Thomas Broomhead 10E Estimate information in a text message 1.

Estimate the amount of information in a typical short mobile phone text message.

Informed guesses for relevant data: 12 words, average of 5 characters per word, 1 byte per character Calculation: 12 x 5 = 60 60 x 1 = 60 bytes. 60 x 8 =480 bits

Estimate information in an e-mail 2. Estimate the amount of information in a typical longish e-mail message.

Informed guesses for relevant data: 400words, average 5 characters per word, 1 byte per character Calculation: 400 x 5 = 2000. 8 x 400 = 3200 bits Estimate time to transmit a picture 3. Estimate the time needed to send a digital photograph on a broadband connection.

Informed guesses for relevant data: 5 million pixels, 3 bytes a pixel, 10 million bits per second Calculation: 5000000 x 8 = 40000000 bits / 10 million =4 seconds Estimate rate of information flow in a phone call 4. Estimate the rate at which information needs to be sent in a digital mobile telephone call.

Informed guesses for relevant data: 4 khz signal, 2 bytes per sample, 10000 Calculation: 4x8=32 32x10000= 320000 bits

Thomas Broomhead 50s 1. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 7 7 0 -7 -7 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1. 1.2

0 4.5 7 10 7 4.5 0 -4.5 -7 -10 -7 -4.5 0

2.

8 6 4 2 P/V 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 0

Sample rate of 1 per 2 seconds

Series2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

seconds

Sampel rate of 1 per second

15 Series2 10 5 P/V 0 0 -5 -10 -15 3. The graph which is second has a higher sample rate producing a more accurate image. 4. The length of the song needs to be taken into consideration when sampling as hour long tracks need a lower sample rate, content of the track and the highest frequency should determine the sample rate. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1 1.2

seconds

Thomas Broomhead
60s 1. Every time the circular blade changes direction it will appear stationary so this means the lade will appear stationary every 50 hz.

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2. The lamp frequency either equals the disc's frequency or is a sub-multiple of it, e.g. 30 Hz or 20 Hz. At 24 Hz the arrow appears to be still but flashing in opposite directions. The ratio of the frequencies is 2.5:1 which means that in the gap between flashes the arrow rotates through two and a half revolutions. 3. To analyse the motion you need up to ten images in each quarter of a swing. The pendulum frequency is 5 Hz, so a flash rate of 200 Hz could be suitable. 4. The flash should last significantly less than 1/200 s, say 1/1000 s, for the image to be sharp. 5. The disc appears stationary. In each flash cycle the disc makes two complete revolutions. 6. The disc appears stationary. In one flash interval it makes half a revolution, but the stripe extends across it so it appears the same. 7. The disc appears to rotate backwards. In each 1/100 s interval the strip will not quite turn through half a revolution. 8. The condition for the cog wheel to appear stationary is that one cog has travelled 1/10 of a revolution (or n/10 of a revolution where n is an integer) in the time between the light flickering. The light flickers every 1/50 s or every 0.02 s. If in that time the cog has travelled n/10 revolution, the rate of rotation of the cog wheel must be a value such as 5 revolutions per second (n = 1), 10 revolutions per second (n = 2), 15 revolutions per second (n = 3), etc. 9. The number of frames per second is just higher than the frequency at which one spoke of a wheel reaches the place occupied by a previous spoke.

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1. Silicon computer chips and miniature circuits have helped to develop technology to store more data in a smaller space 2. Sampling rates should be over double the highest frequency known to ensure that the recording is accurate and of high quality. In this example the highest known frequency is 20khz which doubles up to 40khz, anything higher than 40khz should be fine e.g. 44.1 kHz. 3. Unwanted data would be put into it so the original signal will not match the newly reconstructed signal, this new signal will be a poor interpretation of the original signal. 4. For a 5 second store 5 x 2 x 44100 x2 =882000 bytes of memory required. For a 30 second store 30 x 2 x 44100 x 2 = 5292000 bytes of memory required. 5. The non-linear scale makes the graph easier to understand over the graphs that dont use log. The scale used makes it useful as it can be applied to more. 6. Jos ear was most sensitive between2 kHz to 5 kHz. 7. When the frequency is 8 kHz the measured relative intensity was approximately 3 DBs. 8. Jos relative intensity would be approximately 40 DB as she can still hear around 35DB 9. It needs to be allot more intense of a sound as Jos ear will not pick up on this currently.

Thomas Broomhead 140D: Comparing digital multimeters; calibrating a power pack

Activity 140D: Demonstration

Key Terms

Quick Help

Digital multimeters often have displays which generate 3 or even 4 digits on some scales. But can you believe all these digits? The meters can resolve small current, voltage and resistance intervals, with small uncertainty, but are the readings accurate? Are the readings actually correct? Ultimately, meters have to be calibrated against known voltage standards. You are not likely to have access to such a standard. But you can get an idea of the possible systematic error of a meter by comparing it with others. Variable voltage DC power packs have dials showing the voltage delivered. How good is the calibration of the dial? You will need two digital multimeters manufacturers specification for the meters (if available) 6 V cell pack variable d.c. power supply connecting leads a fixed resistor about 20 W (to draw a few hundred mA at 6.0 V)

Quick and simple comparison of two meters 1. Connect the two multimeters in parallel and switch to the d.c. voltage scale.

