Nonlinear bubble dynamics

Andrea Prosperetti
Department Mechanical of Engineering, Johns The HopkinsUniversity, Baltimore, Maryland21218
Lawrence A. Crum

NationalCenter PhysicaL4coustics, Box847, University, for P.O. Mississippi 38677

KerryW. Commander
PhysicaL4coustics Branch,Naval Coastal Systems Center,Code4120,PanamaCity,Florida32407

(Received20 August 1985;accepted publication October1987) for 27

The standard approach the analysis the pulsations a drivengasbubble to assume to of of is that

thepressure withinthebubble follows polytropic a relation theformp = po(Ro/R)3K, of where

p is the pressure within the bubble, is the radius, is the polytropic R c exponent, the and subscript zeroindicates equilibrium values. For nonlinearoscillations the gasbubble, of however,this approximation several has limitationsand needs be reconsidered. new to A formulation the dynamics bubble of of oscillations presented whichthe internalpressure is in is obtained numerically the polytropic and approximation no longerrequired. is Several comparisons givenof the two formulations, are which describe somedetail the limitationsof in the polytropicapproximation. PACS numbers: 43.25.Yw, 43.30.Lz, 43.30.Nb

INTRODUCTION

relation is when the linear value ofc is used in the nonlinear

The dynamics a gasbubblein a liquidis strongly of dependent the pressure the gascontained it. In princion of in ple, this quantity must be determinedfrom the solutionof the conservation equations continuummechanics of inside and outside bubble the joinedtogether suitable by boundary conditions thebubble at interface. This taskis verycomplex andcanonlybe carriedout analytically small-amplitude for motion in which the equationscan be linearized (see, for example,Refs. 1-4). For large-amplitude motion, it is customaryin the literatureto makeuseof a polytropicrelation
of the form

regime. Second,if p is givenby (1), p dv (where v is the volumeof the bubble) is a perfectdifferential, and its integral over a cyclevanishes. a consequence, of ( 1) reAs use sultsin no energylossassociated with the heatingand cooling of the gas.This fact is very unfortunatesince is known it from the linearstudies that thisthermaldamping in fact, is, thedominant form of energy absorption overa widerangeof physical conditions. a partialremedy,it wassuggested As in Ref. 12 that the liquid viscosity could be artificiallyaugmentedby an amount chosen sucha way that the correct in dampingwould result in the linear case.This prescription

hasrecently been to anexperimental 4andhas put test been P =Po (Ro/R)3,,, (1)
foundto resultin a largeoverestimate thedamping of affectingthe nonlinear oscillations the regionof thefirstnonlinin
ear resonance.On the basisof these considerations,it must

wherep is the pressure the gasin the bubble,R is the of radius, is the polytropic c index,andthe subscript zeroindicatesequilibriumvalues.This relation,with c= 1, had already been used Minnaert in hiscalculation thenatuby of ral frequency an oscillating of bubblein 1933,but entered bubble-dynamics literatureexplictlywith thepioneering numericalstudies forcedlarge-amplitude of oscillations carried

beconcluded Eq. ( 1) is not adequate a precise that for theoreticalanalysis bubbledynamics. particularconcern of Of is the application ( 1) to the studyof the chaoticregimeof of

forcedoscillations,whichis knownto be strongly 5 influenced the detailsof energydissipation. by In an attempt to go beyond (1), Flynn presenteda
mathematical formulation which reduced the exact set of

outbyNoltingk Neppiras theearly1950s. and 6in Afterthat,

it hasbeenused virtuallyeverywriter on the subject by such

partial differentialequationsexpressing conservation the laws in the gas to a systemof ordinary differentialequa-

asFlynn, Apfel, Lauterborn, 7 8 9Akulichev, andmany others.

11-13

tions. Thisresult obtained theprice a number 6 was at of of

approximations mostnotableof which,that of spatially the uniformpressure distribution the bubble,is alsoadopted in in thisarticle.Flynn'sformulation,however, far from simis ple and,probably thisreason, not beenwidelyused. for has The mathematical formulationto be presented here is simplerand more precise. For a perfectgaswith spatially uniformpressure, continuityand energyequations the can
@ 1988 AcousticalSocietyof America 502

In spiteof its appealing simplicity,the useof Eq. (1) poses manyproblems. the firstplace,thepolytropic In index can rangein the interval from 1 (isothermal) to the ratio of specific heatsy (adiabatic),and appropriate criteriafor the properchoice available are onlyfor the small-amplitude linear case. Further, it is at present unknownhow realisticthis
,

502

J. Acoust.Soc. Am. 83 (2), February 1988

0001-4966/88/020502-13500.80

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monstrating limitedaccuracy thepolytropic the of approximation.Further numericaland analyticalresults will be presented forthcoming in publications.

We propose studythe thermomechanical to behaviorof the gascontained a bubblein spherically in symmetricmotionforthetemperature andto anordinary field differential tion. The diffusionof the gasin and out of the bubblehas equation the internalpressure. straightforward for A nusignificant dynamicaleffects only at very low ambientpresmerical technique the treatment these for of equations deis sures, whenthesmallquantityof gasdiffusing the liquid into scribed the Appendix,and several in numerical results are is an appreciable fraction of the total amount of gasconincluded the purpose illustrating methodand defor of the tained thebubble. Thiseffect, in 2 however, beignored can at

be combined obtainan exactexpression the velocity to for fieldin termsof the temperature gradient.In this way, the problem reduced a nonlinear is to partialdifferential equa-

I. MATHEMATICAL

FORMULATION

The mainapproximations contained thepresent in articleare: (a) The pressure spatially is uniformin the bubble; (b) the gasis perfect; the bubble (c) maintains spherical a shape;(d) the bubblewall temperature remainsunperturbed;and (e) the effects the vapor contained the of in bubbleare negligible. Assumptions and (e) enable to disregard (d) us the energy equation the liquidand the gas-vapor in diffusion equation the bubble. in They are not inherentto our approach, whichcanbegeneralized dispense them.In to with the order-of-magnitude analysis givenin Sec.I, it will be shown that bothassumptions reasonable sufficiently are for coldliquids, and,in particular, waterup to temperatures for of the orderof 50 C.The first two assumptions instead are inherent the present to approach. firstonerequires The the
Mach number of the bubble wall motion, calculated with

higherpressures. further consequence diffusion A of manifestsitselfovertime scales much longerthan that associated with the typical oscillatoryperiod of bubblemotion. This process which, in the caseof an oscillating bubble,is termed

rectified diffusion, results a veryslowchange pa2-4 in of

rameterssuchasthe equilibriumbubbleradiusand the total gascontents the bubble,and againhasnegligible of dynamical consequences. Accordingly,we shalldisregard diffusion

altogether assu. thebubble and me boundary beimpervious to to the gas.The partialpressure the liquidvaporisassumed of to be much smallerthan the gaspressure, and the effectof the vapor presentin the bubble is also disregarded. This pointwill be discussed further after Eq. (18) below. If p, p, u, and denote density, the pressure, radialvelocity, and viscous stress tensorof the gas,the momentum equationis

