Definition of a Sentence A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and predicate.

Sometimes, the subject is "understood," as in a command: "[You] go next door and get a cup of sugar." That probably means that the shortest possible complete sentence is something like "Go!" Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand. This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples. The purpose of these examples is to help the ESL/EFL learner to identify sentence basics including identification of sentences in the short quizzes that follow. After that, it will be possible to analyze more complex sentences varieties. SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green.

A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs. COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows:for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red.

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping. C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence? COMPLEX SENTENCE A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who,or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.

A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page. B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow. D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.

Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence. COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subjects, verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined. Phrases

A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics. B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf. C. The house which AbrahAM Lincoln was born in is still standing. D. The town where I grew up is in the United States.

A phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a verb. Because it lacks a subject and a predicate it cannot act as a sentence. A phrase typically functions as a single part of speech in a sentence (e.g., noun, adjective, adverb). There are four types of phrases: 1. Prepositional phrases, which begin with a preposition and include the object of the preposition. 2. Participial phrases, which begin with the participle and include the object of the participle or other words that are connected to the noun by the participle. 3. Gerund phrases, which begin with the gerund and include the object of the gerund or other words that are acting as the complete subject or complete object. 4. Infinitive phrases, which begin with an infinitive and include the object of the infinitive or other words that are acting as part of the phrase.

Adjectives are one of the eight parts of speech. Just as a reminder, the others are the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. The primary purpose of an adjective is to modify a noun. They typically answer one of these three questions about the noun: What kind? How many? Which one? For example: the 44th president a green product a responsible investment an economists analysis

the dumbest, worst leader Now that you have a general sense of an adjective, lets pause for a moment to consider the adjective in writing. For the purposes of this discussion, lets say that writing is the literary equivalent of cooking, and adjectives are one of the spices you bring to the kitchen. Like spices added to a soup, a few adjectives go a long way. Dont overdo it. Let the more substantial ingredients (strong verbs!) be the stars. Pay particular attention to adjectives that have lost their pizzazz, words that no longer register in the readers palate: interesting, beautiful, fun, exciting, cool. The key to excellence in writing is showing, not telling. In other words, dont simply tell your readers the snow on the field is beautiful, show them. Okay, back to examples. While it may be easier to identify the parts of speech when we are faced with only a few words (as in the examples above), most reading and writing involves full sentences. Consider the following sentences containing particular types of nouns and their accompanying adjectives: A subject: The volatile Bobby Knight has been accused of choking a player.

A direct object: Tom threw the slimy ball for his dog, Rover. An indirect object: After the last out, David Justice tossed the excited child the game ball. A gerund Cecilia enjoys distance running.

A predicate nominative: They didnt know that Caroline was a decorated officer. DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives are used to indicate levels, degrees of intensity or comparison 1. high ____ base 2. higher ____ comparative 3. highest ____ superlative When comparing two things always use the comparative. For example in a comparison between two people the correct usage would be: Bill is taller. Bill is the tallest would require that there be more than two people. Adjectives are divided into categories as a way of understanding their purpose. Read more about the types of adjectives: 1) Limiting 2) Descriptive 3)Predicate Adjective 4) A list of Adjectives

A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb. For example, He is laughing at the joker. A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle phrase and gerund phrase. Noun Phrase A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence. Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun) Examples. He is wearing a nice red shirt. She brought a glass full of water. The boy with brown hair is laughing. A man on the roof was shouting.

(as noun/object) (as noun/object) (as noun/subject) (as noun/subject)

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases. For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair. Prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence. Examples. A boy on the roof is singing a song. The man in the room is our teacher. She is shouting in a loud voice. He always behaves in a good manner. Adjective Phrase. An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun. An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence.

(As adjective) (As adjective) (As adverb) (As adverb)

Examples. He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt) The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl) He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass) A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy) Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence The girl with brown hair is singing a song, the phrase with brown hair is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective. Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with works like an adverb in a sentence. An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples He always behaves in a good manner. They were shouting in a loud voice. She always drives with care. He sat in a corner of the room. He returned in a short while.

(modifies verb behave) (modifies verb shout) (modifies verb drive) (modifies verb sit) (modifies verb return)

A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence He always behaves in a good manner, the phrase in a good manner is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here. Verb Phrase A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence. Examples. He is eating an apple. She has finished her work. You should study for the exam. She has been sleeping for two hours. According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence. Example. You should study for the exam. Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence.

Examples. He likes to read books. (As noun/object) To earn money is a desire of everyone. (As noun/subject) He shouted to inform people about fire. (As adverb, modifies verb shout) He made a plan to buy a car. (As adjective, modifies noun plan) Gerund Phrase A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a sentence. Examples I like writing good essays. She started thinking about the problem. Sleeping late in night is not a good habit. Weeping of a baby woke him up. Participle Phrase A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is separated by commas. It always acts as an adjective in a sentence. Examples The kids, making a noise, need food. (modifies kids) I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifies letter) The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifies table) We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifies car) Absolute Phrase Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated modifiers. Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entire sentence. It resembles a clause but it lack a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or pairs of commas from the rest sentence. Examples He looks sad, his face expressing worry. She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock. John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint. Articles English language has two articles, the and a/an. An article is used for a noun. An article like an adjective modifies a noun. For example, a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella The article the is called definite article and the article a/an is called indefinite article.

(As noun/object) (As noun/object) (As noun/subject) (As noun/subject)

Use of Articles There are two articles in English language. 1. Indefinite article: a/an 2. Definite article: the An article is used before a noun or an adjective modifying a noun. Definite Article: (the) The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun. Example. He bought the shirt. The article the before the noun shirt in above sentence means that the shirt, he bought, is a specific or particular shirt and not any shirt. Indefinite Article: (a/an) The definite article a/an is used for indefinite, non-specific or non-particular (common) noun. Example. He bought a shirt. The article a before shirt in above sentence means that the shirt he bought is any shirt and not a specific shirt. Rules for using Indefinite Article (a/an) The article form a is used before a word (singular) beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound. e.g. a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European The article form an is used before a word (singular) beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or consonant with vowel sound (or beginning with mute h ). e.g. an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour, 1. Before a singular noun which is countable e.g. He bought a book She is eating an apple. 2. Before a singular noun which refers to a class of things. e.g. An orange is rich in vitamins. 3. Before a name of a profession e.g. She wants to be a doctor He is an engineer.