2. Connect the two meters in parallel with one, two, three and four cells from the cell pack in series, taking simultaneous readings of p.d. from each meter for comparison. 3. Now connect the two multimeters in series and switch to an appropriate d.c. current scale.

Thomas Broomhead 4. Connect the two meters with the fixed resistance in series with one, two, three and four cells from the cell pack in series, taking simultaneous readings of current from each meter for comparison. Here are some typical data for two good quality multimeters.

5. Consider any differences in readings and how this reflects on the possible systematic error (accuracy) of the meters. You could work out the differences and express them as a percentage of the average reading. Here the mismatch is at about 0.2% for the voltage scales and about 0.4% for the current scales. This is good precision, but both meters cannot be perfectly accurately calibrated and perhaps neither are! 6. Think about the uncertainty of the readings. If any digit flickers, changing its value from one moment to the next, then the reading is to that extent uncertain. 7. If the manufacturers specification for the meter is available, check whether the meters you have agree to within the tolerance claimed. Calibrating a power pack 1. Attach the voltmeter directly to the output of the power supply.

2. Adjust the power supply control and record the setting on the dial and the voltage recorded by the voltmeter. Try to take readings across the entire range of voltages available and at intervals such that you can read precisely off the dial. 3. 4. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading (y-axis) against dial reading (x-axis). Draw a smooth curve through your points.

5. Using the graph, predict the dial position you would need to use to create some intermediate voltages (i.e. ones you did not test). Try these dial positions out and see if your prediction is accurate.

The spreadsheets below give some sample data for two different power packs. Open the Excel Worksheet

Open the Excel Worksheet

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You have learned 1. That measurements from sophisticated-looking devices can be off calibration and conceal systematic error, which makes readings inaccurate, even if they seem quite precise. 2. 3. That the dial on a power pack indicating output voltage is not necessarily well calibrated. To be awkward when dealing with equipment and not to be too optimistic.

4. When using multimeters, to make your own comparisons of the devices, if practicable, rather than accepting the manufacturer's tolerance values. 5. How to construct and use a calibration curve.

160C: Satellite imaging

Question 160C: Comprehension

Key Terms | Answers

Quick Help

Instructions Read the article and answer the questions that follow. European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS) In July 1991, the first European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-1) was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). It had a Sun-synchronous circular orbit (near polar) at 770 km. Its purpose was to collect information on areas of the world that are difficult to observe from the surface, such as oceans and ice-covered areas. It also produces images of the land surface in all weather conditions, 24 hours a day. Sensors on board ERS-1 Active microwave instrument (AMI) An active microwave instrument (AMI) produces radar images and can be operated in three different ways (modes) synthetic aperture radar image mode, wave mode (to measure ocean wave parameters) and the wind scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction at the sea surface.

Thomas Broomhead Radar altimeter An altimeter is an instrument used to accurately determine surface height. It sends out a pulse of energy in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum and records the return signal. The time taken for a radar pulse to travel from the instrument to the Earth's surface and back again can be used to calculate the distance between the two. To do this, the satellite's exact position must be known. Corrections then have to be made as the radar pulse is affected by travelling through the atmosphere. The interaction between microwaves and the land surface is very complex, making it difficult to use an altimeter over the land. However, it provides accurate measurements of sea surface height to within a few centimetres. Information on wave height is important for the safety of shipping and the operation of oil rigs. Winds generate waves, varying the height of the sea surface. Altimeter data can thus be used to work out wind speeds over oceans and this is very important for weather forecasting. The topography or shape of the sea surface can also be used to work out the topography of the plates beneath the oceans. The ERS satellite can be set to different repeat cycles 3 days, 35 days or 176 days. With a 3 day repeat cycle, the same point on the Earth's surface can be viewed at 3 day intervals. This is useful for studying the changes in ocean height over currents, and can detect even small eddies. The disadvantage is that the altimeter ground track only covers a few narrow bands of the Earth's surface, resulting in gaps in the coverage. Longer repeat cycles give greater ground coverage, providing information about more of the Earth's surface in each cycle. This is essential for studying differences in the level of the sea over wide areas of the ocean. The disadvantage is that short term events such as depressions, which influence the sea surface height, change too rapidly to be studied by this method. Along-track scanning radiometer (ATSR) The along-track scanning radiometer (ATSR) was built in the UK and is designed to measure temperatures over oceans. Sea surface temperatures influence the weather. To understand energy exchanges between oceans and the atmosphere, we require detailed information on sea surface temperatures. As these are constantly changing we need satellites to provide continuous data. The ATSR is a passive instrument recording the heat energy (thermal radiation) emitted by the Earth's surface. It can collect information across four wavebands or channels: 3.7 m (micrometres) 11.0 m 12.0 m 16.0 m

Thomas Broomhead

Source Open the image file in Scion Image

The ATSR can be used over land as well as over seas. It has a conical scanning mechanism, scanning from a position immediately above the Earth (nadir) to a point about 900 km further along the satellite's track. Every point along the satellite track is viewed from directly above and at an angle.

