4 High speed machines

The speed of a.c. machines increases with increase in the input frequency. High frequency of the armature current reduces the dimensions of electrical machines, as the electromagnetic torque is proportional to the electromagnetic power and number of pole pairs and inveresely proportioal to the frequency. High speed gearless electrical machines nd many applications as spindle motors, pump motors, large chiller motors, gas compressor motors, microturbine generators and aircraft generators. Elimination of gear trains improves the eciency of the system, reduces the dimensions and noise, and simplies the construction and maintenance. Cage induction, wound synchronous and surface type PM synchronous machines with retaining sleeve are the most economical candidates for high speed applications. At present, the maximum power of high speed synchronous generators does not exceed 500 kW. Several airborne power missions are now evolving that will require lightweight multi megawatt electrical power systems, e.g., directed energy weapon (DEW) and airborne radar [197]. New high power airborne and mobile military systems will require 1 to 6 MW of electrical power generated at speeds 15 krpm. As potential candidates HTS rotor synchronous generators or all cryogenic generators (synchronous or homopolar) have been considered.

4.1 Requirements
Fig. 4.1 shows the construction of a high speed electric machine with magnetic bearings. There are two radial magnetic bearings and one axial magnetic bearing. Basic design requirements for high speed machines include, but are not limited to: compact design and high power density; minimum number of components; ability of the PM rotor to withstand high temperature; minimum costtooutput power ratio and costtoeciency ratio;

82

4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.1. Longitudinal section of a high speed electric machine with magnetic bearings: 1 stator, 2 rotor, 3 radial magnetic bearing, 4 axial magnetic bearing, 5 turbine rotor or impeller.

high reliability (the failure rate < 5% within 80 000 h); high eciency over the whole range of variable speed; low total harmonics distortion (THD).

4.2 Microturbines
A microturbine (Figs 4.2 and 4.3) is a small, single-shaft gas turbine the rotor of which is integrated with high speed electric generator (up to 120 000 rpm), typically rated from 30 to 200 kW of the output power. In large electric power plants, the turbines and generators are on separate shafts, and are connected by step down gears that slow down the high-speed rotation and increase the torque to turn much larger electric generators. The stator laminations are about 0.2-mm thick for frequencies below 400 Hz and about 0.1-mm thick for frequencies above 700 Hz. Thin silicon steel laminations (Section 2.1) or sometimes iron-cobalt laminations (Section 2.2) are used for stator and rotor stacks. The rotor PMs are protected against centrifugal forces with the aid of retaining sleeves (cans). The non-magnetic retaining sleeve can be made of non-magnetic metals, e.g., titanium alloys, stainless steels, Inconel 718 (NiCoCr based alloy) or carbon-graphite composites. For metal retaining sleeves the maximum operating temperature is 2900 C and maximum linear surface speed is 250 m/s. For carbon-graphite ber wound sleeves the maximum operating temperature is 1800 C and maximum linear surface speed is 320 m/s. A

4.2 Microturbines

83

Fig. 4.2. Microturbine set. Photo courtesy of Capstone, Chatsworth, CA, U.S.A.

good materials for retaining sleeves have high permissible stresses, low specic density and good thermal conductivity. Modern generators for distributed generation technologies should meet the following requirements: brushless design; minimum number of components; small volume; high power density (output power-to-mass or output power-to-volume ratio); high eciency; low cost. It is also desired that modern brushless generators have more or less fault tolerance capability. However, generating mode with one damaged phase winding and then normal operation after the fault clears is normally impossible. The rst two requirements increase the reliability. Reliability data of older high speed generators are very scattered with mean time between failure (MTBF) values up to approximately 47 000 h as calculated from short-term maintenance record [169]. The higher the speed (frequency) and more ecient the cooling system, the smaller the volume and mass. Increase in speed and application of direct

84

4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.3. Microturbine with PM brushless generator and air bearings. 1 generator, 2 compressor, 3 air bearings, 4 turbine, 5 combustion chamber, 6 fuel injector, 7 recuperator, 8 exhaust outlet, 9 generator cooling ns, 10 air intake. Photo courtesy of Capstone, Chatsworth, CA, U.S.A.

liquid cooling result in higher power density (output power to mass or output power to volume). High eciency means the reduction of the input mechanical power through the reduction of power losses. The lower the losses, the lower the temperature rise of a generator. Microturbine generators are cooled by the following media: air; refrigerant; oil; water.

The air enters through the end bell and passes through the windings and sometimes through rotor channels. The air is exhausted through a perforated screen around the periphery of the casing. Refrigerant is directed to cool the stator core outer surface and/or stator core inner surface (air gap). The liquid coolant, i.e., oil or water is pumped through the stator jacket or through the stator hollow conductors (direct cooling system) and cooled

4.2 Microturbines

85

by means of a heat exchanger system. However, hollow conductors and direct liquid cooling seem to be too expensive for generators rated below 200 kW.

heat to user recuperator (most units) exhaust low temperature water/air a.c. electricity

natural gas

combustor

fuel compressor
(if necessary)

solid state converter

compressor air

turbine

generator

Fig. 4.4. Components of a gas microturbine.

(a)

heat exchanger 6

(b) 5 temperature, T
3' = ideal conditions at which exhaust gases leave the recuperator 6' = ideal conditions at which turbine gases leave the recuperator4

QL recuperator 1 combustion chamber 4

3 QH

P = constant 3' 2 1 3 6 5 6' P = constant entropy, s

mechanical ouput turbine

compressor

Fig. 4.5. Ideal Brayton cycle modied with recuperation: (a) schematic, (b) temperature entropy (T s) diagram. QH is the high temperature heat transfer rate and QL is the low temperature heat transfer rate.