4. For certain expressions of quantity e.g. a lot of, a few, a couple, a dozen 5. For certain numbers. e.g. a hundred, a thousand, a million 6. Before a singular, countable noun in exclamation. e.g. What a beautiful flower! What a nice shirt! 7. Article a/an is not used before uncountable nouns e.g. water, milk, sand etc Rules for using definite Article (the) The article the can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the following grammatical rules. e.g. the book, the books 1. Before the place, object or group of object which is unique or considered to be geographical region and points on globe. e.g. the earth, the moon, the sky, the stars, the north pole, the equator 2. For a noun which becomes definite or particular because it is already mentioned mentioned a second time. e.g. The teacher helped a student and the student became happy. 3. For a noun made specific or definite in a clause or a phrase. e.g. The old lady, The girl with blue eyes, The boy that I saw, The nice red shirt 4. Before superlatives, and first, second,.. etc, and only e.g. The best day, The only method, the second month, 5. Before a phrase composed of a proper and common noun e.g. The New York city, The river Nile, The library of Congress 6. Before the names of organizations e.g. The Association of Chartered Accountants, The World Health Organization 7. Before names of scientific principles, theories, laws etc. e.g. the Pythagorean theorem, the laws of Newton, The Fahrenheit Scale. But no article will be used for these names if written in forms like, Newtons Law, Daltons Law of Partial Pressures, Hooks Law of Elasticity 8. Article the is not used for names of universities if written in forms like Oxford University, Yale University, Columbia University. But article the is used if names of university are written in forms like The University of Oxford, The University of Yale, The University of Toronto. 9. Article the is not used for names of countries of places. e.g. New York, America, Mexico, Japan, London. Butarticle the is used for a name, if it expresses a group of place, states, or land. e.g. The United States, The Philippines, The Netherlands unique and

and is being

The Articles The three articles a, an, the are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun). CAUTION! Even after you learn all the principles behind the use of these articles, you will find an abundance of situations where choosing the correct article or choosing whether to use one or not will prove chancy. Icy highways are dangerous. The icy highways are dangerous. And both are correct.

The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind: The moon circles the earth. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract: The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..) We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an hword begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds likeyoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won). If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many

writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste. For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations. First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it. A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth. In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article: There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth. Another example: "I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied. Exception: When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite: "I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied. Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion. An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal. The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children. Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class. Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park) Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots

Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nounsthe names of things that are not tangibleare sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind. Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice. Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.") When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work." Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:

idiomatic expressions using be andgo with seasons with institutions with meals

We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.) He must be in school. In spring, we like to clean the house. He's in church/college/jail/class. Breakfast was delicious. He's preparing dinner by himself. He's dying of pneumonia. Appendicitis nearly killed him. She has cancer (You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)

with diseases

with time of day

We traveled mostly by night. We'll be there around midnight.

Principles of Choosing an Article Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify. Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.

If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE. Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:

That is SOME car you've got there! I don't want to hear ANY excuse!

As opposed to. . .

We have some cars left in the lot. Isn't there any furniture in the living room?

In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns. auxiliary verb

A verb (such as have, do, or will) that determines the mood, tense, or aspect of another verb in a verb phrase.

Auxiliary verbs always precede main verbs within a verb phrase. Auxiliaries are also known as helping verbs. Contrast with lexical verbs.

Examples and Observations:

"If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants." (Isaac Newton)

"A wise man will make more opportunities than he finds." (Sir Francis Bacon)

"We are all worms, but I do believe I am a glowworm." (Winston Churchill)

"I did not invent Irish dancing." (Bart Simpson, The Simpsons)

"In the beginning the Universe was created. This has made a lot of people very angry andbeen widely regarded as a bad move." (Douglas Adams)

"After I die I shall return to earth as the doorkeeper of a bordello, and I won't let a one of you in." (Arturo Toscanini)

"The auxiliary verbs of English are the following: 1. can, may, will, shall, must, ought, need, dare [modals] 2. be, have, do, use [non-modals]

Some of them appear in idioms--be going, have got, had better/best, would rather/sooner (as in It is going to rain, I've got a headache, etc.)--and in such cases it is just the first verb (be, have, had, would) that is an auxiliary, not the whole idiom." (R. Huddleston and G. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002)

Irregular Auxiliaries "The verbs be, have, do, and go are irregular in many of the world's languages. They are the most commonly used verbs in most languages and often pitch in as auxiliaries: 'helper' verbs that are drained of their own meanings so that they may combine with other verbs to express tense and other grammatical information, as in He is jogging, He has jogged, He is going to jog. Many language scientists believe that the meanings of these verbs--existence, possession, action, motion--are at the core of the meanings of all verbs, if onlymetaphorically." (Steven Pinker, Words and Rules. HarperCollins, 1999)

Omitting Words After Auxiliary Verbs "To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence we use an auxiliary verb(be, have, can, will, would, etc.) instead of a whole verb group (e.g. 'has finished') or instead of a verb and what follows it (e.g. 'like to go to Paris'): - She says she's finished, but I don't think she has. (instead of . . . has finished.) - 'Would any of you like to go to Paris?' 'I would.' (instead of I would like to go to Paris.) If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, we leave out all the auxiliary verbs except the first instead of repeating the main verb. Alternatively, we can use two (or more) auxiliary verbs: - Alex hadn't been invited to the meal, although his wife had. (or . . . had been.) - 'They could have been delayed by the snow.' "Yes, they could.' (or . . . could have (been).)"

Active and Passive Voice There are two ways to express an action of a subject in relation to its object

Active voice Passive voice

In active voice subject acts upon object, while in passive voice object is acted upon by subject. It can also be said, in active voice subject does a work on object, while in passive voice object is worked on by subject. The normal structure of an active voice sentence is subject+verb+object but in passive the

normal structure of sentence is reversed according to certain rules and becomes likeobject+verb+subject. The real meaning of a sentence does not change if the sentence is expressed either by active voice or by passive voice. The active voice is mostly used in writing because it gives a direct and more concise meaning. Passive voice is used sometimes due to the following reasons.

When intentionally hiding the subject of sentence. For example, a student who failed in exam might say, some chapters were not studied.

