreviated as mobo.

The block diagram of a computer

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Main types of computers

1. Historic evolution

2. Size and cost 3. Data representation 4. Purpose of the computer

1.0 Historic evolution

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their firstgeneration predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

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Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computerfrom the central processing unit and memory to input/output controlson a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

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Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

II, Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higherquality monitor.

Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.

Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest

computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and 27

are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research. Minicomputer It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small But minicomputers in general, and a

workstations.

minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of

applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common OS for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems. 28

Personal computer: It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet. Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

III, Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. 29

Tower model The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. Desktop model A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Notebook and. Laptop computer A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers. Hand-held computer A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens..

Palmtop computer
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. PDA Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking features.

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2.0 software.
Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is The storage devices and display devices are hardware. The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem." The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.

Software is often divided into two categories:

Systems software : Includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. Applications software : Includes programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems fall under the category of applications software.

Application (application software)

A program or group of programs designed for end users. Application software can be divided into two general classes: systems software and applications software. Systems software consists of low-level programs that interact with the computer at a very basic level. This includes operating systems, compilers, and utilities for managing computer resources. In contrast, applications software (also called end-user programs) includes database programs, word processors, and spreadsheets. Figuratively speaking, applications software sits on top of systems software because it is unable to run without the operating

31

system and system utilities. There are two types of Application software. Languages and Packages. 1. Languages.

2. Packages.

Spreadsheet package.
A table of values arranged in rows and columns. Each value can have a predefined relationship to the other values. If you change one value, therefore, you may need to change other values as well. Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are computer programs that let you create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically. In a spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cell. You can define what type of data is in each cell and how different cells depend on one another. The relationships between cells are called formulas, and the names of the cells are called labels. Once you have defined the cells and the formulas for linking them together, you can enter your data. You can then modify selected values to see how all the other values change accordingly. This enables you to study various what-if scenarios. A simple example of a useful spreadsheet application is one that calculates mortgage payments for a house. You would define five cells: 1. total cost of the house 2. down payment 3. mortgage rate 4. mortgage term 5. monthly payment

32

Once you had defined how these cells depend on one another, you could enter numbers and play with various possibilities. For example, keeping all the other values the same, you could see how different mortgage rates would affect your monthly payments. There are a number of spreadsheet applications on the market, Lotus 1-2-3 and Excel being among the most famous. The more powerful spreadsheet applications support graphics features that enable you to produce charts and graphs from the data. Most spreadsheet applications are multidimensional, meaning that you can link one spreadsheet to another. A three-dimensional spreadsheet, for example, is like a stack of spreadsheets all connected by formulas. A change made in one spreadsheet automatically affects other spreadsheets.

Database management packages.

A collection of programs that enables you to store, modify, and extract information from a database. There are many different types of DBMSs, ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. The following are examples of database applications:

computerized library systems automated teller machines flight reservation systems computerized parts inventory systems

From a technical standpoint, DBMSs can differ widely. The terms relational, network, flat, and hierarchical all refer to the way a DBMS organizes information internally. The internal organization can affect how quickly and flexibly you can extract information. Requests for information from a database are made in the form of a query, which is a stylized question. For example, the query SELECT ALL WHERE NAME = "SMITH" AND AGE > 35 requests all records in which the NAME field is SMITH and the AGE field is greater than 35. The set of rules for constructing queries is known as a query language. Different 33

DBMSs support different query languages, although there is a semi-standardized query language called SQL (structured query language). Sophisticated languages for managing database systems are called fourth-generation languages, or 4GLs for short. The information from a database can be presented in a variety of formats. Most DBMSs include a report writer program that enables you to output data in the form of a report. Many DBMSs also include a graphics component that enables you to output information in the form of graphs and charts.

Word Processing Package.

Latest Word processing systems

Graphic design packages.

Latest Graphic design systems.

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Systems software
Refers to the operating system and all utility programs that manage computer resources at a low level. Software is generally divided into systems software and applications software. Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as Includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. Translators, All Communication Software and Productivity software.

Operating system

35

The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Operating systems can be classified as follows: Multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU. Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently. Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently. Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time. Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux. As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and executed by a part of the operating system called the 36

command processor or command line interpreter. Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking at objects that appear on the screen.

Newest operating systems.

1. Windows seven.

2. Ubuntu 10.9

3. Slitaz

4. Kubuntu 10.10

5. Linux sent OS

Antivirus system software.

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3.0 Firm Ware

Software (programs or data) that has been written onto read-only memory (ROM). Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. ROMs, PROMs and EPROMs that have data or programs recorded on them are firmware

4.0

Live War

Ex :-The Operators , Programmers The Users

The Other hardware is most wanted to computers.