Basic components of microturbines are: turbine compressor, combustor, recuperator, generator and output solid state converter to provide 50 or 60 Hz electrical power (Fig. 4.4).

86
(a)

4 High speed machines

temperature T

(b)

P = constant

EVAPORA TOR

TURBINE

CONDENSER 2 PUMP 1

2 1

P = constant 4 entropy s

Fig. 4.6. Ideal Rankine cycle: (a) basic components, (b) T s process.

The most popular microturbines burn natural gas (Fig. 4.4). Outside air is fed into a compressor, which increases the air density and pressure. The compressed air and fuel move into the combustion chamber, where they burn and give o a large amount of heat and high-pressure exhaust gases. The exhaust pushes through a series of turbine rotor blades attached to a long shaft, which drives the shaft at very high speeds. That shaft, in turn, spins the electric generator. Many of the smaller microturbines are fed by diesel fuel, gasoline or fossil fuels rather than natural gas. In these microturbines there is no need for a compressor, as fuel is injected into the compression chamber. Some microturbines even include the ability to generate electricity from the heat of the exhaust gases. The heat boils water, and the resulting steam escapes through a second set of turbine blades, spinning a second electric generator. Those systems are much larger and more expensive, but operate more eciently. Instead of water, an organic substance can also be used, that enters the turbine, where it expands and produces work by rotating the rotor blades. Despite lower operational temperatures than those of combustion turbines, microturbines produce energy with eciencies in the 25 to 30% range. Bryton cycle is a constantpressure cycle and is generally associated with the gas turbine (Fig. 4.5). The gas turbine cycle consists of four internally reversible processes: (a isentropic compression process; (b) constant-pressure combustion process; (c) isentropic-expansion process; (d) constant-pressure cooling process. The eciency of Brayton cycle can be increased with the aid of the so called recuperation or regeneration (Fig. 4.5a). Recuperation uses the hightemperature exhaust gases from the turbine to heat the gas as it leaves the

4.2 Microturbines

87

compressor. The T s diagram, where T is the temperature and s is the specic entropy 1 , modied with recuperation is shown in Fig. 4.5b. The recuperation process improves the thermal eciency of the Brayton cycle because some of the energy that is normally rejected to the surroundings by the turbine exhaust gases is used to preheat the air entering the combustion chamber. Brayton engine also forms half of the combined cycle system, which combines with a Rankine engine to further increase overall eciency. The ideal Rankine cycle is the model for the steam power plant (Fig. 4.6). It consists of four basic components (Fig. 4.6a): pump, evaporator (boiler) turbine condenser

Water is the most common working uid in the Rankine cycle. A disadvantage of using the water-steam mixture is that superheated vapor has to be used, otherwise the moisture content after expansion might be too high, which would erode the turbine blades. Organic substances, that can be used below a temperature of 400o C do not need to be overheated. For many organic compounds superheating is not necessary, resulting in a higher eciency of the cycle. This is called an organic Rankine cycle (ORC). ORC can make use of low temperature waste heat to generate electricity. At these low temperatures a vapor cycle would be inecient, due to enormous volumes of low pressure steam, causing very voluminous and costly plants. ORCs can be applied for low temperature waste heat recovery (industry), efciency improvement in power stations [196], and recovery of geothermal and solar heat. Small scale ORCs have been used commercially or as pilot plant in the last two decades. Several organic compounds have been used in ORCs, e.g., chloroourocarbon (CFC), freon, iso-pentane or ammonia to match the temperature of the available waste heat. For example, the R245fa refrigerant is a nonammable and provides excellent temperature to pressure match. Combined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration is an energy conversion process, where electricity and useful heat are produced simultaneously in one process. Cogeneration systems make use of the waste heat from Brayton engines, typically for hot water production or space heating. The CHP process may be based on the use of steam or gas turbines or combustion engines.

Entropy in a closed thermodynamic system is a quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy not available to do work. Second law of thermodynamics is also called the entropy law.

88

4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.7. High speed compressor with PM brushless motor: 1 magnetic bearing, 2 PM motor, 3 touchdown bearing (when the compressor is not energized), 4 shaft and impellers, 5 compressor cooling, 6 inlet guide vane assembly. Photo courtesy of Danfoss Turbocor Compressors, Dorval, Quebec, Canada.

4.3 Compressors
A high speed compressor with PM brushless motor is shown in Fig. 4.7. The main features are: two-stage centrifugal compression; high speed PM brushless motor (18 000 to 48 000 rpm); impeller integrated with the PM rotor; oil-free frictionless PM-assisted magnetic bearings; PWM inverter-fed motor; power electronics integrated with the onboard intelligent digital electronics; sound level less than 70 dBA. CompAir , Redditch, U.K. manufactures screw-type and reciprocating air compressors in the 1 300 kW power range. Its variable speed L45SR, L75SR and L132SR screw air compressors apply SRM drives (produced under license to SRD, Harrogate, U.K.). The numbers 45, 75 and 132 indicate the SRM power in kW. The variable speed of a SRM is in the range from 1200 to 5000 rpm.

4.4 Aircraft generators

89

Fig. 4.8. SRM for a variable speed air compressor. Stator core is not shown. Photo courtesy CompAir , Redditch, U.K.