Another example. Women were not treated as equals

When passive voice better explain thought of sentence. For example, to say,cloth is sold in yards, is more meaningful than to say, Shop keepers sell cloth in yards. When passive voice better emphasizes the main though of the sentence. For example, a man who is being teased by another person might say in anger, you will be beaten by me When subject is not exactly known. For example, His watch was stolen. It is not known that who stole his watch, the subject (thief) is not exactly known so it is better to use passive voice for such sentence.

There are certain rules for expressing a thought in passive voice or for changing a sentence from active voice to passive voice. Fundamental Rules for changing from active voice to passive voice

The places of subject and object are interchanged i.e. the object shifts to the place of subject and subject shifts to the place of object in passive voice.

Example. Active voice: I write a letter. Passive voice: I letter is written by me. Subject (I) of sentence shifted to the place of object (letter) and object (letter) shifted to the place of subject (I) in passive voice.

Sometimes subject of sentence is not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence can be omitted in passive voice, if without subject it can give enough meaning in passive voice.

Examples. Passive voice: cloth is sold in yards

3rd form of verb (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice for all tenses. Base form of verb or present participle will be never used in passive voice. The word by is used before subject in sentences in passive voice.

Example. Active voice: He sings a song. Passive voice: A song is sung by him.

The word by is not always used before subject in passive voice. Sometimes words with, to, etc may also be used before subject in passive voice.

Examples. Active voice: The water fills the tub. Passive voice: The tub is filled with water. Active voice: He knows me. Passive voice: I am known to him.

Auxiliary verbs are used passive voice according to the tense of sentence.

Note: First 5 rules are usually same for all tenses in passive voice. Rule No. 6 is about the use of auxiliary verb in passive voice which differs for each tense. The auxiliary verbs of passive voice are used according to tense of sentence of its active voice form. The auxiliary verb for each tense is given in the following table with explanation and examples. Clause A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate For example, he laughed. A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence) which has both subject and predicate. Example I will meet him in office. The part of above sentence I will meet him is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence in office lacks both subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase. A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses. Examples. He is sleeping. (one clause) The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause) The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses) I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses) I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses) Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) andsubordinate clause (also called dependent clauses). Clause A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate For example, he laughed.

A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent sentence) which has both subject and predicate. Example I will meet him in office. The part of above sentence I will meet him is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence in office lacks both subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase. A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses. Examples. He is sleeping. (one clause) The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause) The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses) I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses) I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses) Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) andsubordinate clause (also called dependent clauses). Types of Subordinate Clause Functions of Subordinate Clause. A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following types. 1. Noun Clause 2. Adjective Clause. 3. Adverb Clause Noun Clause A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause. A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence. Example What he did made a problem for his family. In above sentence the clause what he did functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever.

Examples Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject) What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject) He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object) Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object) Adjective Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause. An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Example He wears a shirt which looks nice. The clause which looks nice in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun shirt in the sentence. An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies. Examples. I met the boy who had helped me. An apple that smells bad is rotten. The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test. The house where I live consists of four rooms. The person who was shouting needed help. Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also relative clause. Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. A restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells us something about preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. Example The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause) The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the (nonrestrictive clause) test.

In the first sentence the clause who studied a lot restrict information to preceding noun(student), it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause. In the second sentence the clause who had attended all the lectures gives us information about preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures.

A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive clause if it is within a main clause. That is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while which is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause. Example The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. Adverb Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies(describes) the situation in main clause in terms of time, frequency (how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent). The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows. Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that, Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case Examples. Dont go before he comes. He takes medicine because he is ill. Although he tried a lot, he couldnt climb up the tree. Unless you study for the test, you cant pass it. I will go to the school unless it rains. You are safe as long as you drive carefully. You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it. Kinds of Sentences According to Structure A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) or more clauses (independent and dependent clauses). An independent clause is also called main clause. A dependent clause is also called subordinate clause. On the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence, sentences are divided in to four kinds. Simple Sentence A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent clause. An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple sentence. Examples. He laughed.

(restrictive clause) (nonrestrictive clause)

She ate an apple. They are sleeping. I bought a book. Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of at least two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join independent clauses are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Independent clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound sentence. Examples I like an apple but my brother likes a mango. I helped him and he became happy. He failed two times yet he is not disappointed. I asked him a question; he replied correctly. Complex Sentence A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who, which etc). Examples I met the boy who had helped me. She is wearing a shirt which looks nice. You cant pass the test unless you study for it. If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example. He is playing well although he is ill. Although he is ill, he is playing well. Complex - Compound Sentence A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents and one or more dependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-complex Sentence. Examples 1. He went to college and I went to a market where I bought a book. 2. I like Mathematics but my bother likes Biology because he wants to be a doctor. In the first sentence of above sentence, there are two independent clauses he went to college and I went to a market, and one dependent clause where I bought a book.

Using Verb Moods A verb may be in one of three moods: the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood. The Indicative Mood The indicative mood is the most common and is used to express facts and opinions or to make inquiries. Most of the statements you make or you read will be in the indicative mood. The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the indicative mood: Joe picks up the boxes. The german shepherd fetches the stick. Charles closes the window. The Imperative Mood The imperative mood is also common and is used to give orders or to make requests. The imperative is identical in form to the secondperson indicative. The highlighted verbs in the following sentences are all in the imperative mood: Pick up those boxes. Fetch. Close the window. The Subjunctive Mood The subjunctive mood has almost disappeared from the language and is thus more difficult to use correctly than either the indicative mood or the imperative mood. The subjunctive mood rarely appears in everyday conversation or writing and is used in a set of specific circumstances. You form the present tense subjunctive by dropping the "s" from the end of the third person singular, except for the verb "be". paints present subjunctive: "paint" walks present subjunctive: "walk" thinks

present subjunctive: "think" is present subjunctive: "be" Except for the verb "be," the past tense subjunctive is indistinguishable in form from the past tense indicative. The past tense subjunctive of "be" is "were." painted past subjunctive: "painted" walked past subjunctive: "walked" thought past subjunctive: "thought" was past subjunctive: "were" The subjunctive is found in a handful of traditional circumstances. For example, in the sentence "God save the Queen," the verb "save" is in the subjunctive mood. Similarly, in the sentence "Heaven forbid," the verb forbid is in the subjunctive mood. The subjunctive is usually found in complex sentences. The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses to express unreal conditions and in dependent clauses following verbs of wishing or requesting. The subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause attached to anindependent clause that uses a verb such as "ask," "command," "demand," "insist," "order," "recommend," "require," "suggest," or "wish." The subjunctive mood is also used in a dependent clause attached to an independent clause that uses an adjective that expresses urgency (such as "crucial," "essential," "important," "imperative," "necessary," or "urgent"). Each of the highlighted verbs in the following sentences is in the subjunctive mood. It is urgent that Harraway attend Monday's meeting. The Member of Parliament demanded that the Minister explain the effects of the bill on the environment. The sergeant ordered that Calvin scrub the walls of the mess hall. We suggest that Mr. Beatty move the car out of the no parking zone.