AGP
Short for Accelerated Graphics Port, an interface specification developed by Intel Corporation. AGP is based on PCI, but is designed especially for the throughput demands of 3-D graphics. Rather than using the PCI bus for graphics data, AGP introduces a dedicated point-to-point channel so that the graphics controller can directly access main memory. The AGP channel is 32 bits wide and runs at 66 MHz. This translates into a total bandwidth of 266 MBps, as opposed to the PCI bandwidth of 133 MBps. AGP also supports two optional faster modes, with throughputs of 533 MBps and 1.07 GBps. In addition, AGP allows 3-D textures to be stored in main memory rather than video memory. AGP has a couple important system requirements: The chipset must support AGP. The motherboard must be equipped with an AGP bus slot or must have an integrated AGP graphics system. The operating system must be the OSR 2.1 version of Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT 4.0. And currently, many professional Macintoshes support AGP.

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 CD-ROM
Pronounced see-dee-rom. Short for Compact Disc-ReadOnly Memory, a type of optical disk capable of storing large amounts of data -- up to 1GB, although the most common size is 650MB (megabytes). A single CDROM has the storage capacity of 700 floppy disks, enough memory to store about 300,000 text pages. CD-ROMs are stamped by the vendor, and once stamped, they cannot be erased and filled with new data. To read a CD, you need a CD-ROM player. All CD-ROMs conform to a standard size and format, so you can load any type of CD-ROM into any CD-ROM player. In addition, CD-ROM players are capable of playing audio CDs, which share the same technology. CD-ROMs are particularly well-suited to information that requires large storage capacity. This includes large software applications that support color, graphics, sound, and especially video.

CMOS
Short for complementary metal oxide semiconductor. Pronounced see-moss, CMOS is a widely used type of semiconductor. CMOS semiconductors use both NMOS (negative polarity) and PMOS (positive polarity) circuits. Since only one of the circuit types is on at any given time, CMOS chips require less power than chips using just one type of transistor. This makes them particularly attractive for use in batterypowered devices, such as portable computers. Personal computers also contain a small amount of battery-powered CMOS memory to hold the date, time, and system setup parameters.

39

PCI
(1) Short for Peripheral Component Interconnect, a local bus standard developed by Intel Corporation. Most modern PCs include a PCI bus in addition to a more general ISA expansion bus. PCI is also used on some versions of the Macintosh computer. PCI is a 64-bit bus, though it is usually implemented as a 32-bit bus. It can run at clock speeds of 33 or 66 MHz. At 32 bits and 33 MHz, it yields a throughput rate of 133 MBps. Although it was developed by Intel, PCI is not tied to any particular family of microprocessors. Also see PCI-X and PCI Express. (2) Short for Payment Card Industry. See related terms PCI compliance (PCI DSS) and Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council (PCI SSC).

VGA
Abbreviation of video graphics array, a graphics display system for PCs developed by IBM. VGA has become one of the de facto standards for PCs. In text mode, VGA systems provide a resolution of 720 by 400 pixels. In graphics mode, the resolution is either 640 by 480 (with 16 colors) or 320 by 200 (with 256 colors). The total palette of colors is 262,144. Unlike earlier graphics standards for PCs -- MDA, CGA, and EGA -- VGA uses analog signals rather than digital signals. Consequently, a monitor designed for one of the older standards will not be able to use VGA. Since its introduction in 1987, several other standards have been developed that offer greater resolution and more colors (see SVGA , 8514/A graphics standard, and XGA), but VGA remains the lowest common denominator. All PCs made today support VGA, and possibly some other more advanced standard. 40

 Monitor

)(1) Another term for display screen. The term monitor, however, usually refers to the entire box, whereas display screen can mean just the screen. In addition, the term monitor often implies graphics capabilities. There are many ways to classify monitors. The most basic is in terms of color capabilities, which separates monitors into three classes: Monochrome : Monochrome monitors actually display two colors, one for the background and one for the foreground. The colors can be black and white, green and black, or amber and black. Gray-scale

: A gray-scale monitor is a special type of monochrome monitor

capable of displaying different shades of gray. Color

: Color monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million

different colors. Color monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors because they accept three separate signals -- red, green, and blue. 41

PCI Express
An I/O interconnect bus standard (which includes a protocol and a layered architecture) that expands on and doubles the data transfer rates of original PCI. PCI Express is a two-way, serial connection that carries data in packets along two pairs of point-to-point data lanes, compared to the single parallel data bus of traditional PCI that routes data at a set rate. Initial bit rates for PCI Express reach 2.5Gb/s per lane direction, which equate to data transfer rates of approximately 200MB/s. PCI Express was developed so that high-speed interconnects such as 1394b, USB 2.0, InfiniBand and Gigabit Ethernet would have an I/O architecture suitable for their transfer high speeds.

port
(n.) (1) An interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. Personal computers have various types of ports. Internally, there are several ports for connecting disk drives, display screens, and keyboards. Externally, personal computers have ports for connecting modems, printers, mice, and other peripheral devices. Almost all personal computers come with a serial RS-232C port or RS-422 port for connecting a modem or mouse and a parallel port for connecting a printer. On PCs, the parallel port is a Centronics interface that uses a 25-pin connector. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) ports support higher transmission speeds than do conventional ports and enable you to attach up to seven devices to the same port. (2) In TCP/IP and UDP networks, an endpoint to a logical connection. The port number identifies what type of port it is. For example, port 80 is used for HTTP traffic.