+u

+ 8r
(3)

respect thegas to speed sound, besmall. of to Therefore, the present theory cannotbe appliedto very violentcollapse cases, whichno simplified for formulation available is short
of the exactconservation laws. The second, third, and fourth

wherethe pointr = 0 corresponds thebubble to center. The boundaryconditionon the velocityis

u(r=R,t) =/,

assumptions alsolikelyto breakdownin the conditions where R(t) is the instantaneous bubble radius and are 1 = dR/dt isthevelocity thebubble of wall.Froma conof extreme temperature pressure gas and prevailing nearthe sideration (2), it is easyto convince of oneself that the presendof violentcollapses, they caused large-amplitude be by surein thebubble maybeassumed bespatially to uniformin acoustic drivingor by the recovery the ambientpressure of manycases practicalinterest.Indeed,from (3), we have of typicalof flow cavitation. theestimate fortheorder magnitudethevelocity uJ of of In summary,our formulationshouldbe of value in a of the gas.If Ap is the maximumpressure difference the in variety situations of involving andforced free motion a in
relatively coldliquid,provided that the velocity the bubof bleinterface remainrelativelysmallwith respect the speed to of sound the gas.This limitationis actuallylessstringent in than it mightappearsince reference madehereto the inis stantaneous valueof the speed soundduringthe motion of
which, near the instantsof time at which the minimum radi-

bubble, balancing 8p/SrAp/R withpu 8u/Sr-pJ we 2/R,

have the estimate

Ap pl :/p . /p

(4)

For a gas, p/p is of the orderof the square the speed of of

sound and,therefore, Ap/p is predicted be of the orderof to thesquare the Mach number of Ms of thebubble wall. Simi-

usis attained,canbe several timeslargerthan that in undisturbed conditions.In other situations,our resultscan at least

larly, balancing with 8u/Stpl/to,where isa 8p/Sr p to

characteristic time, leads to

beexpected be superior those to to obtained useof ( 1). by In conclusion, mention workbyHickling, which we a 17 is the only studywe are aware of to attempt a numerical solution the complete of conservation of set equations a in collapsing bubble.Comparedto Hickling'sapproach, our formulationhasthe advantage considerably of greatersimplicityandsimilaraccuracy its domainof applicability. in After the completion this study,some of work by Nigmatulin and co-workers came to our attention in which the

Ap/ppR /pto . (5) Thequantity (p/p)1/2ttOO beidentified a characo can with

teristicwavelength a of the pressure A perturbations the in gasand, bringingtogetherthe preceding results, may we
write

/Xplp o(m R IAo,m 2 = ).

(6)

assumption uniforminternalpressure alsousedin a of is similar way. 8-2 derivation themodel thisarticle The of in is somewhat different,and the problems studiedunrelatedto thoseconsidered the Russianauthors. by
503 J. Acoust.Soc.Am.,Vol. 83, No. 2, February1988

Typically,bothR/A andM are small.For example, the resonance frequency of a bubblein a liquid, with the neCOo glectof surface tension thermaleffects, approximately and is

COo(3yPoo/pR = 0)/2, 2

(7)

where is the liquiddensity Poois the undisturbed p and

Prosperetti eta/.' Nonlinear bubbledynamics 503

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pressure.weset o 2rr(ypoo/P) If A 1/2/0)0, find we

R/Ao (1/2r)(P/Pz:1/2, ) ( 8)

d( pR = 3(y- 1 3r- OT 3r) )R 1K a' dt Or

from whichonefindsthe adiabatic relation 3r_. const pR
when the heat lossthroughthe bubbleboundaryis negligible. Under the sameconditions, Eq. (14) shows velocity the distributionin the bubbleto increaselinearly with distance
from the center.

which for air and water at 1 atm is lessthan 10-2. The same

estimate holds theMach number istakento beof the for ifJ order0)oR In some o. cases, estimate this maynotbeaccurate sincethe bubblewall velocitycan be large during the collapse phase the bubble of motion,but (6) still suggests that takingtheinternalpressure bea function timeonlyisan to of approximation with a quiteusefulrangeof validity.As for the viscous stresses, may estimate magnitude their we the of contribution to the momentum equation to be

' ld/R

2,where/is theviscosity thegas, of from

whichwe geta pressure difference thebubble the order in of

Ap/p .i /pR ,

(9)

In view of the approximation uniform pressure, of Eq. (14) and either oneof the equations continuity( 11) or of of energy(12) containall the informationpresent the origiin nal setof equations. Sinceonecan go from ( 11) to (12) by using(14) and the equation state,the choice of between the two is purely a matter of convenience. this study,we For chooseto usethe energyequation (12), which we rewrite explicitly as

whichis quitenegligible all circumstances. in The preceding analysis enables to dropthe momenus tum equation (2), substituting it the statement for pp(t) . (10)
The remaining equations express conservation mass, the of

yr_e,(ar at) 1T\Ot +u --p:.(KYT), (16)

with u givenby (14). This choicewassuggested the fact by that the thermalconductivity will be allowedto depend K on the temperature,as discussed below. Use of the continuity equationmay alsobe considered view of the fact that it in
would enable one to use conservative discretization
come a concern.

dpt-p.u0, = dt

(11)

of the

spatialoperators, althoughnumericalstabilitymay thenbeAt the bubblewall, the correctboundaryconditionson

whered/dr = /St + u /Srdenotes the convective deriva-

tive,andu = u isthe velocityvectordirected alongthe radial direction, and the conservation energy,which we can of write, droppingthe viscous heatingterm, as

order (Dto)1/2 (DLto)1/2 of and fromtheinterface, where to Here,Tisthetemperature, isthespecific atconstant isthetypicaltimealreadyused. heatfluxfromthegasto Ce heat The
pressure, K is the thermalconductivity the gas.If the and of
the interface can, therefore, be estimated to be of the order of

pCp T( Op dp (KYT). dT dt --+ p\T/, =.