The committee recommended that the bill be passed immediately. If Canada were a tropical country, we would be able to grow pineapples in our backyards. If he were more generous, he would not have chased the canvassers away from his door. I wish that this book were still in print. Grammatical mood can be defined as a set of distinctive verb forms that express modality. Modality is the grammaticalized expression of the subjective attitude of the speaker, which includes opinions about possibility, probability, necessity, obligation, permissibility, ability, desire, and contingency. Although modality in English is most often expressed through modal verbs, the English language also has three grammatical moods: 1. Indicative mood 2. Subjunctive mood 3. Imperative mood The following sections explain and exemplify the three grammatical moods of English verbs that both native speakers and ESL students must learn.

Indicative Mood The first grammatical mood in English is the indicative mood. The indicative mood allows speakers to form sentences that express assertions, denials, and questions of actuality or strong probability. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English indicative:

Coal mining is a major industry of Appalachia. Jean Baptiste Pointe DuSable came to Illinois via the Mississippi River. We still need someone to buy ingredients for the punch. Do you know where the old man lives? How much wood does a woodchuck chuck? Has the train arrived?

The indicative mood is the most frequently used grammatical mood in the English language. The majority of sentences, at least in written English, are in the indicative mood.

Subjunctive Mood The second grammatical mood in English is the subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood allows speakers to form sentences that express commands, requests, suggestions, wishes, hypotheses, purposes, doubts, and suppositions that are contrary to fact at the time of the utterance. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English subjunctive:

It is recommended that you be on time.

He will let us know if he can arrive early. If I were a rich man, then I would have all the money in the world. My boss insists that the computer be repaired by a licensed contractor. They wish we were able to type faster. Had the man been driving carefully, he would not have crashed into the tree.

The subjunctive mood is only distinguishable from the indicative mood third person singular present subjunctive and in most persons and numbers that require a conjugated form of the verb to be. However, native speakers often use indicative forms in place of subjunctive forms. The present subjunctive mood also always appears in verb phrases that contain modal verbs. Imperative Mood The third grammatical mood in English is the imperative mood. The imperative mood allows speakers to form sentences that make direct commands, express requests, and grant or deny permission. For example, the following sentences are examples of the English imperative:

Dance like you've never danced before! Stop at the corner. Turn right at the courthouse. Eat your vegetables! Party like it's 1999. Swallow the entire does of medicine.

The imperative mood is also the most frequently used mood in the English language. Both written and spoken commands, directions, and recipes all take the imperative mood of English verbs. . Conditional sentences play an important role in grammar. They describe a condition and the result that follows. On this page, I will shed some light on the subject. Conditional sentences are made up of two parts: the if-clause (condition) and the main clause(result that follows). IF-CLAUSE If it rains, MAIN CLAUSE will take an umbrella.

Basically, there are four conditionals: Zero conditional First conditional Second conditional Third conditional Apart from them, you can also form mixed conditionals. But how do we form those variations? The easiest way is to understand that both clauses (the if-clause and the main clause) can be real or unreal and refer to present (future) or past. Depending on these factors, the clause will look different. Real conditional describes real-life, possible situations. Unreal conditional describes imaginary situations. We'll deal with each clause separately. If-clause

First of all, you must decide if the situation in the if-clause is real or unreal. Examples of real if-clauses: I have some money, I go to a club. (zero conditional or first conditional can be used) It's a situation that happens very often. When my uncle visited us, he would always help me with my homework. My uncle visited us many times. Examples of unreal if-clauses. If I could fly, I... But that will never happen. If she had told me about that,... but she didn't tell me. Once you've decided about that, it's time to choose the correct tense. As I mentioned, there are two choices: the present (future) or the past. Examples of present if-clauses: If meet him again, I will tell him that. (zero conditional or first conditional can be used) I will probably meet him soon. If I were a bit taller, I would be more attractive. But I'm not taller. Examples of past if-clauses: When my uncle visited us, he would always help me with my homework. My uncle visited us many times. If she had told me about that,... But she didn't tell me. If these examples have confused you a bit, don't worry I'm sure everything will become more and more obvious in just a moment. The table below sums up what has been said about the if-clause. 1 Real Unreal

Present / Future 2 Past

Simple Present If he says

Simple Past If he said

Simple Past If he said

Past Perfect If he had said

Main-clause The main-clause is also formed in two steps: first decide if you're talking about a real or an unreal situation, and then choose the correct tense. If the main-clause is real, then it is exactly the same as a normal sentence. For example: If he's late again, I will fire him. (first conditional] The situation is real because it can happen at any time.

If the weather was nice, she often walked to work. The situation is real because it happened (at least according to the speaker). If the main-clause is unreal, then it is formed in accordance with the table below: Present / Future Modal + Infinitive Examples: would, might, should, could

Past

Modal + Perfect Infinitive Examples: would have, might have, should have, could have

If it wasn't raining, we would go for a walk. (second conditional) But it is raining. If he had been late again, I would have fired him. (third conditional) But he wasn't late.

