CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands 1.

REACTIVATION OF FAULTS

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands The study also addresses the theoretical limitations of inversion to identify the conditions required for reactivation to take place. The theoretical limitations can be expressed in terms of the Mohr Circle. However the theory is here limited to a two-

1.1. A THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF FAULT REACTIVATION 1.1.1. INTRODUCTION This review section is based on information compiled from seismological and structural geological literature. It forms a basis for applying the concept of reactivation to the structural evolution of the Bristol Channel Borderlands. The study briefly addresses the history of fault movement. Fault history extends from the generation of faults by multiple slip events of variable orientation, through a phase of slip predominantly along one particular set of planes, into larger single slip events which form the characteristic final displacement along a fault, prior to any reactivation. The investigation introduces faults as being generated under high shear stress conditions from aligned cracks. The cracks grow, link and are moved to form a narrow zone of brittle deformation. The zone forms a fault which under continued stress releases energy during discrete slip events which can be measured on active faults using seismological techniques. The parameters measured are controlled by the geometry of a fault. Assuming different models of fault geometry, the history of slip along a fault can be deduced. The geometry of ancient faults and associated folds is examined to illustrate that the post-initial slip history of a fault can also be composite i.e. involving reactivation. Reactivation and inversion occur on a range of scales. The concept of reactivation will be applied to the mesoscopic structures of the Bristol Channel Borderlands as well as to kilometre-scale structures beneath the Bristol Channel imaged on seismic sections:

dimensional analysis of structures. Sandbox modelling of reactivated structures is also briefly examined to provide further evidence for reactivation in the Bristol Channel Borderlands.

1.1.2. DEFINITIONS Reactivation is here defined as the movement along an old fault plane under new stress conditions which usually causes growth of the old fault upwards in to cover rocks and possibly downwards into basement. Inversion is here defined in full as a reactivation event which has an opposite sense of displacement to the previous faulting event and usually involves separate and contrasting stress systems. The importance of inversion in structural interpretations is emphasised in section 1.2. Both reactivation and inversion (as a subset of reactivation) involve polyphase brittle deformation. Two types of inversion can be defined: Positive inversion and Negative inversion (Powell, 1987). Positive inversion involves the reactivation of normal faults as ramp thrusts or reverse faults i.e. faults generally formed in an extensional regime are reactivated and inverted in a later compressional regime. Examples have been cited from the Rambutan Oil Field, South Sumatra (Harding, 1983). Negative inversion involves the reactivation of thrusts and reverse faults as normal faults which involves a compressional system being replaced by an extensional system. Examples are found in the Worcester Basin, Central England (Chadwick & Smith, 1988).

Inversion can be identified along faults by examining the structure of the surrounding rock for evidence of polyphase brittle deformation. An understanding of the movement history of faults gives an indication of the relative changes in amount of shortening across a mountain belt through time. By combining the structural analysis with stratigraphic information the history of a fault can be described in detail. Both lines of investigation described above will show that faults can be reactivated in the same sense or the opposite sense to the previous event. The latter case constitutes inversion. INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-1 INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-2

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands 1.1.3. GENERATION OF FAULTS Experimental study of the formation and growth of faults by Cox & Scholz (1988) showed that faults are initiated preferentially under high shear stress conditions under which microscopic oblique cracks are formed, these being in general oblique to the direction of shear (mode 3 in Fig. 1.1). Under continued stress the oblique cracks are joined by linkage cracks which develop parallel to the direction of shear stress (Fig. 1.2). The cracks eventually link to form a damage zone. If the cracks in the damage zone are concentrated enough and in the correct orientation, then a shear surface is developed. Geologically this occurs during fault initiation and later at the tips of faults. Faults can grow by repeated movement along tensile cracks which modify the stress field and thus indirectly control the direction of growth (Fig. 1.3). Hence the length of a fault can increase in its own plane by the repeated movement of the strained tips and in some instances growth by fault reactivation can lead to fault linkage. The early history of a fault is therefore dominated by growth in a series of pulses of repeated movement along developing planes.

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands L = 2W (Fig. 1.4).