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ATX
The modern-day shape and layout of PC motherboards. It improves on the previous standard, the Baby AT form factor, by rotating the orientation of the board 90 degrees. This allows for a more efficient design, with disk drive cable connectors nearer to the drive bays and the CPU closer to the power supply and cooling fan.

Cache Memory

)Pronounced cash, a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed storage device. Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers: memory caching and disk caching. A memory cache, sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory. Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions over and over. By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM. Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors. The Intel 80486 microprocessor, for example, contains an 8K memory cache, and the Pentium has a 16K cache. Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches. Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, called Level 2 (L2) caches. These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger. Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching, but instead of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses conventional main memory. The most recently 43

accessed data from the disk (as well as adjacent sectors) is stored in a memory buffer. When a program needs to access data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache to see if the data is there. Disk caching can dramatically improve the performance of applications, because accessing a byte of data in RAM can be thousands of times faster than accessing a byte on a hard disk. When data is found in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the effectiveness of a cache is judged by its hit rate. Many cache systems use a technique known as smart caching, in which the system can recognize certain types of frequently used data. The strategies for determining which information should be kept in the cache constitute some of the more interesting problems in computer science.

clock speed
Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions. Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second. Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz ((GHz). The internal architecture of a CPU has as much to do with a CPU's performance as the clock speed, so two CPUs with the same clock speed will not necessarily perform equally. Whereas an Intel 80286 microprocessor requires 20 cycles to multiply two numbers, an Intel 80486 or later processor can perform the same calculation in a single clock tick. (Note that clock tick here refers to the system's clock, which runs at 66 MHz for all PCs.) These newer processors, therefore, would be 20 times faster than the older processors even if their clock speeds were the same. In addition, some microprocessors are superscalar, which means that they can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle. Like CPUs, expansion buses also have clock speeds. Ideally, the CPU clock speed and the bus clock speed should be the same so that neither component slows down the other. In practice, the bus clock speed is often slower than the CPU clock speed, which creates a bottleneck. This is why new local buses, such as AGP, have been developed.

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 bus
(1) A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another. You can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a computer. When used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus. This is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main memory. There's also an expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the CPU and memory. All buses consist of two parts -- an address bus and a data bus. The data bus transfers actual data whereas the address bus transfers information about where the data should go. The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data can be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits of data. Every bus has a clock speed measured in MHz. A fast bus allows data to be transferred faster, which makes applications run faster. On PCs, the old ISA bus is being replaced by faster buses such as PCI. Nearly all PCs made today include a local bus for data that requires especially fast transfer speeds, such as video data. The local bus is a high-speed pathway that connects directly to the processor. Several different types of buses are used on Apple Macintosh computers. Older Macs use a bus called NuBus, but newer ones use PCI.

Internal data bus

Nearly every computer contains internal and external data buses. The internal data bus, also known as a local bus, connects all components that are on the motherboard, like the CPU and memory.

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External data bus

The external data bus connects all peripheral devices to the motherboard. A bus that connects a computer to peripheral devices. Two examples are the Universal Serial Bus (USB) and IEEE 1394. Contrast with internal data bus. The bit width of internal and external data buses are not always equal. o understand how a computer moves data between components, visualize each device on the data bus (including the CPU) connected to the bus by means of a collection of on/off switches. By "looking at" which conductors have power and which ones do not, the device can read the data as it is sent by another device. The on-off state of a line gives the value of 0 (on) or 1 (off). The wires "spell out" a code of binary numbers that the computer interprets and then routes to another system component or to the user by means of an output device such as a monitor or printer. Communication occurs when voltage is properly applied to, or read from, any of the conductors by the system. Figure 4.2 illustrates a data bus connected to a CPU and a device.

External data bus Coded messages can be sent into or out of any device connected to the external data bus. Think of the data bus as a large highway with parallel lanes. Extending that analogy, bits are like cars traveling side by side-each carries part of a coded message. Microprocessors are used to turn the coded messages into data that performs a meaningful task for the computer's user.

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Address bus
A collection of wires connecting the CPU with main memory that is used to identify particular locations (addresses) in main memory. The width of the address bus (that is, the number of wires) determines how many unique memory locations can be addressed. Modern PCs and Macintoshes have as many as 36 address lines, which enables them theoretically to access 64 GB (gigabytes) of main memory. However, the actually amount of memory that can be accessed is usually much less than this theoretical limit due to chipset and motherboard limitations.

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48

What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared network medium. A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with other remote users. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more important. Every network includes:

At least two computers Server or Client workstation. Networking Interface Card's (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between networked computers and peripherals is also possible.

Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.

Types of Networks: LANs (Local Area Networks) A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared network medium. LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

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WANs (Wide Area Networks) Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.

Internet The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups.

VPN (Virtual Private Network)

VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet instead of making longdistance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two ways to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to Internet.

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Network

can

be

divided in to two main categories:

Peer-to-peer. Server based.

In

peer-to-peer

networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the computers are

equal and therefore known Normally as peers. each

computer serves as Client/Server there is no and one

assigned to be an administrator responsible entire for the

network.

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small

organizations where the users are allocated in the same general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the network will have limited growth within the foreseeable future.