A SRM is shown in Fig. 4.8. These VSD compressors oer the ability to precisely match power consumption with air demand. Field trials show average energy eciency gain and operational cost savings of over 25% compared to conventional air compressors of the same rating using an a.c. IM and inverter.

4.4 Aircraft generators

The function of the aircraft electrical system is to generate, regulate and distribute electrical power throughout the aircraft. Aircraft electrical components operate on many dierent voltages both a.c. and d.c.. Most systems use 115 V a.c. (400 Hz) and 28 V d.c.. There are several dierent electric generators on large aircraft (Fig. 4.9) to be able to handle excessive loads, for redundancy, and for emergency situations, which include: engine driven a.c. generators; auxiliary power units (APU); ram air turbines (RAT); external power, i.e., ground power unit (GPU).

Each of the engines on an aircraft drives one or more a.c. generators (Fig. 4.10). The power produced by these generators is used in normal ight to

90

4 High speed machines

1 4
Fig. 4.9. Passenger aircraft generators: 1 main engine starter/generator, 2 auxiliary power unit (APU), 3 emergency ram air turbine (RAT), 4 ground power unit (GPU).

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.10. Turbofan engine and engine driven generators (circled): (a) gear trains (generators have been removed); (b) generators (1 and 2). Photo courtesy of United Technologies Corporation, East Hartford, CT, U.S.A.

supply the entire aircraft with power. The power generated by APUs is used while the aircraft is on the ground during maintenance and for engine starting (Figs 4.11 and 4.12). Most aircrafts can use the APU while in ight as a backup power source. RATs are used in the case of a generator or APU failure, as an emergency power source (Fig. 4.13). External power may only be used with the aircraft on the ground. A GPU (portable or stationary unit) provides a.c. power through an external plug on the nose of the aircraft.

4.4 Aircraft generators

91

Fig. 4.11. APS 2000 APU of Boeing 737. 1 light switch, 2 APU fuel line, 3 generator, 4 oil lter, 6 fuel nozzles, 7 upper shroud, 8 bleed air valve, 9 start motor, 10 oil tank, 11 bleed air manifold, 12 exhaust muer. Photo courtesy of C. Brady, The 737 information site [32].

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.12. Location of APU on Boeing 737: (a) APU cowling; (b) cooling air inlet above the exhaust. Photo courtesy of C. Brady, The 737 information site [32].

Aircraft generators are usually wound rotor synchronous machines with synchronous brushless exciter and PM brushless exciter. The power circuit is shown in Fig. 4.14. PM brushless generators are rather avoided due to diculties with shutting down the power in failure modes. There are also

92

4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.13. Ram air turbine of Airbus A320 located under left wing. Photo courtesy of B. Clayton, www.airlines.net .

attempts of using switched reluctance (SR) generators with no windings or PMs on the rotor. A generator control unit (GCU), or voltage regulator, is used to control generator output. The generator shaft is driven by an aircraft engine with the aid of gears (Fig. 4.10) or directly by low spool engine shaft. Aircraft generators are typically three-phase synchronous generators with outer stator with distributed-parameter winding and inner rotor with concentrated coil winding (Fig. 4.15). These rules do not apply to special voltage regulated synchronous generators and SR generators. The eld excitation current is provided to the rotor with the aid of a brushless exciter. The stator of synchronous generators has slotted winding located in semiclosed trapezoidal or oval slots. The number of stator slots is typically from 24 to 108, while the number of stator slots per pole per phase is from 4 to 10. Large number of stator slots per pole per phase and double layer chorded windings allow for reducing the contents of higher space harmonics in the air gap magnetic ux density waveforms. At high speeds (high frequency) coils have low number of turns and large number of parallel wires. Very often single turn coils must be designed. The outer surface of the stator core is sometimes serrated to improve the heat transfer from the stator core surface to the stator enclosure or liquid jacket.

4.4 Aircraft generators

AIRCRAFT GENERATOR
Rectifier Armature of PM exciter Excitation winding of exciter

93

Prime move r

Rotor of PM exciter

Rotor of main generator

Rotating rectifier Armature of exciter

Armature of main generator

N S

Excitation winding of main generator

AIRCRAFT GENERATOR

POWER ELECTRONICS CONVERTER

LOADS

PRIME MOVER (AIRCRAFT ENGINE)

Fig. 4.14. Power circuit of wound rotor synchronous generator for aircrafts.

The number of salient rotor poles is typically from 2 to 12. Pole faces have round semi-closed slots to accommodate the damper. The rotor core is made of the same material as the stator core, i.e., iron-cobalt thin laminations. Rotor coils are protected against centrifugal forces with the aid of metal wedges between poles which also participate in the cooling system of the rotor. Sometimes, in addition to wedges, rotor retaining non-magnetic sleeves are used. With increase of the output power, the rotor cooling problems become very dicult. One of methods is to use aluminum cold plates between the rotor coils and rotor pole core. The rotor inner diameter (shaft diameter) depends amongst other factors on the rotor critical speed. Problems of rotor dynamics are much more serious than in low speed synchronous machines. The rotor eld excitation winding is connected via rotating diode rectier to a three-phase armature winding of a brushless exciter. The exciter armature system (winding and laminated stack), rectier and excitation winding of the generator are located on the same shaft. The excitation system of the brushless exciter is stationary, i.e., PMs or d.c. electromagnets are xed to the stator facing the exciter armature winding. In the case of d.c. electromagnets, the d.c. current can be supplied from an external d.c. source, main armature

94

4 High speed machines

2
Fig. 4.15. Aircraft synchronous generator rated at 90 kW. 1 stator of main generator with three phase armature winding, 2 rotor, 3 stationary eld excitation system of exciter, 4 stator with three phase winding of PM brushless sub-exciter. Photo courtesy of Hamilton Sundstrand , Rockford, IL, U.S.A.