The atmosphere affects energy radiating from the Earth's surface before it reaches the sensor. With two views of the same area taken through different lengths of atmosphere, a digital elevation model can be made. The ATSR swath width is 512 km with a 35 day repeat cycle and has a spatial resolution of 1 1 km at the nadir. The precise operational details can be adjusted depending on the user's requirements. The instrument has proved to be very accurate and precise. It can determine sea surface temperature to + 0.3 K (kelvin). Precise and range-rate equipment (PRARE) The precise and range-rate equipment (PRARE) provides accurate information about the position of the satellite and the characteristics of its orbit. Laser retro-reflector (LRR) A laser beam transmitted from the ground is reflected by the laser retro-reflector back to the ground station, allowing scientists to calculate the exact position of the satellite. RADARSAT The Canadian Space Agency launched the RADARSAT-1 spacecraft in November 1995. The satellite carries radar instruments providing all weather, day and night observations of land and sea surfaces. It moves in a Sun-synchronous orbit, at an altitude of 792 km above the Earth's surface, completing each orbit in 101 minutes. The radar instruments operate in the C-band microwave wavelength (5.3 GHz frequency). RADARSAT transmits its C-band microwave energy in a horizontal polarisation orientation. The energy, which returns to RADARSAT's sensor, is captured using the same polarisation. This is known as the 'HH polarisation system'. The RADARSAT Synthetic Aperture Radar can be steered to image over 500 km using a number of different imaging modes. This means that the system can be programmed from the ground control

Thomas Broomhead station so that different imagery can be acquired, depending on the needs of the user. The person who orders data can specify how they want RADARSAT to acquire these in terms of the image resolution (from 8-100 metres), angle of view and size of area to be covered. Of course many customers are happy to buy data which has already been acquired and the sales system is organised so that customers can find out what type of image data is available and get advice about the most appropriate data to purchase. The satellite's SAR system has been designed to make it useful for a range of applications including: crop investigations coastal zone mapping ship detection oil spill detection ocean applications including bathymetry (mapping the ocean depths/shape of the sea floor) hydrological applications geological applications ice monitoring

Adapted from an article on the BNSC CD-ROM Window on the World. Questions 1. Active methods provide their own signal, while passive sensors just receive a signal. Use examples from the passage to distinguish between active and passive remote sensing methods. 2. Use a diagram to explain the advantages of polar over equatorial orbits for Earth observation. 3. How does the ERS satellite produce images of the land surface 'in all weather conditions, 24 hours a day'? 4. Taking the speed of radar waves as light speed (3.0 108 m s -1), calculate the signal return time for a reflection from the sea directly below the satellite. 5. How precise does the clock on the satellite have to be to resolve sea height differences of + 3 cm ? 6. 7. Explain what a microwave altimeter does. Why does it operate better over sea than land?

8. Explain why 'corrections then have to be made as the radar pulse is affected by travelling through the atmosphere'. 9. How can radar altimeter data be used in weather forecasting over the oceans?

Thomas Broomhead 10. What is the benefit of larger repeat cycles (176 day instead of 3 day repeats), in ERS satellite monitoring? 11. 12. Give one disadvantage of these larger repeat cycles. Why is the ATSR described as a passive instrument?

13. According to Wien's displacement law, the most intense wavelength lmax of thermal radiation from a body is inversely proportional to its absolute (kelvin) temperature. lmax = 2.9 103 m K1/T Use this relationship to predict lmax for ocean surface water at 17 C and comment on your answer in relation to the ATSR wavebands. 14. Look at the diagram of the scan area of the ATSR. Calculate the number of 1 kilometre squares contributing to pixels in a complete scan. (Assume the footprint of the scan is elliptical, and that its area = p Raverage2.) 15. If 1 byte of information is required per pixel, calculate the amount of information in a complete scan in kilobytes. 16. 17. 18. Calculate the wavelength of the microwaves used in the RADARSAT. Compare the resolution of ATSR and RADARSAT. Describe the commercial importance of one of the applications of RADARSAT images.

170X: Music on an answer-phone

Question 170X: ExplanationExposition

Key Terms | Answers Why music on an answer-phone sounds terrible If you can, play back a message on an answer-phone. Pay attention to its quality. You might try recording a piece of music you know well on an answer-phone and then playing it back. Many answer machines will play a few bars of music to you before letting you speak your message. Why is this 'music' usually of a very poor sound quality? Describe as carefully as possible what is wrong with the quality of the sound. What is the essential difference which lets sound from a CD player be of much higher quality?