OK, so far I've been mostly using examples that were, in fact, the four basic conditionals (as mentioned in the parentheses) and the Mixed Conditional. If these were the only conditional sentences that there are, two thirds of this article would be worthless. Of course, that's not the case - the purpose of this was to use simpler sentences that would accustom you to the method b) . Now that you are accustomed to it (I hope you are!), we can proceed to the more advanced examples, which are the essence of the article. Let's start: 1. If neither of you saw the dog, I might have had hallucinations. The if-clause is about a real situation. The main-clause is unreal because the speaker is unsure of the truth. Both clauses are about the past. If it were a part of conversation, it might look similar to this: 1: Have you seen that? Something has moved in the bushes. 2: Where?! 1: Over there. It's a dog! 2: We can't see anything there, Mark. The zero conditional is used when describing situations which have automatic or habitual results. Using this conditional suggests that we are 100% sure of the result. If you heat ice, it melts. (will melt is also possible) If there is a shortage of any product, prices of that product go up. My parents get angry if I come home late. As you can see, both the main clause and the if-clause are in the Present Simple. The zero conditional is often used to give instructions: Press the button if you want a receipt. If you want to leave a message, speak after the tone. We use the First Conditional to talk about a future situation that is possible. The verb in the if-clause is in the present tense; the verb in the main clause is in the Future Simple. It doesn't matter which comes first. There is usually a comma between the two clauses. If you try very hard, you'll see the difference. John will be late, if you don't lend him your car. This type of sentence implies that the action is very probable.

Note that the meaning here is present or future, but the main verb in the if-clause is in a present, not future tense. 1 . Possible variations of the basic form Sometimes instead of if + present + future, we may have: a) if + present + may/might (possibility) If the climate keeps warming, the Arctic might be warm enough for swimming. b) if + present + may (permission) or can (permission or ability) If your documents are in order, you may/can leave at once. (permission) If it stops raining, we can go out." (permission or ability) c) if + present + must, should or any expression of command, request or advice if you want to look slim, you must/should eat less meat. if you want to look slim, you had better eat less meat. if you want to look slim, eat less meat. d) When if is used to mean as/since, a variety of tenses can be used in the main clause 2. Variations of the if-clause Instead of if + present tense, we can have: a) if + present continuous, to indicate a present actions or a future arrangement." If you are waiting for a bus (present action), you'd better join the queue. If you are looking for Peter, you'll find him upstairs. If you're staying for another night (future arrangement), I'll ask the manager to give you a better room. b) if + present perfect if you have finished dinner, I'll ask the waiter for the bill. If has written the letter, I'll post it. If they haven't seen the museum, we'd better go there today. We use the Second Conditional: to give advice to talk about a future situation that is unlikely to happen IF-CLAUSE If he did that, MAIN CLAUSE would leave him.

The verb in the if-clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional tense. If someone stole my bag, I would immediately contact the police. (But I don't think that anyone will try to steal the bag. The meaning here is future.) Note There is no difference between the first and second conditionals as far as time is concerned. The first conditional, like the second conditional refers to the present or future. The past tense in the if-clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which indicates improbability or unreality. Use 1. When the supposition is contrary to known facts "If I lived in New York, I wouldn't have to commute there each day." (But I don't live in New York.)

"If I were you, I would plant some trees in your garden." (But I'm not you.) 2. When we don't expect the action in the if-clause to happen: "If I saw a zombie, I would run as fast as I could." (But I don't expect to see a zombie.) "If I bought a car like this, everyone would admire me." (But I don't intend to buy the car.) Possible variations of the basic form Variations of the main clause might or could may be used instead of would: If you tried again, you would succeed. (certain result) If you tried again, you might succeed. (possible result) If I knew her number, I could ring her up. (ability) If he had a permit, he could get a job. (ability or permission) The continuous conditional form may be used instead of the simple: Peter is on holiday; he is touring Italy. ~ "If I were on holiday I would/might be touring Italy too." On this page, you will learn about the Third Conditional. We use it when talking about a past condition that cannot be fulfilled, because the action in the if-clause didn't happen. For example, imagine that you missed a train (and as a result you were late for an important meeting). You could say: If I hadn't missed the train, I wouldn't have been late for the meeting. Do you know what tenses each of the clauses is in? Let's see: The verb in the if-clause is in the Past Perfect Tense The verb in the main clause is in the Perfect Conditional If-clause (Past Perfect) If I hadn't missed the train, Main clause (Perfect Conditional) I wouldn't have been late for the meeting.

More examples: If I had known that you were coming, I would have met you at the railway station. (But I didn't know that you were coming so I didn't come) If he had tried to leave the country, he would have been stopped at the frontier. (But he didn't try) Variations The form of the conditional can be a little different. a) could or might may be used instead of would: If the rescue crew had found him earlier, they could have saved his life. (ability) If the rescue crew had found him earlier, they might have saved his life. (possibility) If we had the necessary documents, we could have left at once. (ability or permission) b) The continuous form of the Perfect Conditional may be used: If I had had any money I would have been watching the film with my girlfriend that evening. c) We can use the Past Perfect Continuous in the if-clause: I wasn't wearing a seat belt. If I had been wearing one, I wouldn't have been seriously injured. d) A combination of types 2 and 3 is possible: The airplane I intended to catch crashed. If I had caught that airplane, I would have been killed or I would be dead now(type 3) If he had worked harder at school, he would be working in a comfortable office now; he wouldn't be sweeping the streets. (But I didn't work hard at school and now he is sweeping the streets.) e) Using inversion, we can place "had" before the subject, omitting the "if": For example, instead of saying:

If you had obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened. we can say: Had you told me about your problems, this disaster would not have happened. Mixed conditionals are those unreal conditional sentences whose time in the if-clause is different than the time in the main-clause. Let's first have a look at unreal conditional sentences: If she were shorter, she would be more attractive. I am busy next week. If I had time, I would come to your party. If they hadn't trained hard, they wouldn't have won. As you can see, they refer to the same time: the present, the future or the past. If we mix the sentences, we get mixed conditionals. Past and Present If my father hadn't lost his keys, we wouldn't have to wait until he finds them. But my father lost his keys and therefore we have to wait until he finds them. If I had installed an anti-virus, my computer wouldn't be so slow now. But I didn't install an anti-virus and therefore my computer is so slow now. If our house had been broken into, we would be very sad. But our house wasn't broken into and we aren't sad. Past and Future If our house had been broken into, we would call the police. But our house wasn't broken into and we are not going to call police. If we had won the lottery last week, we would buy a new sofa today. But we didn't win the lottery and we are not going to buy a new sofa today. Present and Past If I were smarter, I would have graduated from Stanford. But I am not smarter and therefore I didn't graduate from Stanford. If Mary weren't a snob, she wouldn't have had so many parties this year. But Mary is a snob and therefore she had so many parties this year. Present and Future If you were more eloquent, you would become a politician. But I am not more eloquent and I won't become a politician. If you had more time, I would go to the cinema with you. But you don't have more time and I won't go to the cinema with you. Soon the rest of mixed conditionals. So far we have seen the nature of Transformations of Sentence. At the same time, a simple sentence can be changed into a complex sentence and vice-versa. At the same time, a compound sentence can be changed into a complex sentence and vice-versa. At the same time, a complex sentence can be changed into a compound sentence and vice-versa. All such changes are possible to make the ideas of the sentences understandable. This is in addition to the previous chapters on Transformations of Sentence.