The term Client/server refers to the concept of sharing the work involved in processing data between the client computer and the most powerful server computer.

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The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:

Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and Document management.

Network management. Centralized file storage.

The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing. At the heart of the model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor. The division of labor between the different processors enables the application designer to place an application function on the processor that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software designer optimize the use of processors--providing the greatest possible return on investment for the hardware.

Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application function. The user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application function locations enables system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware and software.

The OSI Model:

Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has become an

International standard and serves as a guide for networking. This model is the best known and most widely used guide to describe networking

environments. Vendors design network products based on the specifications of the OSI model. It provides a

description of how network hardware and software work together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. It 52

also helps with trouble shooting by providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed to function.

There are seven to get familiar with and these are the physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and the application layer.

Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables, and there media along with the length. Also this layer takes note of the electrical signals that transmit data throughout system.

Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the electrical signals in the network. The layer also determines the size and format of data sent to printers, and other devices. Also I don't want to forget that these are also called nodes in the network. Another thing to consider in this layer is will also allow and define the error detection and correction schemes that insure data was sent and received.

Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two dissimilar networks.

Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for data to be distributed and addressed to other nodes (workstations).

Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one node (workstation) to another node (workstation). A session has to be made before we can transport information to another computer.

Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the node.

Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will communicate with say the operation system of a server. A good example would be using your web browser to interact with the operating system on a server such as Windows NT, which in turn gets the data you requested.

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Network Architectures:
Ethernet Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk. Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support 54

virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today. The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well as specifying how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently. Fast Ethernet For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. Token Ring Token Ring is another form of network configuration which differs from Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is transmitted in tokens, which are passed along the ring and viewed by each device. When a device sees a message addressed to it, that device copies the message and then marks that message as being read.

Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token Ring networks at different times and thus these types of networks have been implemented in many organizations. FDDI FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on fiber optic lines in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol. In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can support thousands of users.

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Protocols:
Network protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling lost or damaged transmissions or "packets." TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95 and other platforms), IPX (for Novell NetWare), DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers), AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks) are the main types of network protocols in use today.

Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This common method of accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist over the network media, and allows the builder of a network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept is known as "protocol independence," Some Important Protocols and their job: Protocol Point-To-Point Acronym Its Job TCP/IP The backbone protocol of the internet. Popular also for intranets using the internet Transmission Control TCP/IP The backbone protocol of the internet. Popular also for intranets using the internet Internetwork Exchange/Sequenced Exchange NetBIOS Interface File Transfer Protocol FTP Extended User NetBEUI This is a Microsoft protocol that doesn't support routing to other networks Used to send and receive files from a remote host Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTP 56 Used for the web to send documents that Package IPX/SPX This is a standard protocol for Novell Packet Network Operating System

Protocol/internet Protocol

are encoded in HTML. Network File Services NFS Allows network nodes or workstations to access files and drives as if they were their own. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol SMTP Telnet Used to send Email over a network Used to connect to a host and emulate a terminal that the remote server can recognize

Introduction to TCP/IP Networks:

TCP/IP-based networks play an increasingly important role in computer networks. Perhaps one reason for their appeal is that they are based on an open specification that is not controlled by any vendor. What Is TCP/IP? TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. The term TCP/IP is not limited just to these two protocols, however. Frequently, the term TCP/IP is used to refer to a group of protocols related to the TCP and IP protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Terminal Emulation Protocol (TELNET), and so on. The Origins of TCP/IP In the late 1960s, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency), in the United States, noticed that there was a rapid proliferation of computers in military communications. Computers, because they can be easily programmed, provide flexibility in achieving network functions that is not available with other types of communications equipment. The computers then used in military communications were manufactured by different vendors and were designed to interoperate with computers from that vendor only. Vendors used proprietary protocols in their communications equipment. The military had a multi vendor network but no common protocol to support the heterogeneous equipment from different vendors

57

Net work Cables and Stuff:

In the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the, coaxial cable, fiber optic and twisted pair. Thick Coaxial Cable This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and has two conductors. This coax can be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is made up of a solid center wire with a braided metal shield and plastic sheathing protecting the rest of the wire. Thin Coaxial Cable As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in thinnets. This type cable is also used called or referred to as RG-58. The cable is really just a cheaper version of the thick cable. Fiber Optic Cable As we all know fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not cheap. This cable is smaller and can carry a vast amount of information fast and over long distances. Twisted Pair Cables These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Is more common in high-speed networks. The biggest difference you will see in the UTP and STP is that the STP use's metallic shield wrapping to protect the wire from interference.

-Something else to note about 58

these cables is that they are defined in numbers also. The bigger the number the better the protection from interference. Most networks should go with no less than a CAT 3 and CAT 5 is most recommended.