(12)

the temperature fieldarecontinuity temperature heat of and fluxes.If D and DL denotethe thermal diffusitivities the in gasandin theliquid,respectively, temperature the perturbationsextendinto the gasand the liquid for distances the of

equation continuity11) ismultiplied Ce andadded of ( by T

to (12), the result is

K( Tc -- Ts)/(Dto)1/2, where andTs are bubble Tc the center and surfacetemperatures, respectively. Similarly, the

d(CpT)+ T(p dp d-; 7G7/7 + TV.u

= I7. (K T) . (13)

heatfluxon the liquidsideis K (Ts- Too )/(Dto) 1/2,

whereKL is'the liquid thermalconductivity and Toois the undisturbed liquid temperature from the bubble.Equatfar ing thesetwo estimates the heat fluxes,onefinds of

We now assume that the gascan be adequately described by the perfectgaslawswith constant specific heats.In thiscase,

( Ts-- Too Tc-- Ts) (KC )/( p/KL Cp )1/2,

(17)

CeTp=yp/(y- 1) and(T/p)(Sp/3T)p = -- 1.By(10),

(13) can then be written as

Plyp + V. {u - [ (r - 1) Iyp ]K VT) = 0,

which,dueto the spherical symmetry, be integrated can immediatelyto obtainthe followingexpression the velocity for
field:

where istheliquid C specific Theratio thefightheat. on handsidehastypicalvalues the range 10 which in of -,

indicates that the surface temperature perturbation but a is small fraction of that of the gasand can, therefore,be neglected. the preceding In argument,we haveimplicitlyas-

sumed (Dto)1/2 R. In theopposite thegas the that < case, in

bubbleremainsvery nearly isothermal,and the preceding conclusion holdsa fortiori. When the effectof the vapor is unimportant,we can, therefore,solve (16) subjectto the
condition

(y- 1)K rp . (14) yp Or 3 With the aid of the velocity boundary condition (3), this equationcan be turned into a differentialequationfor p by evaluatingit at r = R.

u=

T(r = R,t) -- Too.

(18)

p=
ten as

(y--1)K-r r

--yp/ ).

(15)

It may be notedthat this equationmay be equivalently writ-

This approximationsimplifiesthe problem considerably sinceit asserts that a consideration the temperature of field in the liquid is unnecessary. As the liquid temperature increases, effectof evapothe
ration and condensationrenders (18) lessand lessaccurate.

504

J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February1988

Prosperetti aL' Nonlinear et bubbledynamics

504

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Suppose bubble the radius decreases AR in a timetoand by let Pv andL denote vapordensity the and the latentheat, respectively. An amount of vapor of the order Amv

II. SUMMARY OF THE MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

AND NONDIMENSIONALIZATION

4rrR 2ARpvcondenses an amount latentheat with of

LAm v available increase temperature a liquidmass to the of

of theorder 4rrR of 2(D, to)'/:p,.Thepredicted temperature riseAT---Ts -- Toois then

Whenthecompressibilitytheliquidisneglected, of the motionof the bubbleboundary governed the wellis by known Rayleigh-Plesset equation7'25

Pr(R + i J2)
=P --Poo --Rs(t) -- 2tr/R-- 4, 1/R , (26)
where, in Sec. denotes pressure thebubble, is as I,p the in poo
the undisturbed liquidpressure, Ps(t) is a nonconstant and ambient pressure component suchasa sound field.The sur-

AT

AR

Pv

TooCpL (DL /2 Too to) pL

(19)

For noncryogenic liquids, firstfractionin the right-hand the sidehastypicalvalues the range24. To estimate secin the
ond fraction, we consider resonance conditions and take

to 1/%. Using (7), we then have

face tension denoted tr andtheliquidviscosity z. is by by The effects liquidcompressibility be approximately of can included using place (26) theequation Kellerandcoin of of workers orHerring (see discussionRef.27). We '3 26 the in haveused Keller fomulation, givenby the

(Dto) R tff\--ff/ '/2--

'

(20)

For Re = 0.1 cm andpoe= 1 bar, the quantityin the square brackets of theorderof 100andchanges is little with liquid properties, temperature,and pressure. The density ratio pv/p, on the other hand, changes considerably with temperature. For water, for example, one has p/p = 1.74 10-5, 8.44X 10-5, and6.23X 10-4 at T = 20, 50, X and 100C,respectively. this case,with the numerical In
values mentioned above, find AT-. 2.5AR/R Cat 20 C, we

,[
[

dp(t)

pc

dt

(27a)

but AT 86R/R Cat 100C. These results actually overestimate temperature the increase since theypresuppose that the condensation process unhindered the presence is by of theincondensible In anycase, gas. theygiveajustification to the useof (18) evenwhenvaporis present, provided the liquid is sufficiently cold. During the motionof the bubblewall, the gascan undergo large variations temperature, thedependence in and of itsthermal conductivity thisquantity on cannot neglectbe
ed.A convenient way to accountfor thisvariationis to introduce the new variable

wherec is the speed sound the liquidandp (t) is the of in liquid pressure the externalsideof the bubblewall, which on is relatedto the internalbubble pressure p(t) by

p(t) =p(R,t) q-2cr/R 4trI /R . q-

(27b)

Equation(27) mustbesolved simultaneously the enerwith gyequation thebubble(23) andtheequation theinterin for nal pressure (15). In the following, it will be convenientto make use of dimensionless quantities indicated temporarily an asterby isk. As a reference length,we usethe equilibrium bubble
radius

Ro = 2o'/( Po--Poo) ,
(21)

(28)

r =
Too

K(O) dO.

wherepo theinternal is pressure equilibrium, at whichwill be

usedasa reference pressure. a reference As time, we usethe

Furthermore,for both analyticaland numericalwork, it is

inverse a typical of frequency of thevariable to pressure field

Ps. Therefore,we let

convenient havea fixedratherthan a movingboundary to

and we, therefore, let

R =RoR. , t=t./to,

P=PoP.,

Poo =PoP. oo ,
(29)

y = r/R(t).
the form

(22)

With (14), (21 ), and (22), the energy equation(16) takes

Ps = PoP.s, r =DoPor. , T = Too , T. D = DoD. ,

where

K(roo) C,p(po, roo)

y-- 1 K(roo)Too y Po

at In 8t l-y-2 8__r_ 8y y=,y gp= 72r, variables, (27a), (23), and( 15) governing problem ypR l(r (23) isthegasthermaldiffusivity equilibrium. termsofthese Eqs. the

where Laplacian fromnowonwith respect thevarithe is to

able y, and

become, respectively,

C,p (p,T) r P istheappropriate ofthethermal form diffusivity a perfect for

gas.The boundarycondition(18) is, in termsof r,
r(y = 1,t) = 0.
505 J. Acoust. Sec. Am.,Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

D(p,T) K(T) _ Y--1 K(T)T ----

(24)

(l_c_)R.Uq-3(, --3c. 2 U.)U * =Z{(+. . --Poe. t. +. 1 --Ps.

R.

(25)

W MR. + c. P. , U.
Prosperetti aL' Nonlinear ot bubble dynamics

(30)

505

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dimensionlessunits (29), we set

R = 1 + Xeit, p = 1 + Pe , ' = O( y)eit, it

(31)
to find

(37)

692(yO)
(32)
where

- --yO = -- --yP.