(a)

A1 N

(b)

A1 N A2 S S A1 N

A2

S N A1

A2 A2

Fig. 4.16. Dual channel high speed SR machine: (a) consequent winding (900 magnetic ux path); (b) non-consequent winding (1800 magnetic ux path) [154].

4.4 Aircraft generators

95

winding via rectier, or from a small PM generator (sub-exciter) with stationary armature winding and rotating PMs. Rotating PMs are located on the shaft of main generator. The frequency of the rotor magnetic ux of a synchronous generator with brushless exciter is speed dependent, i.e., the frequency of the excitation ux decreases as the speed decreases. Aircraft generators can be driven by the aircraft turbine engine as a prime mover in one of the following way [24, 94, 114, 140, 151, 196], engine shaft and generator shaft connected via gear trains; engine shaft directly integrated with the generator rotor. The speed of contemporary aircraft generators is typically from 7200 to 27 000 rpm and output power from 30 to 250 kW. Both the shaft speed and output frequency of a generator can be constant or variable. Consequently, generators can be divided into the three following groups [24, 94, 153, 196]: constant speed constant frequency (CSCF) generators; variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generators; variable frequency (VF) generators 2 . A constant output frequency without an a.c. to a.c. utility converter can only be obtained if the generator is driven at a constant speed. VSCF systems employ an a.c. three-phase generator and solid state converter. The solid state converter consists of (a) a rectier which converts a variable frequency current into d.c. current, (b) intermediate circuit and (c)inverter which then converts the d.c. current into constant frequency a.c. three-phase current. In VF systems the output frequency of an a.c. generator is permitted to vary with the rotational speed of the shaft. The variable frequency (VF) is not suitable for all types of a.c. loads. It can be applied directly only to resistive loads, e.g., electric heaters (deicing systems). Also, generators are turned by a dierential assembly and hydraulic pumps to obtain constant speed. The purpose of the constant speed drive (CSD) is to take rotational power from the engine and, no matter the engine speed, turn the generator at a constant speed3 . This is necessary because the generator output must be constant frequency (400Hz). An integrated drive generator (IDG) is simply a CSD and generator combined into one unit mounted co-axially or side-by-side.
2 3

sometimes called wild frequency (WF) generators. In 1946, adapting technologies developed for machine tools and oil pumps, Sundstrand Corporation, Rockford, IL, U.S.A. designed a hydraulically regulated transmission for the Boeing B36 bomber. This CSD converts variable engine speed into constant speed to run an a.c. generator.

96

4 High speed machines

A dual channel SR generator is a single SR machine that generates the power for the two independent power channels. Each channel has its own power electronics, power EMI lter, and controller, which operate independently and drive separate and independent loads. Fig. 4.16 shows a 12-pole stator and 8-pole rotor SR machine, in which both channels feed two independent solid state converters and receive rotor position information from a single rotor position sensor [154]. Aircraft generators use forced air or oil cooling systems. The most eective is the so called spray oil cooling where end connections of stator windings are oil-sprayed. The current density of spray-oil cooled windings can exceed 28 A/mm2 . Pressurized oil can also be pumped though the channels between round conductors in slots.

4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators

4.5.1 Directed energy weapons Directed energy weapons (DEW) take the form of lasers, high-powered microwaves, and particle beams. They can be adopted for ground, air, sea, and space warfare.

prime mover turbine engine heat

electric generator heat

power conditioning heat

directed energy source heat beam control

thermal management system

Fig. 4.17. System block diagram for a generic electrically powered airborne DEW system.

Lasers produce either continuous beams or short, intense pulses of light in every spectrum from infrared to ultraviolet. The power output necessary for a weapons-grade high energy laser (HEL) ranges from 10 kW to 1 MW. When a laser beam strikes a target, the energy from the photons in the beam heats the target to the point of combustion or melting. Since the laser beam travels at the speed of light, HELs can particularly be used against moving targets such as rockets, missiles, and artillery projectiles. X-ray lasers may be possible in the not too distant future. High-power microwave (HPM) weapons produce either beams or short bursts of high-frequency radio energy in the megawatt range. For comparison, a typical microwave oven generates less than 1.5 kW of power. When the