-Now you know about cables we need to know about connectors. This is pretty important and you will most likely need the RJ-45 connector. This is the cousin of the phone jack connector and looks real similar with the exception that the RJ-45 is bigger. Most commonly your connector are in two flavors and this is BNC (Bayonet Naur Connector) used in thicknets and the RJ-45 used in smaller networks using UTP/STP. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that you can go with. The UTP has four pairs of wires and all inside plastic sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is to protect the wires from interference from themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath. Ethernet Cabling Now to familiarize you with more on the Ethernet and it's cabling we need to look at the 10's. 10Base2, is considered the thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses light coaxial cable to create a 10 Mbps network. The cable segments in this network can't be over 185 meters in length. These cables connect with the BNC connector. Also as a note these unused connection must have a terminator, which will be a 50-ohm terminator.

10Base5, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coaxial cable arrangement such as the BNC connector. The good side to the coaxial cable is the high-speed transfer and cable segments can be up to 500 meters between nodes/workstations. You will typically see the same speed as the 10Base2 but larger cable lengths for more versatility. 10BaseT, the T stands for twisted as in UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and uses this for 10Mbps of transfer. The down side to this is you can only have cable lengths of 100 meters between nodes/workstations. The good side to this network is they are easy to set up and cheap! This is why they are so common an ideal for small offices or homes.

59

100BaseT, is considered Fast Ethernet uses STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) reaching data transfer of 100Mbps. This system is a little more expensive but still remains popular as the 10BaseT and cheaper than most other type networks. This on of course would be the cheap fast version.

10BaseF, this little guy has the advantage of fiber optics and the F stands for just that. This arrangement is a little more complicated and uses special connectors and NIC's along with hubs to create its network. Pretty darn neat and not to cheap on the wallet.

An important part of designing and installing an Ethernet is selecting the appropriate Ethernet medium. There are four major types of media in use today: Thickwire for 10BASE5 networks, thin coax for 10BASE2 networks, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) for 10BASE-T networks and fiber optic for 10BASE-FL or Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link (FOIRL) networks. This wide variety of media reflects the evolution of Ethernet and also points to the technology's flexibility. Thickwire was one of the first cabling systems used in Ethernet but was expensive and difficult to use. This evolved to thin coax, which is easier to work with and less expensive.

Network Topologies:
What is a Network topology? A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN,

There are three topology's to think about when you get into networks. These are the star, rind, and the bus.

Star, in a star topology each node has a dedicated set of wires connecting it to a central network hub. Since all traffic passes through the hub, the hub becomes a central point for isolating network problems and gathering network statistics.

Ring, a ring topology features a logically closed loop. Data packets travel in a single direction around the ring from one network device to the next. Each network device acts as a repeater, meaning it regenerates the signal

60

Bus, the bus topology, each node (computer, server, peripheral etc.) attaches directly to a common cable. This topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In some instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect small workgroups

Collisions:
Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and protect data integrity. Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is possible that two nodes at different locations attempt to send data at the same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a collision will result.

Minimizing collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased collisions are often the result of too many users on the network, which results in a lot of contention for network bandwidth. This can slow the performance of the network from the user's point of view. Segmenting the network, where a network is divided into different pieces joined together logically with a bridge or switch, is one way of reducing an overcrowded network.

Ethernet Products:
The standards and technology that have just been discussed help define the specific products that network managers use to build Ethernet networks. The following text discusses the key products needed to build an Ethernet LAN. Transceivers Transceivers are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a built-in 10BASE-T or 10BASE2 transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to Ethernet without requiring an external transceiver. Many Ethernet devices provide an AUI connector to allow the user to connect to any media type via an external transceiver. The AUI connector consists of a 15-pin D-shell type connector, female on the computer side, male on the transceiver side. Thickwire (10BASE5) cables also use transceivers to allow connections.

For Fast Ethernet networks, a new interface called the MII (Media Independent Interface) was developed to offer a flexible way to support 100 Mbps connections. The 61

MII is a popular way to connect 100BASE-FX links to copper-based Fast Ethernet devices.

Network Interface Cards:

Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and are used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus. Different computers have different bus architectures; PCI bus master slots are most commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties: 8bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable.

Many NIC adapters comply with Plug-n-Play specifications. On these systems, NICs are automatically configured without user intervention, while on non-Plug-n-Play systems, configuration is done manually through a setup program and/or DIP switches.

Cards are available to support almost all networking standards, including the latest Fast Ethernet environment. Fast Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the appropriate speed. Full duplex networking is another option, where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to operate at twice the speed.

Hubs/Repeaters:
Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more Ethernet segments of any media type. In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length. Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. A hub takes any incoming signal and repeats it out all ports.

Ethernet hubs are necessary in star topologies such as 10BASE-T. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows several point-to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with all the hosts on the backbone. The number and type of

62

hubs in any one-collision domain is limited by the Ethernet rules. These repeater rules are discussed in more detail later. Max Nodes Max Distance

Network Type 10BASE-T 10BASE2 10BASE5 10BASE-FL

Per Segment 2 30 100 2

Per Segment 100m 185m 500m 2000m

Adding Speed:
While repeaters allow LANs to extend beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can be supported. Bridges and switches, however, allow LANs to grow significantly larger by virtue of their ability to support full Ethernet segments on each port. Additionally, bridges and switches selectively filter network traffic to only those packets needed on each segment - this significantly increases throughput on each segment and on the overall network. By providing better performance and more flexibility for network topologies, bridges and switches will continue to gain popularity among network managers.