(38)

The solutionfinite at the origin and zero at y = 1 is

( =P1--;h-;i.75..
P = - (I)X,
with

(39)
(40)

and the prime indicatesdifferentiation with respectto the

dimensionless t.. Furthermore, following time the dimensionless parameters havebeenintroduced:

Substitution this resultinto (36) determines pressure of the perturbationamplitude

X = Do/oR2o, Z =o[pLto2R W = 2tr/RoPo, 2o,

M = 41at, c. = c/wRo. w/po,

(33)

(I)= 3y/{1 - 3(r-

1)ix

The dimensionless parameter is the square the ratio of X of the thermaldiffusion lengthto the bubbleradius.Small valuesofx correspond a nearlyadiabatic to bubble, whilelarge values X giveriseto a nearlyisothermal of behavior the of gas.The followingthreedimensionless parameters represent ratios of pressureand inertia forces,surfacetensionand pressure,and viscousand pressureforces,respectively.It may be noted that it followsfrom (28) that

X [ (i/') '/2 coth(i/')'/2 -- 1]}.

(41)

This quantityis complexand, therefore, maybethoughtof P as consisting a componentin phasewith X and one in of phasewith X':
P = - Re (I)XIm q)X'. (42)

Upon substitution into the linearizedform of the RayleighPlesset equation,

P.,oo=I--W.

X" = Z(P-ps
one finds

+ WX- MX') ,

(43)

In order calculate it isnecessaryfindT. byinvertto D., to

ing the integral (21 ). For simplicity,in the calculations described Sec.IV, we haveapproximated dependence in the of K upon T by a linear function:
K=AT+B.

X" = Z(M + Im (I))X' + Z(Re (I) -- W)X = -- Zps,

(44)

In this case,inversionof (21 ) leadsto the followingrelation

between T and r:

T= {[K2(Too + 2T] 1/2 B}/A ) --

(34a)

i.e., an equationof the standard forcedoscillator form with a dampingconstant Z(M q- Im (I)) and a natural frequency Z(Re - W). If the polytropicrelation (1) wereused,these quantities would havebeenfoundto beZMand Z(3tc -- W), respectively. Thus a polytropicindexcanbe defined by

n:= Re (I),

(45)

The numericalvaluesA = 5.28 erg/cms K 2, B = 1165

erg/cm s K givea goodfit to the thermalconductivity air of in the range200 K < T< 3000 K. The dimensionless counterpart of (34a) is

but no real value of c would result in the correct amount of

damping.To remedythis situation,it wassuggested Ref. in 12 to definean effective viscosity parameterMe suchthat

Me = M + Im (I),
i.e., comparewith (33),

(46)

T. = (l/a){{1 + 2[(y-- 1)/y]ar.} 1/2 +a-- 1), (34b)

where a = A T/K(T).
III. LINEAR OSCILLATIONS

]l'L,e J'gL (po/4o)Im (I), = q-

(47)

whichthenwasto be usedin the Rayleigh-Plesset equation. The preceding resultsshowthat this suggestion justified is
for linear oscillations,but it will be shown in later sections

As a firstapplication the previous of model,we consider the case small-amplitude of oscillations. From now on, only
nondimensional variables will be used and the asterisks will

that thenonlinear regimemaybehave quitedifferently. a For morecomplete discussion theselinear results of and graphs
of toand Im (I), the reader is referred to Ref. 28. Here, we note

be dropped. Upon linearization about the undisturbedstate, Eqs.

( 31 ) and (32) become
at

that the dimensional resultsfor the resonance frequency Wo and the total dampingcoefficient/are

(35)

002 (po/pR ) (Re (I)-- 2o'/RoPo) = 20 , 213 41at,/pR + (po/pLtoR)Im (I). = 2o

It can readily be verifiedthat (39) and (41 ) coincide

-p'=3(y-- 0r y=l 3yR 1)X--f-y '.

(36)

For a linear problem,one can consider eachFourier mode separately. Accordingly,sincethe frequency equals1 in the
506 J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

withtheexpressions obtained Pfriem andrederived by by Devin. However, essential 2 an aspect thebubble of behavior,
which perhapshas not beenadequately stressed these by
Prosperettiot al.' Nonlinearbubbledynamics
,

506

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authors, is that, unlike the case of a standard mechanical

the superposition a numberof oscillators differentfreof at

oscillator, effective the damping and resonance frequency quencies. onlyonefrequency beselected thedampIf can for depend thefrequency thedrivingsignal, isclearfrom on of as ing, thisshouldbechosen beclose the modethat ismost to to (41) andthedefinition 33) ofX. A gas ( bubble responds a as affected energydissipation, the resonant by i.e., mode.Since linearoscillator onlywhendrivenat a single frequency. Its the dampingis relativelysmall, all other modeswill be afresponse under multiple-frequency nonperiodic or excita- fectedonly slightlyanyway.Experimentalresultsindicate tionisfar morecomplex depends onthepast and also history that thisprocedure, although frombeing far exact,improves of the motion. 9 agreement data. For thesame with TM reason, maydefine one an effective "acoustic viscosity" usewith the Rayleighfor
IV.. NUMERICAL RESULTS

Plesset equation(26) by
= /ac (COO)prRocoo/4C. 3 2

We proceednow to discuss somenumericalresultsfor large-amplitude oscillations with our new formulationand to compare themwith the predictions based uponthe polytropic approximation. Theseresultsare far from exhaustive and are presented hereprimarily to demonstrate usefulthe ness rangeof applicability the present and of formulation.In the calculations, have usedthe followingvaluesof the we

physical parameters: = 1 bar, Too poo --20 C,7/= 1.4, = 1 g/cm ttr = 1 cP,rr= 72.8erg/cm c = 1481 3, 2, m/s. For all the examples beconsidered, drivingsound to the
fieldpsappearing (27a) is given,in dimensional in form, by Ps = -- epOo cotand, in dimensionless sin form, by

Ps. -- -- 6( 1 -- W)sint..

(48)

Here, e is the dimensionless soundamplitude. In the following,whenwe referto thepresent model,we indicateour new formulationof bubbledynamics which in the internal pressureis calculateddirectly and the Keller radialequation motion (27) is used. of The words polytropic
model, on the other hand, will indicate use of the Keller

Equation(49) may beregarded a parametrization as of the thermal energydissipation patternedafter the viscous one.The inverse proportionality the radiusgives larger to a effectnear radiusminima, wherethe bubblehas a higher temperature and a smallersize,and this featureappears, at leastqualitatively, correct.On the otherhand,aswill be seen in the followingnumericalexamples, during much of the oscillation, radius relatively the is largeandthevelocity relativelysmall, thatlittlethermal so energy would dissipated be according (49) in these to portions thecycle. of Onemaysay that (49) concentrates energy dissipationin "bursts" aroundthe radiusminima.The net resultoveronecycleof steady oscillation can,depending circumstances, bigon be ger or smallerthan that predicted by'the present modelas canbeseen TableI. Here,in addition themaximum in to and minimumdimensionless duringa cycleof steady radii oscillation,weshow dimensionless the average power dissipated per cycleand defined by

equation with a polytropic relationfor the internalpressure corrected the additionof a fictitious"thermal viscosity" by
term, as was mentioned in the Introduction and in Sec. III.