4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators

97

microwave energy encounters unshielded current conducting bodies, semiconductors or electronic components, it induces a.c. current in them. The high frequency electric current causes the equipment to malfunction without injuring the personnel. If the energy is high enough, the microwaves can permanently burn out the equipment. The depth of penetration of millimeter-length electromagnetic wave into human skin is very small and does not damage the tissue. Only a burning pain is produced which forces the aected person to escape. Current HPM research focuses on pulsed power devices, which create intense, ultrashort bursts of electrical energy. A particle beam (PB) weapon is a type of DEW which directs an ultra high energy beam of atoms or electrons in a particular direction by a means of particle projectiles with mass. The target is damaged by hitting it, and thus disrupting its atomic and molecular structure. If the target is electric current conductive, a resistive heating occurs and an electron beam weapon can damage or melt its target. Electric circuits and electronic devices targeted by electron PB weapon are disrupted, while human beings and animals caught by the electric discharge of an electron beam weapon are likely to be electrocuted. There are two technically dicult challenges: the high voltage continuous electric power required for DEW systems must be in the range of megawatts; a large amount of heat rejected from DEW system during operation must be managed. The thermal management challenge becomes dicult when the large heat ux is coupled with a small airframe. The electrical power and thermal management subsystem of a conceptual generic airborne electrical DEW system is shown in Fig. 4.17. So far, the electrical power and thermal management systems for airborne DEWs are in early development. Classical synchronous generators in the range of megawatts would be too heavy for airborne applications. Synchronous generators with HTS rotor excitation windings are investigated as a possible solution. Large power, high speed HTS generators , if available, would be signicantly lighter and more compact than conventional copper wire-wound or PM rotor generators. 4.5.2 Airborne radar Airborne radar systems can be carried by both military and commercial aircrafts and are used for: targeting of hostile aircraft for air-to-air combat; detection and tracking of moving ground targets; targeting of ground targets for bombing missions; accurate terrain measurements for assisting in low-altitude ights; assisting in weather assessment and navigation;

98

4 High speed machines

mapping and monitoring the Earths surface for environmental and topological study.

1.00E+07

klystron
1.00E+06

gyrotron
1.00E+05

average power, W

gridded tube
1.00E+04 1.00E+03 1.00E+02 1.00E+01 1.00E+00

crossed-field amplifier (CFA)

0.1

10 frequency, GHz

100

1000

Fig. 4.18. Average output power versus frequency of state-of-the art travelling wave tubes (TWTs).

Radars generally operate in the C or X bands, i.e., around 6 GHz or around 10 GHz, respectively. Airborne radar includes three major categories: air-target surveillance and cueing radars mounted in rotodomes; nose-mounted ghter radars; side-looking radars for ground reconnaissance and surveillance. The latter is the smallest sector of the airborne radar market and is dominated by synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and ground moving target indicator (GMTI) sensors. SAR, an active all-weather sensor, primarily is used for twodimensional ground mapping. Radar images of an area help detect xed targets. GMTI radar picks up moving targets or vehicles. A commercial version of SAR-GMTI, called HiSAR, is an X-band radar that can see from about 100 km away. The power generation capabilities of traveling wave tubes (TWT), i.e., electron tubes used for amplication at microwave frequencies (500 MHz to 300 GHz) range from Ws to MWs (Fig. 4.18). Klystrons are the most ecient microwave tubes and are capable of the highest peak and average powers. A klystron is a specialized vacuum tube called a linear-beam tube. The pseudoGreek word klystron comes from the stem form klys of a Greek verb referring to the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word electron. Airborne early warning (AEW) systems and weather radars use megawatt klystrons, so that electric generators feeding airborne radars must be rated in MWs range.

4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators

99

4.5.3 Megawatt airborne generator cooling system Innovative Power Solutions (IPS) has recently announced a new lightweight megawatt-class airborne generator [58, 63]. The size of the generator has been reduced by eective rotor cooling system. IPS megawatt airborne generator is a synchronous generator with salientpole wound rotor (electromagnetic excitation) and conventional stator with laminated core and winding distributed in slots. A new patented method of cooling the rotor poles and conductors has been implemented [113]. This method uses cold plates disposed between each rotor pole and eld coils. A cooling medium (liquid or gas) circulates in the rotor. Each cold plate serves to conduct heat from both the pole core and winding. The cooling medium enters the rotor through the shaft and is distributed between cold plates via manifolds, transfer tubes and plugs. The cooling medium after exiting the rotor (through the shaft) is then conducted to a heat sink or heat exchanger where its temperature is reduced.

(a)

(b)
pole face

pole core

Fig. 4.19. Rotor coil of IPS airborne generator: (a) slinky toy; (b) IPS rotor eld excitation coil wound with a at rectangular conductor.

According to IPS, the lightweight airborne 1 MW generator is 406 mm in diameter, 559 mm long and weighs 210 kg. To design the rotor eld winding, IPS has used at wires with rectangular cross section in an edge-winding fashion similar to how a slinky toy looks (Fig. 4.19a). The wire is in contact with cooling media along the entire perimeter of the coil. The smaller dimension of the wire is disposed toward the pole core lateral surface and the larger dimension is parallel to the pole face, as shown in Fig. 4.19b. Since a rectangular cross section wire has bigger area of contact between adjacent wires than an equivalent round wire, the heat transfer characteristics for rectangular wires are better.

100

4 High speed machines

cold plate passageways winding pole shoe

pole core top wedge V-shaped wedge

cold plate identical elements

Fig. 4.20. Construction of rotor poles and winding [113].

The rotor may have one or more cold plates surrounding each pole core. Fig. 4.20 shows a rotor with a pair of identical cold plates per pole. Each cold plate has passageways for conduction of a cooling medium (Fig. 4.21). Either liquid (oil) or gas cooling medium can be used. The end region of each

Fig. 4.21. Rotor of 1 MW IPS generator with cooling system [113].