The three cases of the Rectangular Fault Model are considered below and illustrated in Fig. 1.5. Case 1 The stress drop is constant across the width of the fault and the final slip along the Y-axis decreases gradually from the centre of the fault towards the tips. Case 2 The stress drop is zero at the centre of the fault and is a maximum at the sides of the fault so that the final slip is less at the centre of the fault than at its margins before decreasing to zero at the tips. Case 3 This is an extreme situation of Case 2 in which there is no slip at the centre of the fault with maximum slip occurring at the fault margins so that the stress drop reaches a minimum at the margins and a maximum at the centre of the faults due to strain build-up and consequent high strain in the unfaulted rock. It can be suggested from the models that fault growth can either occur at the tips of a fault or at its centre, so that the slip of one event can be in the opposite direction to the slip of a previous event (Fig. 1.6.a & b). Fig. 1.6.a & b represents the

1.1.4. GROWTH OF FAULTS Discrete slip events along growing fault planes release energy. The seismological study of the energy released during fault growth and movement allows the construction of models describing the process. These in turn are based on various models of fault geometry.

different cases of the Rectangular Fault Model applied to an isolated fault in the YZ-plane.

As an example the Rectangular Fault Model proposed by Madariaga (1979) is described here. Three cases in the Rectangular Fault Model of fault growth describe fault growth in terms of stress drop and final slip on the fault (Scholz, 1982). The fault considered is planar and contained in the XY-plane of the triaxial system with the Z-axis being normal to the fault plane. The fault has a width W and a length L where:

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CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands Fig. 1.6.a shows a similar situation to Case 2 above in which the slip is concentrated in the centre of the fault so that the stress drop is maximum in the centre of the fault i.e. the strain release is a maximum together with the energy release. This would increase the strain towards the tips of the fault so that in a successive slip event following strain build-up, the previous barriers become the asperities of the next event as shown in Fig. 1.6.c. Fig. 1.6.b is a similar situation to Case 1 above in which the slip is dispersed along the whole fault so that a constant stress drop is obtained. These two cases clearly show that as a fault moves and grows, successive slip events may oppose each other.

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands Scholz (1982) concluded that the length of the fault is mainly controlled by the stress drop only for large earthquakes. However this model does not take into account structural considerations of a large system, for example, the possibility of interference from tectonic obstacles or the reactivation of adjacent rupture zones within a specific fault system. Simpler seismological models can be adopted in which either the length or the width of a fault is reduced to a minimum (Haskell, 1964) or made equal (Madariaga, 1976) i.e. a circular fault model. In summary, examination of seismological literature on the dynamics of fault growth shows that the evolution of a fault involves distinct slip events of variable direction being superseded by movement in a prevalent direction which may not remain constant in later history.

1.2. THEORETICAL LIMITATIONS TO FAULT REACTIVATION 1.2.1 INTRODUCTION Inversion tectonics has been identified in a large variety of structural regimes of differing geological age, structural style and scale e.g.: Jackson Grant Stonely Harding Bevan Budnik Powell Anderton 1980 1982 1982 1983 1985 1987 1987 1988 Zagros Mountains Newfoundland Wessex Basin South Sumatra Dorset Rocky Mountains SW Dyfed SW & Central Highlands Biddle & Rudolph 1988 North Sea Stord Basin Chadwick & Smith 1988 Smale 1988 Worcester Basin Gulf of Suez Netherlands

Dronkers & Mrozek1991

Since inversion is such a widespread phenomenon, it would assist the study of inversion if the structural constraints on reactivation are considered and examined. Reactivation of established faults becomes a very likely phenomenon in light of the above considerations in which, due to various stress conditions, faults may display differing slip histories along their length (Lin & Parmentier, 1988). This 1.2.2. REACTIVATION AND THE MOHR CIRCLE consequently results in oppositely directed slip during succeeding events. i.e. it is more likely for reactivation to occur in Sibson (1985) defined the theoretical constraints on fault reactivation by deducing the range of angles under which different stress regimes. reactivation would take place, given a general stress system and basic failure criteria. The theoretical conditions of Other seismological models exist such as the Width and Length Models of Scholz (1982) which attempt to explain the reactivation were then presented in terms of the Mohr Circle, from which the likelihood of reactivation could be deduced geometric parameters controlling the seismic slip and stress drop. An aspect ratio is obtained for a fault (L/W) which is graphically. directly proportional to the stress drop for most earthquakes: L2 = A3/2(L/W)1/2 where A is constant. The following variables are considered by Sibson (1985) to control reactivation along a fault: INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-5 INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-6

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands STRESS RATIO 1/3

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands From equations (3) and (4) the range in which reactivation is predicted to take place is:

FAULT DIP

= 0 to = 2'

STATIC FRICTIONAL COEFFICIENT

Taking an average and common value for = 0.75 Then ' = 26 34'