3. = 3/4rRcopoo e, a (51) withthedimensional average r 3 calculated powe from

Specifically, take we

Ppol =po(Ro/R )3c(w) k/R, __ 4//th

where from (47 ),

(49)

3 = 2r ao co
tude e.

4rR 21ps(t ) dt.

(52)

Notethat, thenondimensionalization thelinear with (51),

value 3. is independent thedriving of of pressure ampli(50) /'th- (po/4COo)Im q(COo).

In (49), the polytropicindex is evaluatedat the driving frequency This is necessary ensure appropriate co. to the "stiffness"of the bubble,but suchan unambiguous selection is only possible when the driving soundfield is monochromatic, asin the presentexamples. The thermalviscosity, the on other hand, is evaluatedat the linear resonance frequency coo. rationalefor thisprocedure givenin Ref. 14and The was
is as follows. Both in the case ofnonsinusoidal and nonlinear

We beginby showingin Figs. 1 and 2 a comparison between frequency the response curvescalculated with the present theory and the polytropic formulation a soundfor pressure amplitudee = 0.6 and equilibriumbubbleradii of 50 and 10$tm, respectively. Thesegraphsdisplayfor each valuef/fo of the ratio of the sound frequency the resoto nancefrequency (calculated from linear theory) the maximum of the oscillation amplitudedefined by
': (Rmax-- Ro)/Ro,
(53)

oscillations, bubblemotion can be seenas consisting the of

TABLEI. Computed values thedimensionless of average power dissipation maximum minimum and and radius thecases for illustrated thefigures. in

Z
Ro(/m)
50 50 50 10 10

R.ma x
Polytropic
1.1 0.49 0.46 0.25 0.22

R.mi a
Polytropic
2.27 1.24 1.78 1.54 1.55

f/fo
0.8 0.6 0.44 0.8 0.44

Present
0.69 0.56 0.45 1.2 0.16

Present
2.33 1.26 1.84 2.39 1.49

Present
0.327 0.663 0.402 0.244 0.595

Polytropic
0.209 0.645 0.339 0.425 0.503

507

J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

Prosperetti et al.' Nonlinear bubble dynamics

507

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We now turn to a detailed examination of the oscilla-

tionsat two differentvalues f/fo. The firstvalueis0.8, and of canbe seenfrom Figs. 1 and 2 to be on the main resonance

X .ooo,...

' i POLY

peak.Thesecond is0.44andliesonthesecond one harmonic peak.For the caseof the largerbubble,we alsoconsider f/fo= 0.6, at which the two modelsare seenin Fig. 1 to
closelyagree.

0.0001

0.400 0.500 0.600 0.1700 0.800 0 900

f/fo
FIG. 1.Frequency response curves theforced for oscillations a bubble of of radius50 ttm in waterat 20 *C for a dimensionless acoustic amplitude e ---- The two curves 0.6. showthe results predicted the polytropic by model andthepresent formulation whichtheinternal in pressure evaluated is directly; thenormalized Xis amplitude theradialoscillations of defined Eq. in (53). The horizontalscaleis the frequency the drivingsoundmadediof mensionless the linearresonance by frequency defined Sec.III. in

Figure3 shows comparison theR (t) curves a of accordingto the present theoryandto the polytropic formulation for Ro = 50/zm. The present modelpredicts largermaxia mum radius,but the polytropicone results a minimum in
radiuswhich is about 50% smaller (seeTable I). The pres-

surehistory, shown Fig. 4(a) and (b) to linearandlogain rithmicscales, respectively, correspondingly is muchmore peaked the polytropic for case. shown Table I, the As in polytropic model overestimates nearly50% theabsorbed by power. Although ratherspeculative, following the considerationsbasedon the comments made earlieron Eq. (49) may

whereRma is the maximum x valueattained the radius by duringa steady oscillation. Similarcurves havebeenob-

tained several investigators toexplore nonby other 9'3-3the

linear characteristics of bubble oscillations. The solid line is

thepolytropic model, thedotted denotes and line results obtained fromthepres6nt model. Themost striking difference
between the two formulations consistsin the location and

explain these results. Since little energy dissipated the is by polytropic modelduringthe relatively longfraction the of cycle wherethebubble a largeradius, collapse has the point isapproached a large with velocity, theminimum and radius is correspondingly smaller. turn, the largevelocityand In smallradiusgiveriseto an excessive energy dissipation presumably concentrated a largeburst in nearthepointof minimum radius.

Theratio /2ofthe X thermal diffusion length the to bub-

0.169,whichimplies the height the peaks of correspondingthe fundamental bleradius[cf. Eq. (33) ] is,in thiscase, to not too into the andthehigher resonances. relative The shiftbetween these that the thermalwavedoes penetrate deeply bubble,aswill be discussed below.If the valueof f/fo is kept peaks some in cases results considerable in differences betweenthe two oscillation amplitudes a givenfrequency. at

fixedandtheradius increased, decreases theprocess is X and

becomesmore and more adiabatic. For this reason, the be-

Also,the positions whichthe response at exhibits large a jump are verystrongly affected. These structures well are
known in nonlinear oscillationsand, in the context of bubble

dynamics, havebeenstudied Ref. 12. The transition in to

subharmonic oscillations and chaotic motion is determined

by similar jumpswhichappear largerdrivingamplitudes at in other frequency regions. may, therefore, expected It be

that these transitions likewise will appear different the two in
models.

haviorof biggerbubbles be expected to deviate can not very muchfrom the 50-/zmcase illustratedhere. The situationis markedly differentin the caseof the smaller bubble,Ro = 10 /zm, the behaviorof which at f/fo= 0.8andE = 0.6isillustrated Figs.5 and6. Now the in R (t) curves, computed according the present to theoryand thepolytropic formulation, remarkably are dissimilar with a largephase shiftanda significant difference theoscillation in

3.000

000 t 500[
ooo I
0 000[__ , ,

PRESENT

2. 250

POLY

05 '1. 500

PRESENT
, ,

0.750 0.900

0 400

0 500

0.600

0 700

0.800

f/fo
0.000 0
, I , I , I , I I ,

000

1.047

2.094

3.142

4.189

5.236

283

FIG. 2. Frequency-response for theforced curves oscillations a bubble of of radius10/tm in water at 20 Cfor a dimensionless acoustic amplitude e = 0.6. The twocurves showtheresults predicted thepolytropic by model andthepresent formulation whichtheinternalpressure evaluated in is directly; thenormalized Xis amplitude theradialoscillations of defined Eq. in (53). The horizontalscaleis the frequency the drivingsoundmadediof
mensionless the linear resonance by frequency defined Sec.III. in

DIMENSIoNLESS

TIME

FIG. 3. Normalized radius-time curvesfor the steadyoscillations a 50of

/m bubble driven a dimensionless at acoustic pressure amplitude = 0.6 e anda frequency ratioof 0.8. The two curves show results the predicted by
the present formulationand the polytropicmodel.