1. To transform the simple sentence into a compound sentence: A simple sentence can be transformed into a compound sentence by enlarging phrase or word into a coordinate clause. Example-1: He must work hard to make up for the lost time. This sentence can be made into two parts and those two parts can be joined by a conjunction and. He work hard and make up the lost time. Example-2: To his eternal disgrace, he betrayed his country. He betrayed his country and this was to his eternal disgrace. Example-3: Besides robbing the poor child, he also murdered the child. He not only robbed the poor child and also murdered the child. Example-4: The teacher punished the children for disobedience. The children were disobedience so the teacher punished them You can see How the Transformations of Sentence take place without changing the meaning of the sentence. 2. To transform a compound sentence into a simple sentence: The following examples illustrate the chief ways in which the compound sentences are transformed into simple sentences. Example-1: We must eat or we cannot live. We must eat to live. Example-2: You must either pay the bill at once or return the goods. Failing prompt payment, the goods must be returned by you. Example-3: He must not be late or he will be returned. In the event of his being late, he will be returned.

Example-4: He is rich, yet he is not contented. In spite being rich, he is not contented. Example-5: This coat cannot be mine, for it is too big. For its big size, it cannot be mine. Example-6: He is very poor, but he does not complain. In spite of being poor, he does not complain. These examples are enough to make the point clear how the compound sentences are transformed into simple sentences. You can see How the Transformations of Sentence take place without changing the meaning of the sentence. 3. To transform a simple sentence into a complex sentence: A simple sentence can be transformed into a complex sentence by enlarging a phrase into a subordinate clause. The clause may be Noun, Adjective or Adverb. Example-1: He confessed his crime. Here the noun (his crime) has been changed into a subordinated clause. He confessed that he was guilty of the crime. Example-2: On the arrival of the mails, the steamer will leave. Here the adverbial phrase has been changed into a subordinate clause. The steamer will leave as soon as the mails arrive. Example-3: I saw a wounded bird. Here the adjective phrase has been changed into a subordinate clause.

 I saw a bird that was wounded. Example-4: On being punished, he wept. When he was punished, he wept. You can see How the Transformations of Sentence take place without changing the meaning of the sentence.

4. To transform a Complex Sentence into a Simple Sentence: The following sentences will make it clear how to transform the complex sentences into the simple sentence. Example-1: He said that he was an innocent. This Complex Sentence has been changed into a Simple Sentence as follows. He declared his innocence. Example-2: How long I will stay is a doubtful? Here, the Subordinate Clause has been changed into a Noun Clause. The duration of my stay is doubtful. Example-3: Tell me where you live. Here also, the Subordinate Clause has been changed into a Noun Clause. Tell me your address. Example-4: He died in the village where he lived. Here the Subordinate Clause has been changed into an Adjective Clause. He died in his native place. Example-5:

 The moment that is lost is lost for ever. Here also the Subordinate Clause has been changed into an Adjective Clause. The lost moment is lost forever. Example-6: He was too tired that he can not stand. Here the Subordinate Clause has been changed into an Adverb Clause. He was too tired to stand. Example-7: He will not pay unless he is compelled. Here also, the Subordinate Clause has been changed into an Adverb Clause. He will pay only under compulsion. You can see How the Transformations of Sentence take place without changing the meaning of the sentence. Transformation Of sentences Transformation is changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning. In the exams transformation should be done according to the direction given in the question paper. In doing transformation a student should have a fairly well knowledge about the kinds of sentence and their formation. A brief direction about doing transformation is given below. According to the meaning: Affirmative to negative: Rule 1: Only/ alone/ merely Replaced by None but(person)/ nothing but(things)/ not more than or not less than(number) Ex: Aff: Only Allah can help us. Neg: None but Allah can help us. Aff: He has only a ball. Neg: He has nothing but a ball. Aff: He has only ten taka. Neg: He has not more than ten taka. Rule 2: Must Replaced by Cannot but/ Cannot help+ (v+ing). Ex: Aff: We must obey our parents. Neg: we cannot but obey our parents/ we cannot help obeying our parents. Rule 3: Both----and Replaced by not only ---- but also. Ex: Aff: Both Dolon and Dola were excited. Neg: Not only dolon but also Dola were present.

Rule 4: and ( if join two words) Replaced by Not only ----- but also. Ex: aff: He was obedient and gentle. Neg: He was not only obedient but also gentle. Rule 5: Everyone/ everybody/every person/ (every + common noun)/all Replaced by There is no + attached word + but. Ex: Aff: Every mother loves her child. Neg: There is no mother but loves her child. Rule 6: As soon as Replaced by No sooner had ----- Than. Ex: Aff: As soon as the thief saw the police, he ran away. Neg: No sooner had the thief saw the police he ran away. Rule 7: Absolute Superlative degree Replaced by No other+ attached word+so+ positive form+ as+subject. Ex: aff: Dhaka is the biggest city in Bangladesh. Neg: No other city is as big as Dhaka in Bangladesh. Rule8: Sometimes affirmative sentences are changed into negative by using opposite words. Before the word, off course not is used. Ex: Aff: I shall remember you. Neg: I shall not forget you. Rule 9: Always Replaced by Never. Ex: aff: Raven always attends the class. Neg: Raven never misses the class. Rule 10: Too ---- to Replaced by so ---that+ can not/could not(in past). Ex: Aff: He is too weak to walk. Neg: He is so weak that he cannot walk. Rule 11: As as Replaced by Not less than. Ex: Aff: Simi was as wise as Rimi. Neg: Simi was not less wise than Rimi. Rule 12: Universal truth are change by making them negative interrogative. Ex: Aff: The Sun sets in the west. Neg: Doesnt the Sun set in the west. Rule 13: Sometimes Replaced by Not + always. Ex: Aff: Raven sometimes visits me. Neg: Raven doesnt always visit me. Rule 14: Many Replaced by Not a few. Ex: Aff: I have many friends. Neg: I donot have few friends. Rule 15: A few Replaced by not many. Ex: Aff: Bangladesh has a few scholars. Neg: Bangladesh doesnt have many scholars. Rule 16: Much Replaced by A little. Ex: Aff: He belongs much money. Neg: He doesnt belong a little money. Rule 17: A little Replaced by not much. Ex: Aff: Dolon has a little riches. Neg: Dolon doesnt have much riches.