Bridges:
The function of a bridge is to connect separate networks together. Bridges connect different networks types (such as Ethernet and Fast Ethernet) or networks of the same type. Bridges map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are the same, the packet is dropped ("filtered"); if the segments are different, then the packet is "forwarded" to the correct segment. Additionally, bridges do not forward bad or misaligned packets.

Bridges are also called "store-and-forward" devices because they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making filtering or forwarding decisions. Filtering packets, and regenerating forwarded packets enable bridging technology to split a network into separate collision domains. This allows for greater distances and more repeaters to be used in the total network design. 63

Ethernet Switches:
Ethernet switches are an expansion of the concept in Ethernet bridging. LAN switches can link four, six, ten or more networks together, and have two basic architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through switches were faster because they examined the packet destination address only before forwarding it on to its destination segment. A store-and-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyzes the entire packet before forwarding it to its destination.

It takes more time to examine the entire packet, but it allows the switch to catch certain packet errors and keep them from propagating through the network. Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network into collision domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Each of the segments attached to an Ethernet switch has a full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance (as opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet). Newer switches today offer high-speed links, FDDI, Fast Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic servers. A network composed of a number of switches linked together via uplinks is termed a "collapsed backbone" network.

Routers:
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using routers.

What is a network firewall?

A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two networks. The actual means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can be thought of as a pair of mechanisms: one which exists to block traffic, and the other which exists to permit traffic. Some firewalls place a greater 64

emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic. Probably the most important thing to recognize about a firewall is that it implements an access control policy. If you don't have a good idea of what kind of access you want to allow or to deny, a firewall really won't help you. It's also important to recognize that the firewall's configuration, because it is a mechanism for enforcing policy, imposes its policy on everything behind it. Administrators for firewalls managing the connectivity for a large number of hosts therefore have a heavy responsibility.

Network Design Criteria:

Ethernets and Fast Ethernets have design rules that must be followed in order to function correctly. Maximum number of nodes, number of repeaters and maximum segment distances are defined by the electrical and mechanical design properties of each type of Ethernet and Fast Ethernet media.

A network using repeaters, for instance, functions with the timing constraints of Ethernet. Although electrical signals on the Ethernet media travel near the speed of light, it still takes a finite time for the signal to travel from one end of a large Ethernet to another. The Ethernet standard assumes it will take roughly 50 microseconds for a signal to reach its destination.

Ethernet is subject to the "5-4-3" rule of repeater placement: the network can only have five segments connected; it can only use four repeaters; and of the five segments, only three can have users attached to them; the other two must be inter-repeater links.

If the design of the network violates these repeater and placement rules, then timing guidelines will not be met and the sending station will resend that packet. This can lead to lost packets and excessive resent packets, which can slow network performance and create trouble for applications. Fast Ethernet has modified repeater rules, since the minimum packet size takes less time to transmit than regular Ethernet. The length of the network links allows for a fewer number of repeaters. In Fast Ethernet networks, there are two classes of repeaters. Class I repeaters have a latency of 0.7 microseconds or less and are limited to one repeater per network. Class II repeaters have a latency of 0.46 microseconds or less and are limited to two repeaters per network. The following are the distance (diameter) characteristics for these types of Fast Ethernet repeater combinations: 65

Fast Ethernet No One Repeaters Class I

Copper

Fiber

Repeater One Class II

100m 200m 200m 205m

412m* 272m 272m 228m

Repeater Two Class II

Repeaters *Full Duplex Mode 2 km

When conditions require greater distances or an increase in the number of nodes/repeaters, then a bridge, router or switch can be used to connect multiple networks together. These devices join two or more separate networks, allowing network design criteria to be restored. Switches allow network designers to build large networks that function well. The reduction in costs of bridges and switches reduces the impact of repeater rules on network design.

Each network connected via one of these devices is referred to as a separate collision domain in the overall network.

Types of Servers:
Device Servers A device server is defined as a specialized, network-based hardware device designed to perform a single or specialized set of server functions. It is characterized by a minimal operating architecture that requires no per seat network operating system license, and client access that is independent of any operating system or proprietary protocol. In addition the device server is a "closed box," delivering extreme ease of installation, minimal maintenance, and can be managed by the client remotely via a Web browser. Print Servers Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network. Supporting either parallel and/or serial interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the network using supported protocols and manages those jobs on each appropriate printer. 66

Multiport Device Servers Devices that are attached to a network through a multiport device server can be shared between terminals and hosts at both the local site and throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to several hosts at the same time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and can switch between them. Multiport device servers are also used to network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial ports on different servers is opened, allowing data to move between the two devices.