508

J. Acoust. Soc.Am.,Vol.83, No.2, February 1988

Prosperetti a/.: Nonlinear ot bubble dynamics

508

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400

POLY
3OO
300

o
2OO

EL EL

200

loo

0 00 :1047 2 094 3 :142 4 :189 5 1236 6 283

DIMENSIONLESS TIME

RESENT
, i , i , i , .
i ! ! i

POLY

0 000 C

:1047

2094

3. :142

:189

5 236

6 283

DIMENSIONLESS

TIME

lO3
!

,10 a
o o

lOa

EL EL

EL EL

:100

lO

000 I 047 2.094 3:142 4.189 5 1236 6 283

. .

000 :1047 2.1094 3 1:1424 :189 5 1236 6 283

DIMENSIONLESS TIME

DIMENSIONLESS

TIME

FIG. 4. Normalized pressure-time histories the steadyoscillations a for of 50-/mbubble shown Fig. 3. The two curves in showtheresults predicted by the two models. (a) the ordinate,plottedto a linearscale, In shows large the difference between maximumvaluesof the pressure. (b) the ordinate, the In plottedto a log scale,shows that the two curvesare significantly different throughoutthe cycle. The dimensionless acousticpressureamplitude is e = 0.6, and the frequency ratio is 0.8.

FIG. 6. Normalized pressure-timehistoriesfor the steadyoscillations a of 10-/mbubbleshownin Fig. 5. The two curves showthe results predicted by the two models.In (a) the ordinateisplottedto a linear scale and in (b) to a log scale. The dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitudeise = 0.6, andthe frequencyratio 0.8.

amplitudes. Accordingto Table I, energydissipation unis derpredicted a factorof nearly5 by the polytropic by model. A comparison the two curvesshows of that this is not dueto a smalleroveralldampingcoefficient, to smalleroscillabut tion amplitudeand velocity,much in the sameway as for a
3.000
.

heavily dampedlinear oscillator.In the frameworkof Eq. (49), it appearsthat the radius doesnot grow enough to effectively"switch off" the energydissipation term. That this is the correctexplanationis suggested the fact that, by raisingthe driving amplitudeto e = 1 (dashedline), a pattern much more similar to that of Fig. 3 emerges. The internal pressure thiscase for with e = 0.6 is shownin Fig. 6. Due to the reducedamplitude of oscillation,it is the polytropic peakthat is lowerand,because the phase of difference, shifted with respect the positionobtainedwith the exacttheto
ory.

We consider next the results the regionof the second in harmonicresonance, f/fo = 0.44. Figure7 refersto Ro = 50

Fm again e = 0.6.Thetwominima for around = 4, which t.

o. 750

0.000

0.000 1.047 2.1094 3.142 4.189 5.I236 6

DIMENSIoNLESS TIME

,,B

283

FIG. 5. Normalized radius-timecurvesfor the steadyoscillations a 10of /m bubbledrivenat a dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitudee = 0.6 and a frequency ratio of 0.8. The two curves showthe results predicted by the presentformulationand the polytropicmodel.The dashedline is the polytropicresultfor a dimensionless pressure amplitudee = 1.
509 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

may essentially attributedto the Fourier componentat co, be are comparable eachotherin a mannersimilarto that of to Fig. 3. The second-harmonic components 2co, the other at on hand, appearto be out of phase,not unlike the situation found in Fig. 5. Again, this may be attributedto the larger dampingof the polytropicmodelwhich affects more strongly the smallerharmoniccomponent. The pressure-time history for thiscase, shownin Fig. 8, canlikewise interepretbe ed asa combination Figs.4 and 6 for the two components. of The behaviorof the smallerbubble,Ro = 10Fm, in the regionof the second harmonicis shownin Figs. 9 and 10.

Dueto theeffect surface of tension, canbeseen as fromEq.

Prosperetti et al.' Nonlinear bubble dynamics 509

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ooo

' c' ' ' '-i 5001" ' ' t' ' '
A

J
I 500

POLY

!. ooo

IT

000

0.500

500

0001 0.000

I !.047

2.094

3.

42

, 4. 89

5. 236

I 6. 283

0.000 , 0. 000

1. 047

2. 094

3. 142

4. 189

'

.236 6 '

283

DIMENSIONLESS

TIME

DIMENSIONLESS

TIME

FIG. 7. Normalizedradius-timecurvesfor the steadyoscillations a 50of /m bubbledrivenat a dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitudee = 0.6 anda frequency ratio 0.44.The two curves showthe results predicted the by present formulationand the polytropicmodel.

FIG. 9. Normalizedradius-timecurves the steadyoscillations a 10for of /m bubble drivenat a dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitude = 0.6 e anda frequency ratio of 0.44.The two curves showthe results predicted by the present formulation thepolytropic and model.

(48), bubblesbecome stiffer as the radius is decreased,and,

therefore, the oscillationamplitude is smaller than for Ro- 50 pm. This has the effectthat differences not as are evident the radius-timecurves(Fig. 9), althoughtheyare in clearlydemonstrated the pressure-time in curves Fig. 10. of As a last example,we have considered f/fo --0.6 for Ro -- 50pm and e - 0.6. It canbe seen from Fig. 1 that for this value of the frequency, oscillation the amplitudes are relativelysmalland quite close.Therefore,not much differencebetween two models expected, agreement the is in with

frequencies corresponding resonances, comparison to the should goodprovidedthe amplitudeis not toolarge (say, be X <0.7 as indicatedby Figs. 7 and 9). Even this criterion mustbe usedvery cautiously, however,since, with increased driving,the resonant peaks broadenand newresonances ap-

pear. In the light of these 9 considerations, polytropic the

modelappearsto be unreliable,not because consistently it
leads to bad results, but rather becauseit is hard to decide a

priori whetherit is adequate a givenapplication. for Finally, we show in Figs. 12 to 15 sometemperature the results of Table I. The radius-time curves for this case profilesin the bubbles differenttimesduring the oscillaat areshown Fig. 11,wheretheycanbarelybedistinguished. tion. The instantsof time at which theseprofiles taken in are The question underwhat circumstances the polyof is aremarkedon the corresponding radius-timecurves Figs. in tropic modelacceptable not easyto answer.Clearly, the is 3, 5, 7, and 9. Figure 12 refers to the 50-pm bubble at criterioncannotbe solelybased the oscillation on amplitude f/fo - 0.8. As already remarked, valueofx is smallin the as computedfrom the polytropic model itself. The good thiscase, -- 0.0286,andthegasis,to some X extent,shielded agreement Fig. 11 is foundbecause oscillation of the amplifrom the liquid with a resultingnearly adiabaticbehavior tudeis relativelysmall,but also,very importantly,because overa goodpart of the bubbleinterior. The maximumtemthe bubbleis drivenfar from resonances. amplitudein The perature,reachedat the point of minimum radius,is close to Fig. 9 iscomparable that in Fig. 5, but, in the firstcase, to the 3000 K which is morethan sufficient the production for of free radicals and sonoluminescent effects. The other temcomparison good,while, in the second is one,it is very bad. The key here is the difference betweenthe resonance strucperature profiles thisfigureare takenat the beginning in of turesof Fig. 2. It might then be suggested that, away from thecycle andat the pointof maximumradius. The tempera-

60

45

POLYPRESENT
:

OOj , , , , , 500J ooo I

POLY

PRESENT

500

000 I

PRESENT
000J , I , I , I , I

047

2. 094

3.