Consider a fault in a triaxial stress field in which 1>2>3 and the strike of the fault is parallel to the 2 axis, i.e. the normal to the fault lies on the 13 plane, (Fig. 1.7). and 2'= 53 8'

For the simplest frictional failure criterion: = n' In which n' represents shear stress represents static frictional coefficient represents effective normal stress (1)

i.e. in the case of a stress system favouring the generation of a normal fault, reactivation will take place between dips of:

36 52' and 63 26'

Noting the values for ' and 2' then in the case of an old listric fault (Fig. 1.8) under new stress conditions favouring the formation of a thrust i.e. in the case where:

Where

n' = n - P

(2) D=

In which

represents fluid pressure then in the lower section of the fault where the dip of the fault is either parallel to the new horizontal 1 stress or at a small

For a fault striking parallel to the 2-axis at an angle to the 1-axis in the 13 plane, equation (1) in terms of the effective principal stresses reduces to:

angle to the 1-axis then a high differential stress 1 - 3 is required for reactivation to take place. In the case of a low differential stress the 3 stress would act directly on a gently dipping plane and negate the effects of the similar 1 stress.

1'/3' = (1 + Cot)/(1-Tan)

(3)

In which 1'/3' represents the stress ratio for reactivation (Sibson, 1985).

The stress ratio is an important quantity in reactivation when related to the dip of the fault (D), where for a normal fault:

D = 90 -

and for a thrust fault:

D=

From equation (3) the optimum angle for reactivation can be found i.e. the angle ' at which the stress ratio for reactivation is a minimum: Higher up the fault plane between dips of 26 and 53 only a low stress ratio for reactivation is required so that reactivation ' = Tan-1(1/) INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-7 (4) is more likely to occur in this zone of the fault. Above a dip of 53 the condition 3 < 0 is required to allow reactivation to INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-8

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands take place in a thrust system meaning that the minimum stress has to be tensile. Hence the upper section of the fault would probably act as a buttress so that a new fault would develop by cutting through the top of the footwall and linking with the lower section of the old fault in the hangingwall (Fig. 1.9). There are obvious limitations to the cases considered in that the fault strike and the 2 intermediate stress were given special orientations. Variations in the range in which reactivation would take place could easily be caused by a slight obliquity between the fault strike and the 2-axis. Consider a condition favouring reactivation: 1 C

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands represents the maximum normal stress represents the cohesive strength of the intact and faulted rocks. represents the angle of internal friction of the rock.

taking a body of intact rock at confining pressure 3 with the failure envelope of the intact rock being defined by C (as the intercept on the axis) and by the gradient of the failure envelope, the angle of internal friction (Fig. 1.11).

After faulting, the cohesive strength of the fault rock is lowered substantially whereas may remain constant so that a new second failure envelope lower on the -axis but parallel to the old, intact rock failure envelope, now has to be considered in any further deformation.

Further differences would be caused by variations in the static frictional coefficient . It is evident from equation (4) that as increases ' decreases and, hence, the range of dips over which reactivation can take place also decreases (Fig. 1.10). As an example in the lower sections of the fault, fluids may reduce to the extent of forming conditions under which a flat thrust would preferentially develop.

Under further stress the lower failure envelope is more easily reached than the upper failure envelope i.e. under constant confining pressure 3, the maximum normal stress required to cause the development of a new failure surface 1min is lower than that required to cause the development of a new failure surface 1max.

Since the failure envelope for the faulted rock is much lower than the failure envelope for the intact rock, a wide range of 2 An important limitation to reactivation is recognised in the case of the upper section of the listric fault, in which a new failure surface would develop instead of reactivation taking place. angles (angles between the centre of the Mohr Circle and the point of intercept of the Mohr Circle and the failure envelope) will be established well before the Mohr Circle forms a tangent with the intact failure envelope at:

The conditions under which failure of a rock can occur can be expressed in terms of the Mohr Circle. Hence the following variables affecting reactivation will be considered in this way: 2 where q represents the angle between the fault plane and the 1-axis 3 represents the confining pressure INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-9

n = 1max

i.e. reactivation is likely to occur due to the large difference in the cohesive strengths of the intact rock and the faulted rock.