Access Servers While Ethernet is limited to a geographic area, remote users such as traveling sales people need access to network-based resources. Remote LAN access, or remote access, is a popular way to provide this connectivity. Access servers use telephone services to link a user or office with an office network. Dial-up remote access solutions such as ISDN or asynchronous dial introduce more flexibility. Dial-up remote access offers both the remote office and the remote user the economy and flexibility of "pay as you go" telephone services. ISDN is a special telephone service that offers three channels, two 64 Kbps "B" channels for user data and a "D" channel for setting up the connection. With ISDN, the B channels can be combined for double bandwidth or separated for different applications or users. Network Time Servers A network time server is a server specialized in the handling of timing information from sources such as satellites or radio broadcasts and is capable of providing this timing data to its attached network. Specialized protocols such as NTP or udp/time allow a time server to communicate to other network nodes ensuring that activities that must be coordinated according to their time of execution are synchronized correctly. GPS satellites are one source of information that can allow global installations to achieve constant timing.

67

IP Addressing:
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.

Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.

140 .179 .220 .200

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the node address.

Address Classes:
There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.

Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.

Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.

Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.

Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal.

Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

68

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses.

Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N) and which part belongs to the node (n).

Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn

Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn

Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn

In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the address (also known as the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is defined by the last 2 octets (x.x.220.200).

In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our example, 140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the example broadcast address. Note that this is true regardless of the length of the node section.

Private Subnets:
There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses

Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packets transmitted by all the other 69

nodes on that segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive. Subnet Masking Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number. For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get:

10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet Mask

10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address

Default subnet masks:

Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 CIDR -- Classless InterDomain Routing.

CIDR was invented several years ago to keep the internet from running out of IP addresses. The "classful" system of allocating IP addresses can be very wasteful; anyone who could reasonably show a need for more that 254 host addresses was given a Class B address block of 65533 host addresses. Even more wasteful were companies and organizations that were allocated Class A address blocks, which contain over 16 Million host addresses! Only a tiny percentage of the allocated Class A and Class B address space has ever been actually assigned to a host computer on the Internet.

People realized that addresses could be conserved if the class system was eliminated. By accurately allocating only the amount of address space that was actually needed, the 70

address space crisis could be avoided for many years. This was first proposed in 1992 as a scheme called Supernetting.The use of a CIDR notated address is the same as for a Classful address. Classful addresses can easily be written in CIDR notation (Class A = /8, Class B = /16, and Class C = /24)

It is currently almost impossible for an individual or company to be allocated their own IP address blocks. You will simply be told to get them from your ISP. The reason for this is the ever-growing size of the internet routing table. Just 5 years ago, there were less than 5000 network routes in the entire Internet. Today, there are over 90,000. Using CIDR, the biggest ISPs are allocated large chunks of address space (usually with a subnet mask of /19 or even smaller); the ISP's customers (often other, smaller ISPs) are then allocated networks from the big ISP's pool. That way, all the big ISP's customers (and their customers, and so on) are accessible via 1 network route on the Internet. It is expected that CIDR will keep the Internet happily in IP addresses for the next few years at least. After that, IPv6, with 128 bit addresses, will be needed. Under IPv6, even sloppy address allocation would comfortably allow a billion unique IP addresses for every person on earth

71

Proposal Network for School Computer lab

St. Aloysius College Galle 1. Main Hardware 01 File server , 15 Client machines , 01 Printer Using for network.

2. Other hardware for using the network. 3. Useable software Windows Server edition 2003 operation system (for server) Windows XP Professional operation system (for Client machines) MS Office 2007 Kaspersky 2011 Antivirus package. Other open source software. 24 Ports TP link switch Cat6E cables, RJ45 jack, 8 Port TP Link Router. -01 -100m -36 -01 (optional)

4. Useable Network topology. The better topology for Star topology. (see the diagram)

5. This simple network proposal is very good for primary school students. There are no big cost and large amount of hardware. 13 students can work and teacher has one computer. The other computer stored in the office room and it can use everyone. We like to tell our optional plan is a using network router with internet facility. It is a great opportunity of student for learn.

72

 Cost plan for the network.

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Server machine Client machines (complete) Hp Laser jet network Printer 24 Ports TP link switch Cat6E cables, RJ45 jack 8 Port TP Link Router Switch cabinet 1 Casing Place plate and RJ45 base Power iii UPS 11. 12. Nails and other Linux Server edition operation system (for server) Ubuntu 10.10 operation system (for Client machines) Open Office 6.2 AVG free Antivirus package. Installation Charges Description unit 01 15 01 01 100m 36 01 01 10 36 16 Per unit 29,900.00 44,900.00 18,500.00 8,750.00 55.00 10.00 4,200.00 3,750.00 155.00 175.00 4,500.00 Total 29,900.00 673,500.00 18,500.00 8,750.00 5,500.00 360.00 4,200.00 3,750.00 1,550.00 6,300.00 72,000.00 3,000.00

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

15,000.00

Total

842,310.00

73

 Configurations for File server machine

MSI G31TM-P31 Motherboard Intel Pentium 2.8 GHz Core 2 Dou processor Mercury ATX High Tower Casing Kingston 2GB DDR 11 RAM Samsung 500GB S-ATA HDD Samsung S-ATA DVD Writer Mercury Key Board Mercury Mouse (Ps2 +USB) Mouse pad Internal modem Card

Configurations for Client machine

MSI G31TM-P31 Motherboard Intel Pentium 2.8 GHz Core 2 Dou processor Mercury ATX High Tower Casing Kingston 1GB DDR 11 RAM Samsung 500GB S-ATA HDD Samsung S-ATA DVD Writer AOC 18.5 LED Monitor Mercury Key Board Mercury Mouse (Ps2 +USB) Mouse pad Multimedia speaker set. Internal modem Card 74

Proposing diagram for the network.