142

lB9

5. 236

2e3

0 000

1 047

2 094

142

.89

5 236

6 283

DIMENSIoNLESS

TIME

DIMENSIONLESS

TIME

FIG. 8. Normalizedpressure-time histories the steadyoscillations a for of 50-/mbubble shown Fig. 7. The two curves in show results the predicted by the two models. The dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitude e - 0.6, is and the frequency ratio 0.44.
510 J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 83; No. 2, February 1988

FIG. 10.Normalizedpressure-time histories thesteady for oscillations a of 10-/mbubble shownin Fig. 9. The two curves showthe results predicted by the two models. The dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitude e - 0.6, is and the frequency ratio 0.44.
Prosperetti et aL' Nonlinear bubble dynamics 510

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' t ' 500

25Ol-

EE ooo
o

5001 0 000

047

094

42

89

236

283
c

DHENSONLESS

TE
0 0

000 0.167 0.333 0.500 0 667 0.1833 1 000

. ,

FIG. 11. Normalized radius-time curvesfor the steadyoscillations a 50of /m bubbledriven at a dimensionless acoustic pressure amplitudee -- 0.6 and a frequency ratio of 0.6. The dashed line shows resultpredictedby the the present formulation,and the solidline that of the polytropicmodel.

r/R

(t)

FIG. 13. Temperature distributions the interior of a 10-/ambubblein in steadyoscillation with e = 0.6, f/fo = 0.8 at differentinstantsof time. The conditions the same in Fig. 5. The lettersreferto the pointsindicated are as in Fig. 5 and mark the time at which eachdistributionis shown.

It has beenshownthat a new formulation of bubbledynamicsbasedupon a direct evaluationof the internalpressurewithin the bubblecan give considerably differentpredictions of behavior when comparedwith the standard 13refers thecase f/fo= 0.44of Fig 7. Thevalue Z is to at of is by nowsomewhat larger, = 0.0521 Z (Z/2= 0.228),andthe treatmentin which the internalpressure approximated a polytropicrelationanduseismadeof an effective viscosity. bubble interioris,therefore, moreaffected thepresence by of The radius-time curvespredictedby the two models can the liquid.Thesechanges the temperature in distribution lie differ very markedly (see,for example,Fig. 5), and the calat the basis the dependence the thermaldampingand of of culatedvaluesof energydissipation a cycledo not reveala in polytropicexponentwith the driving frequency,to which systematic patternin their discrepancies Table I). The (see attention was called in Refs. 3 and 28 on the basis of the differences especially are largein the frequency regionscorlinear theory. responding linear and nonlinearresonances. to Figures14and 15arefor the 10-Fmbubble f/fo= 0.8 at A generalconclusion that may be drawn from the above and0.44andfor values =0.132 (Z/2= 0.364)and ofz comparison that the polytropicmodel is unreliablein acis Z = 0.241 (Z/2= 0.491 respectively. newfeatures ), No countingfor the dissipation energyby thermal processes, of emerge hereexcept the curvelabeled in Fig. 15,which for A especially large pulsationamplitudes.Therefore,it may at shows occurrence a nonmonotonic the of temperature proresultin very poorpredictions the bubblebehaviorwhenof file. everthese processes thedominantform of energydissipaare
tion.

ture effect is obviouslymuch lessspectacular during the coolingportionssincethe dimensionless temperaturecan only rangebetween1 (i.e., the undisturbed value) and 0. It is interesting notethat the minimumcentertemperature to is not reachedexactlyat the point of maximum radiusbut a little earlierdueto the heatreceived from the liquid. Figure

V. SUMMARY

AND CONCLUSIONS

'

5.000

3.750

I-

2. 500

.250

O,

o.ooo
ooo

000

0.167

0.333

0.500

0.667

0.833

000

0. .67

0. 333

0. 500

0. 667

0. 833

.. 000

r/R FIG. 12. Temperature distributions the interiorof a 50-/am in bubble in

steady oscillation with e -- 0.6, f/fo = 0.8 at different instants time. The of

r/R
FIG. 14. Temperaturedistributions the interior of a 50-/ambubblein in steady oscillation with e = 0.6, f/fo = 0.44 at different instants time. The of conditions the same in Fig. 7. The lettersreferto the pointsindicated are as in Fig. 7 and mark the time at which eachdistributionis shown.
Prosperetti otal.' Nonlinear bubble dynamics 511

conditions thesame in Fig. 3. Theletters are as referto thepoints indicated

in Fig. 3 and mark the time at which eachdistributionis shown.
511 J. Acoust. So.Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

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.000

since + = 0 according (25). With these rN to definitions,

. c

we can rewrite the temperature equation(31 ) in the discretized form:

.500

. 000

8t 'ri Di1'(V=r)i = = +P'

y RR 2 N+I i i
(A6)

0.500

where 1,2,..., and = D(ri). Weshall give i= N, D first an

0.000 , 0.000
0.167

0.333

0.500

O.

6 ' 67

0.833

'

ooo

overviewof the numericalmethodand then furnishthe pertinent details.

r/R

(_)

Equations(A6) can be considered a setof ordinary as

FIG. 15. Temperature distributions the interior of a 10-/mbubblein in steadyoscillationwith e = 0.6, f/fo- 0.44 at different instantsof time. The conditions the sameasin Fig. 9. The lettersreferto the pointsindiare catedin Fig. 9 and mark the time at which eachdistributionis shown.

differential equationstheunknowns in rl,r,...,r = (Ti). If

R, U, p, and all the r's are arrangedinto a singlevectorof unknownsX, schematically one can write the system(30)
(32), and (A6) in the form
--=
dX dt

F(X,t).

(A7)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authorswish to gratefullyacknowledge that portionsof thisworkhavebeensupported theOffice Naval by of

Research and the National Science Foundation. KWC wish-

es also to acknowledge partial supportfrom the Officeof Naval Technology under subprojects RS-34-371 and
RJ14M17.