Consider a case favouring both reactivation of old faults and the generation of new failure surfaces. INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-10

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands Worked Example: Properties of the intact rock:

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands It is likely that the flat lying nature of the 2 = 23 thrusts would make them unsuitable for reactivation where as the high planar nature of the 2 = 96 faults would make them favourable for reactivation in a normal stress regime. The generation of a new set of failure planes at 2 = 60 would then depend on many variables such as the relative abundance of the two

C = 45 MPa = 32 deformation in a triaxial stress system where and After deformation: Thrusts with 2 = 23 and reverse faults with 2 = 96 were formed. 1>2>3 2 is parallel to the fault strike.

sets of old faults; the directional variation of the 2 stress; the variation in cohesive strength of the fault rock (as it is unlikely to be zero); the angle of internal friction of the rock and indirectly the static frictional coefficient . These variables have to all favour the reactivation of the old faults so that in this example the condition of reactivation is very specific and hence difficult to achieve geologically.

1.3. PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF REACTIVATION 1.3.1. FIELD INVESTIGATION OF FAULT REACTIVATION The Bristol Channel Borderlands consist of rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to Tertiary and contain discordant

Properties of the faulted rock: C = 0 cohesionless fault planes = 32

structures of various trends.

The faults in the area have been affected by a series of structural events (Fig. 1.13) and these are likely to have involved reactivation and inversion. The major structural events which need to be considered in the present study are:

During a later phase of deformation where s1 is vertical, what would occur at: 3 = 106 MPa 1 = 485 MPa ? Constructing a Mohr Circle for the stated 3 and 1 stresses and drawing the failure envelopes for the intact rock and faulted rock would show that either a new set of normal faults would be formed at 2 = 60 or the old faults would be reactivated as normal faults (Fig. 1.12). Precambrian polyphase deformation Early Palaeozoic extension Caledonian compression Devonian extension Acadian sinistral transpression Early Carboniferous extension Variscan compression and strike-slip Permian extension Late Cretaceous - pre-Oligocene transtension Mid Cretaceous - Tertiary Alpine compression and strike-slip.

As an example of reactivation in the region, structures from SW Dyfed were investigated in the light of evidence provided by Powell (1987) for the inversion of Devonian extensional structures during Variscan compression. Powell described structures in Pembrokeshire such as the Johnston Thrust as having a long movement history. Structural and stratigraphic evidence indicates that the Johnston Thrust may have originated from a late Precambrian or Caledonian lineament which was reactivated as an extensional structure during the Devonian before being inverted during Variscan compression.

The reactivation events have been identified using the relationship between the major post-Caledonian unconformity and the lower section of the fault, and the association of the upper part of the fault and the stratigraphic geometry of the Old Red Sandstone. However these relationships have also been affected by Variscan thrusting.

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CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands The structure probably represents at least three phases of tectonism including Caledonian compression, Late Namurian extension and Variscan compression.

Post-Caledonian Devonian extension created new faults as well as reactivating old faults, which controlled the sedimentation and final thickness of the Old Red Sandstone. These extensional faults were also inverted during Variscan compression to form structures such as the Benton and Ritec Thrusts.

Field Examples The following examples provide mesoscopic field evidence for reactivation in SW Dyfed:

Example 1: Druidston Haven (Grid Reference 860 170) Fig. 1.14 shows a moderately south-dipping fault with dip slip slickenside lineations which juxtaposes black Ordovician shales in the footwall and siltstones, shales and ironstones of the Millstone Grit in the hangingwall.

Example 2: Porth LLeuog near Whitesands Bay (Grid Reference 732 270) Fig. 1.15 shows the boundary between Arenigian strata in the northerly hangingwall of a steeply dipping fault and Tremadocian strata in the footwall to the south.

The structure has a complex polyphase history which begins with post-Ordovician-pre-Namurian folding and faulting which affected the rocks in the footwall. A major post-Namurian extensional phase then down-faulted the Millstone Grit against the deformed Ordovician shales. The extensional fault was then reactivated by positive inversion. This is indicted by the distinct hangingwall anticline within the Millstone Grit.

The fault clearly shows post-Arenigian extension, but mesoscopic folds and shear indicators in the hangingwall of the main fault suggest compression. It is possible therefore that positive inversion had also taken place along the Whitesands Bay section.

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CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands Due to the nature of the stratigraphy this structure cannot be correlated with any specific post-Arenigian tectonic event though it can be suggested that it also formed during Variscan positive inversion.

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

1.3.2. MODELLING OF FAULT REACTIVATION The Variscan Orogeny produced faulting of basement rocks within the Bristol Channel Borderlands such as the Bristol Channel Thrust (Brooks et al 1988). Major basement lineaments, comparable with those exposed in South Wales and North Devon, are expected in the Upper Palaeozoic rocks beneath the Bristol Channel. Further thrusts have indeed been identified, such as the Gravel Margin Thrust (see Chapter 6).