ASSERTIVE TO INTERROGATIVE Rule 1: If the sentence is in the affirmative you have to change it into negative interrogative. If it is in negative then you have to change it into bare interrogative. Ex: Ass: He was very gentle. Int: was nt he very gentle? Aff: He is not a good person. Int: Is he a good person? Rule 2: No auxiliary verb in sentence Change it by using Do/does/did Or Dont/doesnt/didnt. Ex: Ass:He plays Football. Int: Does he play football? Ass: They did not play football yesterday. Int: Did they play football yesterday? Rule3: Never Replaced by Ever. Ass: I never drink tea. Int: Do I ever drink tea? Rule 4: Every body/everyone/ All Replaced by Who + Dont/ Doesnt/ Didnt Ex: Everybody wishes to be happy. Int : Who doesnt wish to be happy? Rule 5: Every + noun Replaced by Is there any + noun+ Who dont/doesnt/didnt. Ex: Ass: Every man wishes to be happy. Int: Is there any man who doesnt wish to be happy? Rule 6: No body/ no one / None Replaced by Who. Ex: Nobody could count my love for you. Int: Who could ever count my love for you? Rule 7 : There is no Replaced by Is there any/ Who(person)/ What( thing). Ex: Ass: There is no use of this law. Int: What is the use of this law. Ass: There is no man happier than Jamil. Int: Who is Happier than jamil. Rule 8: It Is no Replaced by Is there any/Why. Ex: Ass: It is no use of taking unfair means in the exam. Int: Why take unfair means in the exam? Or, Is there any use of this law? Rule 9: It Doesnt matter Replaced by what though/ Does it matter. Ex: Ass: It does not matter if you fail in te exam. Int: What though if you fail in the exam?

Interrogative to assertive is to be done doing Vice versa. Exclamatory sentence to Assertive sentence Rule1: Subject and Verb of exclamatory sentence are to be used as the subject and verb of assertive sentence at the outset of the sentence. How/what Replace by Very(before adjective)/ Great(before noun) Ex: How fortunate you are! Ass: You are very fortunate. Exc: What a fool you are! Ass: You are a great fool. Rule 2: Sometimes the subject and verb may be eclipsed. Ex: What a beautiful scenery! Ass: It is a very beautiful scenery. Ex: What a pity! Ass: It is a great pity. Rule 3: Hurrah/ Bravo Replace by I/we rejoice that/ It is a matter of joy that. Ex: Hurrah! We have own the game. Ass: It is a matter of joy that we have won the game. Rule 4: Alas Replace by I/we Mourn that/ It is a matter of sorrow or grief that. Ex: Alas! He has failed. Ass: We mourn that he has failed. Rule 5: Had/were/If /Would that(at the out set) Replaced by I wish + subject again + were/ had+ rest part. Ex: Had I the wings of a bird! Ass: I wish I had the wings of a bird. Ex: Were I a bird! Ass: I wish I were a bird. Ex: If I were young again! Ass: I wish I were young again. Ex: would that I could be a child! Ass: I wish I could be a child.

Assertive to exclamatory is to be done doing Vice versa.

Imperative to assertive Rule 1: Add subject + should in doing assertive. Ex: Do the work. Ass: you should do the work. Rule 2: Please/kindly Replaced by you are requested to.

Ex: Please, help me. Ass: You are requested to help me. Rule 3: Do not Replaced by You should not. Ex: Do not run in the sun. Ass: you should not run in the sun. Rule 4: Never Replaced by you should never. Ex: Never tell a lie. Ass: You should never tell a lie. Rule 5: Let us Replaced by We should. Ex: Let us go out for a walk. Ass: We should go out for a walk. Rule 6: Let + noun/pronoun Replaced by Subject + might. Ex: Let him play football. Ass: He might play football.

Change of degree Rule1: If the superlative degree says about the best thing then the rule is:For comparative,use subject +verb + adjective/adverb(comp. form) + Than any other + rest part For positive, useNo other + rest part after supr. Degree + verb + so/as + positive form of adj/adv + as + sub. Ex: Su: Suman is the tallest boy in the class. Com: Suman is taller than any other boy in the class. Pos: No other boy in the class is as tall as Suman. Rule 2: If In superlative degree One of the is transformed in this way: Comparative: Sub+verb +comp. form +than most other+ Rest part. Positive: Very few+ rest part after supr. Degree + verb + so/as + positive form of adj/adv + as + sub. Ex: Nazrul was one of the greatest poets in Bangladesh. Comp.: Nazrul was greater than most other poets in Bangladesh. Positive: Very few poets in Bangladesh were so great as Nazrul. Note: Superlative: Of all/ of any Comparative: Than all other/than any other. Positive: It does not exist. Ex: Sup: Mr. khan is the oldest of all men in the village. Com: Mr. Khan is older than all other men in the village. Pos: No other man is as old as Mr. Khan.

Rule 3: Simple comparative is transformed into positive by using (not so + adj/adv+as)/ (so+adj/adv+as)if negative. Second noun or pronoun is used first. Ex: 1. com: Rina is wiser than Mina. Pos: Mina is not so wise as Rina. 2. Com: Mina is not wiser than Rina. Pos: Rina is as wise as Mina.

Rule 4: No/not less --- than is transformed into positive by using as +adj/adv+ as Ex: com: Karim is not less meritorious than Suman. Pos: Karim is so meritorious as Suman.