4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators

101

Fig. 4.22. Longitudinal section of IPS lightweight megawatt generator. Arrows shows cooling locations. Courtesy of IPS, Eatontown, NJ, U.S.A.

cold plate matches the bend radius of the eld excitation coils. The proposed shape of cold plates does not increase the length and diameter of the rotor. For fabrication of cold plates high thermal conductivity materials are used, i.e., aluminum, copper or brass. The cold plate preferably includes its own insulating layer, e.g., in the case of aluminum, the insulating material is aluminum oxide with its thickness of 0.125 to 0.25 mm. To provide the mechanical integrity of the rotor at high speeds and maintain good contact between the winding and cold plates, V-shaped wedges press the winding against cold plate surfaces (Fig. 4.20). Top wedges are used to secure V-shaped wedges in their positions (Fig. 4.20). Cooling locations are shown in Fig. 4.22. Cold plates can be designed as two-part or single-part cold plates. In the rst case both parts are identical. A pair of transfer tubes with plugs at each end of a cold plate provides hydraulic connection with manifolds located at opposite ends of the rotor. This forms a closed system for circulation of cooling medium. The overall cooling system has been improved by adding radial fans to the rotor and ns to the internal housing. Such a design, although increases windage and ventilation losses, can help to remove heat from the air within the generator and transfer heat to the aluminum housing. Fig. 4.22 shows all

102

4 High speed machines

cooling locations in IPS megawatt generator. The rotor and stator cooling technique implemented by IPS leads itself to compact generator design; however, the cold plate cooling system is less ecient than spray oil-cooled end windings.
Table 4.1. Selected techniques for enhancing heat dissipation in high speed electric machines. Cooling system Fins and heat sinks Water or oil jacket Direct liquid cooling and hollow conductors Spray oil-cooled end turns of rotor winding Liquid cooled wedges [166] Cold plates between poles and rectangular wire rotor winding (IPS) Current density A/mm2 5 to 8 10 to 15 Advantages Disadvantages

up to 30

over 28 8 to 15 (estimated) about 22 (estimated)

Simple Increase method in weight and size Eective Increase in diameter stator cooling and weight Very intensive Increase cooling in weight and size of the Too expensive for machines stator winding rated below 200 kW Very intensive Wet rotor; cooling of the contamination of cooling rotor winding medium (oil) with time Intensive cooling Does not eectively of rotor winding cool the rotor poles Intensive Requires cooling of installation of cold rotor winding plates in rotor and cooling medium circulation

4.6 Comparison of cooling techniques for high speed electric machines

Table 4.1 shows a comparison of selected cooling techniques for high speed electric machines. The current density in the windings depends on the class of insulation, cooling system and duty cycle (continuous, short time or intermittent). The current density values given in Table 4.1 are for 250o C maximum operating temperature of windings. The direct cooling system with hollow conductors is the most intensive cooling system (up to 30 A/mm2 ). Spray-oil cooling (28 A/mm2 ) is almost as intensive as direct cooling. Using cold plates between pole cores and coils the estimated maximum current density should not exceed 22 A/mm2 . The spray oil-cooled rotor windings allows for maintaining higher current density than cold plates. Spray cooling of the rotor wire together with intensive

4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors

103

cooling of the stator winding will theoretically lead to smaller size and weight than application of cold plates.

4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors

It is recommended at high speed to insert cage bars into totally closed rotor slots. Since closed slots tremendously increase the leakage inductance of the rotor winding, the slot closing bridge should be very narrow and saturate when the motor is partially loaded. Instead of closed slots, a narrow slot opening about 0.6 mm can provide a similar eect with moderate rotor winding leakage inductance.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.23. Cage rotor of high speed induction machines: (a) 45 kW, 92 krpm, induction generator; (b) rotor parts for 83.5 kW, 100 krpm induction motor. Photo courtesy of SatCon, MA, U.S.A.

104

4 High speed machines

4 1 2

3 3

Fig. 4.24. High speed rotor with copper bars, double end rings and laminated stack: 1 copper or brass end ring, 2 steel end ring, 3 copper or brass bar, 4 laminated rotor stack [56].

It is more dicult to design the rotor end rings than rotor bars. Below are examples of construction of end rings proposed by some manufacturers and researchers. SatCon, a Massachusetts based company, U.S.A. has extensive experience in the development of high-speed motor and generator systems for a variety of applications [165]. Fig. 4.23a shows a 45kW, 92 krpm, high-speed induction machine developed for the U.S. Armys Combat Hybrid Power Systems (CHPS) program [165]. This machine has been designed for a direct drive generator of a diesel turbocharger for a military ground power application. The linear surface speed of the rotor is 240 m/s. The motor environment was 200o C with 50o C cooling air available to the rotor. A helical stator jacket provides liquid cooling to the stator. High temperature materials have ben required to meet the environmental conditions. The prototype has demonstrated a 97% eciency. This generator has been equipped with a controlled rectier to interface with a high voltage bus as part of a highly integrated electrical distribution system for the military vehicle. Fig. 4.23b shows the components for an 83.5 kW, 100-krpm induction machine for an industrial air compressor [165]. The rotor has closed slots, copper bars and end rings and is integral to the two-stage centrifugal compressor shaft. It is supported on air and magnetic bearings. Similar integrated starter generator (ISG) induction machines have been developed for gas turbine engine applications from 50 000 to 110 000 rpm.

4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors

105

Swiss company Elektrischemachinen und Antrieb called shortly EundA or E+A, Wintertur, Switzerland [56] manufactures laminated rotors with cage windings and composite rotor end rings for high speed induction motors (Fig. 4.24). The outer ring is made of steel, i.e., a material with high radial stress, while the inner ring is made of a high conductivity material, usually copper. The maximum rotor diameter at 60 000 rpm is 65 mm. The maximum linear surface speed is 200 m/s.