The overlying veneer of Mesozoic strata is also known to be faulted, as in the Vale of Glamorgan, Somerset and beneath the Bristol Channel.

It is likely that during this late phase of tectonism the early faults have controlled the location and geometry of the faults within the Mesozoic beneath the Bristol Channel. This has previously been suggested for the Bristol Channel Fault Zone by Brooks et al (1988).

Horsfield (1977) investigated the possible geometrical relationships between basement and overburden faulting to assist interpretations of such specific fault problems using scaled experimental studies with a sandbox, in which pre-existing faults in a rigid basement were reactivated to produce faults in the overlying sand. His study investigated inclined basement faults with both steep and gentle dips, in contrast to earlier experiments which investigated structures produced over vertical basement faults. Horsfield's results for a basement fault dipping at 30 revealed the development of a steep normal fault, very slightly curved which was followed by planar antithetic and synthetic faults forming a deep secondary graben. This experimental result The structural framework above makes the latter study applicable to the Bristol Channel Borderlands in which gentlemoderately dipping faults have been seismically imaged. A direct comparison of the Mesozoic fault structure beneath the Bristol Channel (Fig. 1.16.a) with results from specific configurations analysed in the sandbox experiment (Fig. 1.16.b) do provide further evidence for basement controlled reactivation. For a basement fault dipping at 45 the precursor stage was hardly detectable since a steep normal fault formed first with a very slight curvature. This was followed by an antithetic fault from the transition point between basement and overburden faults causing a small secondary graben. Later synthetic and antithetic faults caused further deepening of the graben. This Experiments were run by Horsfield (1977) to study the relation of overburden faulting to the dip of a normal fault in the underlying basement. This situation is directly analogous to the condition of basement faults beneath the Bristol Channel during Late Cretaceous - pre-Oligocene tectonism. 1.4. CONCLUSIONS Initial movement was characterised by curved synthetic precursor faults, with small displacements which were concave towards the downthrown block. Subsequent movement occurred along a system of planar synthetic and antithetic normal faults which replaced the precursors and varied in dip between 55 and 90. Depth conversion of seismic sections from the Bristol Channel reveals basement faults with dips of 24-31 and 35-43. Field examples and experimental data described above provide evidence that reactivation has taken place in the Bristol Channel Borderlands. The earlier theoretical investigation shows that specific conditions have to be met in order that reactivation can take place. also compares favourably with observations from the structure of the Bristol Channel Fault Zone such as above the Gravel Margin Thrust (Fig. 1.16.a). compares with the structure of the Bristol Channel Fault above the Bristol Channel Thrust (Fig. 1.16.a).

Reactivation phases which affected the structure of the Bristol Channel Borderlands can be described in relation to the evolution of constituent study areas. INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-15 INVERSION TECTONICS Page 1-16

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

stress drop in the presence of stress and strength Sibson, R.H., 1985. Short notes, a note on fault reactivation. J. Struc. Geol., Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 751-754.

REFERENCES

Netherlands. First Break, Vol. 9, No. 9, pp. 409-425.

heterogeneity. J. of Geophysical Research. Vol. 84, No. B5, pp. 2242-2250.

Aki, K., 1984. Asperities, barriers, characteristic earthquakes and strong motion prediction. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 89, No. B7, pp. 5867-5872.

Gamond, J.F., 1983. Displacement features associated with fault zones: a comparison between observed examples and experimental modes. J. Struct. Geol., Vol. 5, pp. 33-45. Powell, C.M., 1987. Inversion tectonics in SW Dyfed. Proc. Geol. Ass., Vol. 98, pp. 193-203.

Smale, J.L., Thunell, R.C. & Schamel, S., 1988. Sedimentological evidence for Early Miocene fault reactivation in the Gulf of Suez. Geology, Vol. 16, No. 2, p. 113.

Anderton, R., 1988. Dalradian slides and basin development: a radical interpretation of stratigraphy and structure in the SW and Central Highlands of Scotland. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 145, pp. 669-678.

Grant, A.C., 1987. Inversion tectonics on the continental margin east of Newfoundland. Geology, Vol. 15, No. 9, p. 845.

Scholz, C.H., 1982. Scaling laws for large earthquakes: consequences for physical models. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 1-14.

Stonely, R., 1982. The structural development of the Wessex Basin. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 139, pp. 543-554.