Complex Simple compound Rule 1:Since/As/When Change is to be made in the subordinate clause . When subjects are same. Simple: 1) Omit since/as/when. 2) (Verb+ing) of the subordinate clause. 3) then write the rest part. 4) use subject with the principal clause. 5) Principal clause remains unchanged. Ex: Since the boy worked hard, he made a good result. Simple: Working hard, the boy made a good result. Compound: 1) Omit since /as /when 2) write down the rest part. 3) join clauses by using and, and so, and therefore 4) write the main clause unchanged. Ex: The boy worked hard and made a good result. Rue2: In case of Be verb in subordinate clause: 1) Use being/ Because of + Pronoun/noun(possessive form)+ being. Ex: Since he was weak, he could not work hard. Simple: Because of his being weak, he could not work hard. Compound: He was weak and therefore could not work hard. Note: and therefore, is used for showing reasons. Rule3: When the subject of clauses are different: Simple: 1)Subject of s.c. 2) Verb+ing ( be verb being; Have verb having) Ex: Since the weather was foul, we did not go out.

Sim: The weather being foul, we did not go out. Compound: use and thereforeto join two clauses. Ex: The weather was foul and therefore we did not go out. Rule 4: If, is Replaced by by + (verb+ing) Ex: If you work hard, you will succeed in life. Simple: By working hard, you will succeed in life. Compound: 1) Omit if+subject. 2. use and to join two clauses. Ex: Compound: Work hard and you will succeed in life. Rule 5: Simple: If-not/unless, is replaced by, - without+( verb+ing) Ex: Complex: If you donot work hard, you will fail in the examination. Sim: Without working hard, you will fail in the examination. Compound: Use or/otherwise to join two clauses. Ex: Work hard or you will fail in the examination. Rule 6: Simple: Though is replaced by In spite of+ Possessive form of the subject+ (verb+ing) Ex: Com: Though he tried heart and soul, he could not succeed in life. Sim: In spite of his trying heart and soul he could not succeed in life. Compound: Use but to join two clauses. Rule 7: Simple: So that is replaced by to/in order to. Ex: Comp: He works hard so that he may prosper in life. Sim: he works hard to/in order to prosper in life. Compound: and want/wants to is used to join two clauses. Ex: He works hard and wants to prosper in life. Rule 8: Simple: so + adjective + that is replaced by Too + adjective + to Ex: The boy is so foolish that he cannot understand it. Sim: The boy is too foolish to understand it. Compound: Use And Therefore to make it a compound sentence. Ex: He is so foolish and therefore cannot understand it. Rule 9: When(if mentions time) is replaced by For short time At For month or Season In For age--- at the age of. Ex: She woke up when it was midnight. Simple: She woke up at midnight. Com: When it is spring, the cuckoo sings. Sim: In Spring the cuckoo sings. Con: When Samira was four she went to school.

Sim: At the age of four, Samira went to school. Compound: Use and to join clauses. Ex: She woke up and it was midnight. Rule 10: Simple: If the clause says a bout a continuous fact then useAt the time of instead of When Ex: When I was eating the phone rang. Sim: At the time of my eating, the phone rang. Compound: Use And. Ex: I was eating and the phone rang. Rule 11: Simple: Noun clause can be replaced by noun. Ex: Com: He admitted that he was guilty. Sim: He admitted his guilt. Com: That he is honest is known to all. Sim: his honesty is known to all. Compound: Use And. Ex: He is honest and it is known to all. Rule 12: Simple: If Complex sentence is made with relative pronoun(who, what, which, that), omit it and make (verb+ing). Com: The Doctor who is working in the hospital is known to all. Sim: The doctor working in the hospital is known to all. Note: If the verb is in the past participle it remains unchanged. Ex: The picture which was drawn by Liza is very fine. Sim: The picture drawn by Liza is very fine. Rule 13: Simple: Adjective Clause is changed into - Adjective, Past participle Phrase, Noun in apposition, infinitive. Adjective: ex: A man who is drowning catches at a straw. Sim: A drowning man catches at a straw. Compound: A man is drowning and so catches at a straw. Past participle phrase: Ex: The answer that he wrote was not correct. Sim: The answer written by him was not correct. Compound: He wrote the answer and it was not correct. Gerundial Infinitive: Ex: I have no money that I can lend you. Sim: I have no money to lend you. Compound: I have no money and I cannot lend you. Rule 14: In the compound not only---- But also is Changed by Besides + (Verb +ing) In the simple.

Ex: Mr.Khan not only teaches us English but also writes novels. Sim: Besides teaching us English, Mr. Khan Writes novels. Transformation of Sentences Part II Changing an exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence and vice versa Exclamatory: What a beautiful flower! Assertive: It is a beautiful flower. Exclamatory: What a great victory! Assertive: It is a great victory. Exclamatory: How kind of you to help him like that! Assertive: It is very kind of you to help him like that. Exclamatory: What a glorious morning! Assertive: It is indeed a glorious morning. Transformation of an assertive sentence into an exclamatory sentence Assertive: He is truly noble. Exclamatory: How noble he is! Assertive: This is indeed a pleasant surprise. Exclamatory: What a pleasant surprise this is! Assertive: It was an extremely delightful party. Exclamatory: What a delightful party it was! Assertive: I wish I were young again. Exclamatory: O that I were young again! Changing an interrogative sentence into an assertive sentence and vice versa An assertive sentence can be changed into an interrogative sentence by putting the auxiliary verb before the subject. Assertive: She is my friend. Interrogative: Is she my friend? Assertive: He has finished his work. Interrogative: Has he finished his work? Assertive: He is very intelligent. Interrogative: Is he very intelligent? Notes If the assertive sentence contains the adverb never, it becomes ever in the interrogative sentence. Assertive: I never asked you to do it. Interrogative: Did I ever ask you to do it? If the assertive sentence contains the adverb no, it becomes any in the interrogative sentence. Assertive: There is no sense in doing that. Interrogative: Is there any sense in doing that? Changing an imperative sentence into an interrogative sentence and vice versa Imperative: Stop it. Interrogative: Will you stop it?

Imperative: Please, give me a glass of water. Interrogative: Will you, please, give me a glass of water? Imperative: Come here. Interrogative: Come here, will you? Note that the interrogative is a milder form of the imperative. But the addition of or not to the interrogative form will add a touch of threat to it. Imperative: Shut up. Interrogative: Will you shut up or not? Imperative: Get out of here. Interrogative: Will you get out of here or not? Imperative: Speak loudly. Interrogative: Will you speak loudly? Imperative: Please take me to the Director of the Institute. Interrogative: Will you, please, take me to the Director of the Institute?