The vectorfunctionF is shorthandfor the right-handsides of the equations, its explicitdependence time occurs and on 0nly due to the forcingpressure termPs in the radial equation (30). An approximate solutionto (A7) canbe written usingthe trapezoidalrule as

X,+ 1= X" d- (At/2)[F(X",t")

OUTLINE OF THE NUMERICAL METHOD

+ F(X "+ ,t " 1)] ,

,t. ) .
(A8)

APPENDIX:

or, with an obvious notation,

All thequantities appearing thisAppendixaredimenin sionless, the asterisks but havebeendropped. The systemto be solvedconsists the radial equation of (30), the pressure equation( 32), and temperature equation (31 ). The firsttwo are ordinarydifferentialequations, while the last one is a partial differentialequation.We beginby carryingout a spatialdiscretization this last equationby on introducing iV d- 1 equispacedpoints Yk = (k - 1) Ay, k = 1,2,...,iV d- 1, with Yl = 0, YN+ 1 = 1, and Ay ---1/iV. On this grid we use the following approximations the for spatialdifferentialoperators:

X,+ 1= X,+ 1/2d- (At/2)F(X.+

Here, At is the time stepand superscripts indicatetime levels.Equation(A8) is highly implicit due to the appearance
of the advanced-time solution X" q-1 both in the left-hand

sideandin thecomplicated nonlinear functionF in therighthand side.This equation therefore, is, difficultto solveasit stands. However,sinceit approximates (A7) with an error

termof orderAt 3,we onlyneedto solve with an O(At3) it

accuracy the wholeprocedure be consistent. for to This goal canbe obtainedasfollows.Start by generating low-accuraa

cyapproximation X"+ 1byusingsimple explicit to a Euler

integration,
X = X n + F(Xn,tn)At. (A9)

( V2r)i

1+

q1

Thiscannowbeused the right-hand in sideof (A8) to obtain

--2' y.Y), id-(1- ''i__ 1 I

,

(A1)
(A2)

an improved estimate of X + 1, X

X = Xn+1/2 AtF(X,tn+ 1). d-

(A10)

i 2Ay wherethe indexi indicates evaluationat the node y. These two expressions usedfor all internal nodes.For the first are node,the appropriateexpressions are

Since errorin (A9) is of orderAt 2, (A 10) already a the has formalerror of order At 3 and, hence, onecouldsetX" +
= X. However,it isbetterto applythe sameprocedure once more to finally obtain

(V2) 1 6(2 -- 1) lay2,

1

(A3)

x.+l = X.+ 1/2 At F(,t "+ 1). d- +

(All)

while at the bubble wall

In the concrete application thismethod,whichwill now of bedescribed, exploitthe specific we form of F to retainsome of the implicitness present (AS) for greaterstability. in Suppose solutionhas beencompletely the determined up to time t n. Then we beginby generating first Euler the
2Ay 2Ay
(A5)

Nq-1

estimate (A9) by

i = i d- AttO",

I<i<N,

(A12a)
512

512

J. Acoust.Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February1988

Prosperetti al.' Noinear bubbledynamics et

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U = U n -- AtU 'n,

(A12b)

fi =pn q_Atp,n,
R = R n __ AtU n,

(A12c)
(A12d)

A similar degreeof implicitnessis used in the other equations. For the radial velocity,we write
U = U n+l/2 qAt

with r; n givenby (A6) u'n by (30), andp,n by (32), all evaluatedin terms of the known valuesat t n. In particular,

2R [1 - (V+ ZM/R)/c.

p,n=n(('--1) (A13) 2R nay (-1--4)--,pnUn).

The values(A 12a) areused compute thermaldiffusivto the ity according the dimensionless to analogof (24); i.e.,
D= (aT+ 1 -- a) T/p ,
with T calculatedfrom (34b).
W+MU'

3c. ')//
C.

+ZR,b'},
C.

(A18)
(A19)

whereZ, W, M, and c. are givenin (33). This form is ob-

At the nextstep,we execute 10) introducing, an(A as ticipated, some slightmodifications greaterstability.For for the temperature equation, write we

tained writing 2 U Uand using rather rin by U by than

the viscous term. The new value of the radiusis computed
from

= R nq- q-Ate, 1/2

while, for the pressure, write we

y ,b2 \8yJN+l \ayJi yi

(A14)

p=pn++ 3At1 N+ - 1/2 2 [(Y 'X() 1- y],

(A20)

Note that the barred valuesappearalso in the right-hand

side, thatthisequation notexplicit ('i. However, so is in if

all the space operators written out in full, it is realized are that theN equations 14) form a lineartridiagonal (A system, which can very readily be solvedby well-known methods. The generic equationof this system the form has

whichis againimplicit in fl. The laststep (A 11) is identicalto the onejust executed

if all barred quantities replaced finalvalues t n+ are by at

and the tilde quantities substituted barredones. are by For typicalcases, haveusedvaluesofNbetween 100 we and 200 and from 1000to 4000 time steps cycle.Bubbles per that behave nearlyadiabatically needmoreinternalnodes to resolvethe boundarylayer near the wall, and the number of timesteps mustbelargeat highamplitude, wherethemotion near radius minima is quite rapid. Empirically, we find a stability limit

aii- , q- Bi7i q- Ci'i+ 1 = gi ,

where

(A15)

A=2 -- 1 i 2Ay2{
(A16a)
(A16b)

xAt /Ay2<25.
The numberin the right-hand sidedecreases somewhatat largeamplitudes. havealsoimplemented fourth-order We a Runge-Kutta integration scheme, it wasfoundto be less but
stable.

C=--2 f2 (1 i 2A
y
p [\SyLv+ Yi --

A goodway to monitor the numericalerror is to calculate, at each time step, the total massm containedin the i
, (A16c)
bubble from

Fi = .r71/2 _atbi + q.b'.

(A16d)

m = 3pR3
The

foy2 dy.
T( y)

(A21)
used here is such that

Theseexpressions apply for 2<i<N exceptthat, for i = N,

nondimensionalization

thelasttermin theleft-hand of (A15) vanishes side since ts+ = 0. At the first spatialnode,i = 1, the coecients
takea somewhat different fo cifically,onehas
A 1 =0,

m = 1 at equilibrium.For the resultspresented this artiin cle, we haveusedenoughtime steps and nodesto ensurea
maximum error in m lessthan 3%-4%. However, casesin

dueto (A3) and (A4). Spe(A17a)

whichthe errorwasaslargeas7% did not showverylarge discrepancies from the more precise results.

1 = 1+ 3At'bl/Ay2 , 2 C1 __ = 3AtXbl/Ay2. 2, n+ F = 'l 1/2+ (At/2)b.'.

obtained as before.
513

(A17b) (A17c)
(A17d)
H. Pfriem, Akust. Zh. 5, 202 (1940). 2C. Devin, J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 31, 1654 (1959).

Oncethe system(A 15) hasbeensolved, temperatures the

()i arecomputed (34b)after using which i's can the be

d. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 83, No. 2, February 1988

3A. Prosperetti, Acoust. J. Soc.Am. 61, 17 (1977).

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