Fig. 4.25. Construction of cage winding of a high speed motor according to US Patent Publication No 2006/0273683A1. 1 rotor bar, 2 non-uniform end ring thickness, 3 clamping nuts, 4 spacer plate, 5 balance weight hole, 6 end laminations, 7 end ring boss, 8 keyhole stress relief cut. Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin [36, 37].

Center for Electromechanics at the University of Texas at Austin, TX, U.S.A. has proposed a novel end ring design, which meets all mechanical requirements of high speed, high temperature, and power density without compromising electrical performance [36].

106

4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.26. Completed BeCu end ring with integrated joint boss. Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin [36].

Fig. 4.27. Completed end ring to bar solder joints (before trimming extensions). Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin [36].

In a conventional IM rotor design, the end ring is an annular ring supported by the rotor bars. At high operating speeds and temperatures, the centrifugal and thermal growth of the non-self supported end ring would result in high stresses at the bars, laminations, and barend ring joints. This conguration also poses a risk of signicant mass imbalance due to radial displacement of the unsupported end ring. The 290 m/s linear surface speed of this specic application precludes the use of the low-speed conventional fabricated end ring design [36].

4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors

107

Fig. 4.28. Completed 2 MW, 15,000 rpm induction motor rotor. Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin [36]. Table 4.2. End ring interference and stress for candidate materials [36] Quantity Al Required radial interference, Pa 58.6 Contact pressure at rest, Pa 144 106 Contact pressure at operation, Pa 3.65 106 Ring ID hoop stress at rest, Pa 172 106 Ring ID hoops stress at operation, Pa 210 106 Ring OD radial growth at operation, Pa 157.9 Typical yield strength at temperature, Pa 138 106 Cu 86.2 308 106 1.42 106 363 106 653 106 166.9 276 106 BeCu 74.6 294 106 1.08 106 348 106 656 106 155.1 827 106

A combination of advanced end ring design features have been developed to alleviate the strength limitations of the end ringtobar joint area in the cage rotor assembly for high-speed application, as shown in Fig. 4.25 [37].
Table 4.3. Physical properties of beryllium copper from NGK Berylco [139] Berylco R product Thermal Coecient conduof linear thermal Modulus ctivity expansion of W/(m K) at 20 to 200o C elasticity at 20o C (length/length)/o C Pa 145 18.0 106 1.324 106 75 17.5 106 0.127 106 6 60 17.5 10 0.127 106 Hardness Tensile Elong Rockwell strength ation (B or C Pa % scale) B95 102 792.9 106 3 C25 32 1172.1 106 15 C36 42 1254.8 106 7

Plus Supra Ultra

108

4 High speed machines

In the new design, the end ring is piloted directly to the shaft through an interference t for rigid support of the end ring to ensure that forces associated with imbalance are not transmitted to the rotor bars (Figs 4.26, 4.27, 4.28). However, at these surface speeds, a uniform cross section end ring is not feasible due to separation of the ring from the shaft resulting from the high centrifugal loads. The end ring was therefore designed with a heavier inner diameter section and a thin web extending to the bar radius. This design maintains compressive interface pressure between the shaft and the end ring throughout the speed and temperature ranges of the machine (0 to 15 000 rpm, 18 to 180o C), with a minimal interference t that results in manageable stresses. The thick section end ring with direct connection to the shaft serves a secondary purpose of providing bolster support to the laminated stack to prevent conical buckling of the highly interference tted core necessary for high speed use [36, 37]. Selecting a material for the end ring that balances the electrical and mechanical material requirements was a challenge in this application. Conventional end ring construction (die-cast aluminum and fabricated ETP copper materials) were considered (Table 4.2), but found to be insucient in strength for this application. Promising recent developments in the use of die-cast copper alloy rotors for high eciency were reviewed, but still lack the mechanical strength aorded by fabrication with heat treated materials [36]. Beryllium copper (Table 4.3) was selected for adequate strength to withstand the heavy interference t required to maintain radial contact at the shaft interface during operation at the design speed. Specically, the selected BeCu C17510 TH04 material provided the best balance between electrical and mechanical requirements. At this heat treat condition, the material has electric conductivity up to 36 106 S/m with 668.8 MPa yield and 703.3 MPa ultimate strength [36]. CurtissWright Electromechanical Corporation, PA, U.S.A can manufacture variable speed IMs up to 10 MW and 12 000 rpm [23]. The cage winding surrounds the rotor core. All of the rotor bars are shorted together at each end of the rotor core by full circular conducting end ring. The material of end ring depends on the operation speed. Typically, higher strength copper alloys are used, provided the strength capability can be maintained through the metal joining process. The bartoend ring joints are normally accomplished by brazing. In applications where the relatively low-strength copper of the end ring cannot sustain the hoop stress imposed at speed, or the joints cannot accommodate the resulting radial displacements, a high-strength retaining ring is added to provide the necessary support and rigidity. The retaining ring is typically required only in higher speed applications. The retaining ring comprises high-strength alloy steel with good fatigue characteristics. To reduce eddy current losses, the retaining ring should be made of nonmagnetic material. The design of end rings is shown in Fig. 4.29 [23].

4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors

4 1 2

109

Fig. 4.29. High speed cage rotor winding proposed by CurtissWright Electromechanical Corporation , Mount Pleasant, PA , U.S.A. 1 rotor bar, 2 end ring, 3 retaining ring, 4 laminated or solid steel rotor core [23].