Students

Teacher

4 port Router

Printer

24 ports switch

File server

Office

20x30 feet area. . This is Star topology diagram There are 13 network cables going to the client machines from switch. There is 01 network cable going to the teacher machine. No monitor for server and server can operate by office computer. 75

O zone
IN V O IC E

C o m p u te rs

Baddegama Road, Majuwana Junction, Gonapinuwala

Tel 0914907056 - 0770861817

Brand New 2.8GHz

MSI G31TM-P31 Motherboard Intel pentium 2.8 GHz Core 2 Dou processor Mercury ATX High Tower Casing Kingston 1GB DDR 11 RAM Samsung 500GB S-ATA HDD Samsung S-ATA DVD Writer Mercury Key Board Mercury Mouse (Ps2 +USB) Multimedia Speaker set Mouse pad Internal modem Card Rs. 29,900.00

76

Proposal Network for Divisional secretariat office complex.

Divisional secretariat office complex Galle. 1. Main Hardware 03 server machines , 50 Client machines , 05 Printers, 01 Scanner Using for network. 2. Other hardware for using the network. 3. Useable software Linux Server edition 2010 operation system (for server) Windows XP Professional operation system (for Client machines) MS Office 2010 Kaspersky 2011 Antivirus package. Other open source software. 24 Ports TP link switch 16 Ports TP link switch Cat6E cables, RJ45 jack, 8 Port TP Link Router. -02 -01 -3000m -120 -01

4. Useable Network topology. We can use Hybrid topology. . (see the diagram)

5. This series network proposal is better for office complex. There are big cost and large amount of hardware. Three network switches using and three star topologies connect each other. We are introducing hilly security system with Linux base server operating system. 77

 Cost plan for the network.

No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Description DELL Corei3 Server machine DELL 2.8Ghz Client machines (complete) Hp Laser jet network Printer Sharp AR5516 Photocopy with printer 24 Ports TP link switch 16 Ports TP link switch Cat6E cables, RJ45 jack 8 Port TP Link Router Switch cabinet 1 Casing 2 Casing Canon Lide25 Flatbed Scanner Place plate and RJ45 base Power iii UPS Nails and other Linux Server edition operation system (for server) Windows XP Professional operation We do not include the software charges here. We like to propose this software. And we attached price list 22. 23. 24. 25. Total 5,214,850.00 Other valuable software Installation Charges separately. 150,000.00 3000m 120 01 01 100 100 01 60 53 unit 03 50 02 02 02 Per unit 99,900.00 Total 299,700.00

79,900.00 3,995,000.00 18,500.00 125,000.00 8,750.00 5,500.00 55.00 10.00 4,200.00 3,750.00 155.00 195.00 6,500.00 175.00 4,500.00 37,000.00 250,000.00 17,500.00 5,500.00 165,000.00 1,200.00 4,200.00 3,750.00 15,500.00 19,500.00 6,500.00 10,500.00 234,000.00 25,000.00

18. 19. 20. 21.

system (for Client machines) MS Office 2010 Kaspersky 2011 Antivirus package Hela basa Software

78

 Configurations for server machines

DELL G41TM- Intel SH55 chipset Motherboard Intel Pentium 3.2 GHz Core i3 processor Dell ATX High Tower Casing Kingston 4GB DDR 111 RAM Western digital 1TB (1024 GB) S-ATA HDD DELL S-ATA DVD Writer DELL USB Key Board DELL Mouse (Ps2 +USB) Mouse pad Internal modem Card

Configurations for Client machine

DELL G31TM- Intel G31 chipset Motherboard Intel Pentium 2.4 GHz Dual Core processor Dell ATX High Tower Casing Kingston 1GB DDR 11 RAM Western digital 1TB (1024 GB) S-ATA HDD DELL S-ATA DVD Writer DELL USB Key Board DELL Mouse (Ps2 +USB) Mouse pad DELL 13 LCD Wide Monitor Multimedia speaker set. Internal modem Card 79

17 18 20 21 19

53 51

52

50

49

48 54 Printer 3

47

46

Documentration Branch

45

55 Printer 1

44
24 port Switch

43

1 Reception 6 7 8 9

Each colour client machines from one switch.

35

38

39

40

41

Every client machine has internet connection. .

36

37

This is Three Star topology based Hybrid diagram

Registration Branch 42

With monitor for server and server can operate by office computer.
34 10 11 12 Printer 4 27 Printer 2 13 14 15 28 Account Branch 29 30 31 32 24 port Switch 24 File Server Mail File Server Server Deputy Secutry 1 Router 16 port Switch Deputy Secutry 2 Accountent 25 26

Proposing diagram for the network.

16 22 Scanner

33

23

5000 Sq.feet area. .

Distric Secutry

80

81