Harding, T.P., 1983. Structural inversion at Rambutan oil field, South Sumatra basin, in Seismic expression of structural

Biddle, K.T. & Rudolph, K.W., 1988. Early Tertiary structural inversion in the Stord Basin, Norwegian North Sea. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 145, pp. 603-611.

styles - a picture and work atlas: AAPG Studies in Geology 15, Vol. 3, pp. 3.3-13 to 3.3-18.

Haskell, N.A., 1964. Total energy and energy spectral density of Bevan, T.G., 1985. A reinterpretation of fault systems in the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Dorset coast, England. Proc. Geol. Ass., 96(4), pp. 337-342. elastic wave radiation from propagating faults. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 54, pp. 1811-1841.

Brooks, M., Trayner, P.M. & Trimble, T.J., 1988. Mesozoic reactivation of Variscan thrusting in the Bristol Channel area, U.K.. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 145, pp. 439-444.

Horsfield, W.T., 1977. An experimental approach to basement controlled faulting. In: R.T.C. Frost & A.J. Dikkers (eds.): Fault tectonics in NW Europe. Geol. Mijnbouw, Vol. 56, pp. 363-370.

Budnik, R.T., 1987. Late Miocene reactivation of Ancestral Rocky Mountain structures in the Texas Panhandle: A response to Basin and Range extension. Geology, Vol. 15, pp. 163-166. Jackson, J.A., 1980. Reactivation of basement faults and crustal shortening in orogenic belts. Nature, Vol. 283, pp. 343-346. Chadwick, R.A. & Smith, N.J.P., 1988. Short Paper: Evidence of negative structural inversion beneath Central England from new seismic reflection data. J. geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 145, pp. 519-522. Lin, Jian & Parmentier, E.M., 1988. Quasistatic propagation of a normal fault: a fracture mechanics model. J. Struc. Geol., Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 249-262.

Cox, S.J.D. & Scholz, C.H., 1988. On the formation and growth of faults: an experimental study. J. Struc. Geol., Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 413-430.

Madariaga, R., 1976. Dynamics of an expanding circular fault. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 66, No. 3. pp. 639-666.

Dronkers, A.J. & Mrozek, F.J., 1991. Inverted Basins of the

Madariaga, R., 1979. On the relation between seismic moment and

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CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands FIGURE CAPTIONS

CHAPTER ONE Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands Fig. 1.14 A reactivated fault at Druidston Haven, SW Dyfed.

Fig. 1.1 Modes of fault initiation and crack development.

Fig. 1.15 A reactivated fault at Whitesands Bay, SW Dyfed.

Fig. 1.2 Formation of linkage cracks parallel to the direction of shearing. The linkage cracks join the spaced-oblique cracks.

Fig. 1.16.a Extensional fault structure beneath the Bristol Channel.

Fig. 1.3 Modification of a stress field by tensile cracks. 1 and 3 are the maximum and minimum stresses respectively. High planar and sub-horizontal oblique cracks are formed.

Fig. 1.16.b Fault configurations from a sand box experiment analogous to the fault structure beneath the Bristol Channel. Basement faults dip at 45 and 30 respectively

Fig. 1.4 Reference axes for the Rectangular Model in which (W) represents the width and (L) represents the length of the fault.

M. Miliorizos 25th August 2005 File name: PhD Chapter 1 One

Fig. 1.5 Graphs of the three cases of the Rectangular Model looking along the Y-axis and from length 0 to L across the Xaxis. The graphs represent strain build-up or stress-release in relation to separate episodes of fault slip.

Fig. 1.6 Representation of fault slip on a planar fault in the YZ-plane of width (W) showing slip along various points on the fault plane. The contrasting sense of movement may produce asperities (areas of concentrated movement) and barriers areas of little or no movement).

Fig. 1.7 Reference stress axes for a fault with its normal in the 13 plane and strike parallel to the 2-axis forming an angle q with the 1-axis.

Fig. 1.8 The stress conditions for reactivation and the range of angles on a listric fault in which reactivation would take place.

Fig. 1.9 Formation of a footwall short cut during reactivation of a listric fault due to buttressing effects of the upper part of the fault.

Fig. 1.10 Variation of the angular range favouring reactivation with the static frictional coefficient and the stress ratio for reactivation.

Fig. 1.11 A Mohr circle construction illustrating a condition favouring reactivation to the generation of new faults.

Fig. 1.12 A Mohr circle and rosette construction illustrating the condition favouring both reactivation and the generation of new faults.

Fig. 1.13 Flow diagram of structural events which affected the Bristol Channel Borderlands.

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