4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors

Research in the area of IMs with solid ferromagnetic rotor were probably initiated in the 1920s by Russian scientists Shener [174] and Bruk [34]. In the further years of the 20th Century many researchers and engineers worldwide contributed to the theory and technology of these machines. Major contributions are listed in [50] where detailed analysis of electromagnetic eld in these type of IMs has also been presented. Concepts of solid rotor IMs have been developed in connection with a search for removing drawbacks of cage IMs in order to achieve: simplication and reduction of costs of manufacture of the rotor; improvement of rotor mechanical integrity at high speed; improvement of reliability; longer lifetime than wound or cage laminated rotors; low vibration and acoustic noise level (in the case of slotless rotor) reduction of the inrush starting current of IMs; possibility to obtain linear torque-speed characteristic of motors from no load to unity slip due to high solid rotor impedance.

In comparison with cage rotor IMs of the same dimensions, solid rotor IMs have lower output power, lower power factor, lower eciency, higher no-load slip and higher mechanical time constant. Worse performance characteristics are due to high rotor impedance, higher harmonic eddy currents in solid ferromagnetic rotor body, higher reluctance of solid steel than laminated steel and greater rotor losses due to higher harmonics of the magnetic eld than in other types of IMs. There are wide possibilities of reduction of the rotor impedance that improves the performance characteristics through:

110

4 High speed machines

selecting the rotor solid material with small relative magnetic permeability toelectric conductivity ratio and adequate mechanical integrity; using a layered (sandwiched) rotor with both high magnetic permeability and high conductivity materials; using a solid rotor with additional cage winding. Sensible application of the above recommendations that leads to optimization of the design is only possible on the basis of the detailed analysis of the electromagnetic eld distribution in the machine. This is why the development of solid rotor machines depends on the advancements in the theory of electromagnetic eld in ferromagnetic and non-homogenous structures consisting of materials with dierent parameters. Magnetization curves BH for selected solid steels are plotted in Fig. 4.30. The electric conductivity of solid mild (low carbon) steels is usually from 4 106 to 6 106 S/m at 200 C, i.e., 10 to 14 times less than that of copper.

1.8

1.6

magnetic flux density, T

1.4

Steel 35 (Poland) Steel 4340 Alloy FeNiCoMoTiAl

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000

magnetic field intensity H, A/m

Fig. 4.30. Magnetization curves of various solid steels.

Although the principle of operation of solid rotor IMs is similar to that of other IMs, the analysis of physical eects in solid rotors on the basis of classical electrodynamics of nonlinear bodies is dicult. Problems arise both due to nonlinearity of solid ferromagnetic bodies and complex structures of certain types of these machines. The electromagnetic eld in the rotor is strictly threedimensional (3D) even if the rotating magnetic eld excited by the stator system can be assumed as two dimensional (2D). The performance of the machine depends on the intensity and distribution of vectors of this eld, in

4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors

111

particular, of the vector of current density and the vector of magnetic ux density. The objective of numerous publications on solid rotor IMs is mostly a formulation of relationships between material parameters, i.e., electric conductivities and magnetic permeabilities, and parameters of the structure, i.e., geometric dimensions and operating performance of a machine under given external conditions on the basis of the electromagnetic eld theory. Recent interest in electric machines with alternating electromagnetic eld in solid ferromagnetic rotor parts is motivated by new applications of electrical machines as, for example, motors for high speed direct drive compressors, motors for pumps , motors for drills, high speed generators, electric starters for large turbogenerators, eddy current couplings and brakes, etc. Before the vector control era, there were attempts to use solid rotors covered with thin copper layer for very small diameter rotors of two-phase servo motors, in which it was very dicult to accommodate the cage winding and back iron (yoke). Research is also stimulated by trends in improvements of other type of electrical machines, e.g., machines with rotors made of soft magnetic powder composites (magnetodielectrics and dielectromagnetics), shields of end connections of large turbogenerators, shields for SC machines, retaining sleeve for high speed PM machines and losses in PMs.

Fig. 4.31. Radial turbine, solid rotor coated with copper layer, cooling fan and feed pump [208]. Photo courtsy of the University of Lappeenranta, Finland.

Fig. 4.31 shows a solid rotor of a microturbine developed at the University of Lappeenranta, Finland, for a commercial ORC power plant utilizing the temperature of waste heat [208]. As the relative latent heat of organic uids is much lower than that of the water, the same or better eciency as with

112

4 High speed machines

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.32. Solid rotors with explosive welded copper sleeves for: (a) 300 kW, 63 krpm IM; (b) 3.5 kW, 120 krpm IM. Photo courtesy of Sundyne Corporation, Espoo, Finland.

d'

g d

Cu

Fe

d Fe + 2d' < Din

Fig. 4.33. Solid rotor coated with copper layer for high speed induction machines according to U.S. Patent 5473211 [14].

a two-stage steam process can be achieved with a single-stage ORC process, e.g., by using the ue gas heat of a diesel engine. Also, the drop of the specic enthalpy of organic uids in the turbine is much smaller than that of steam, which makes it possible to make the ORC process ecient at low power.

d Fe

Din

4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors

113

Solid rotors for high speed induction motors are shown in Fig. 4.32. The rotor construction according to U.S. Patent 5473211 is shown in Fig. 4.33 [14]. The copper layer is thicker behind the stator core than below the stator core, so that the air gap (mechanical clearance) can be minimized.