Mohammad Qasim BA, MPA, MCP, Ph.D.

(USA) Assistant Professor Department of Management Sciences COMSATS University Tobe Camp, University Road Abbottabad, NWFP Pakistan Phone: + 92-992-383-591 Email: drqasim@ciit.net.pk Alternate: qasim@juno.com

Sustainable growth: New directions in urban planning theory (a contemporary approach to the urban sprawl problems of the 21st century)
Abstract

This research suggests adoption of solutions in redesigning of the urban areas through introduction of new urban theory known as continuous city. Researcher provides practical solutions on dealing with the urban poverty, crime, and low economic activity and suggests adoption of new methodology to solve these community and social problems with spatial and landuse planning approaches. Theory suggests solutions to degradation of life standards in todays mega-cities. Continuous city theory suggests control of urban sprawl and provides solution to a host of contemporary urban problems.

Key words: continuous city, urban sprawl, urban theory, mega-cities

Introduction

The urban problem in terms of sprawl, city services, and growth of the city is fundamental to the future of the city. If there is no direction towards growth, provision of utilities, and maintenance of quality of life and protection of clean urban environment, there may be chaos in terms of management of physical space versus social space and issues, thus making it very difficult to predict the quality of life in the city. Many studies have shown that effective city planning is the result of better understanding of the basis of urban landuse physical planning, which is achieved by deviation from the standard approaches (Brueckner, 2000).

With the confirmation and establishment of the theory of Continuous City and by defining the "attraction" coined by Ebenezer Howard, this research will assist urban planner and city official to respond to hazards arising from the continuous expansion of he city and migration of the population. Through systematic planning with scientific management of Continuous City theory, sustainability will increase unfolding better living conditions in urban environment. Further, through establishing the theory and the proposed

migration equation, the research will alter the city planning at the core level by shifting the focus of the planner from the physical landuse towards the social landuse.

Directive in Landuse Planning

Urban areas and otherwise identified cities are rapidly developing and expanding. Population Growth and inward migration of rural population has placed additional stresses upon the built environment o the cities and need for additional housing, utilities and resources has increased tenfold.

Current Urban planning theories have several flaws because majority of the existing theories are piggy banking over existing planning theories. Changing trends in urban environment are screaming for new directions for the future of the city. The ever-growing and ever migrating population overburdens Cities. There are issues and problems, which are just out of the grasp of the contemporary planner. These trends require revolutionary approach because urban planner and city official have never dealt with similar problems ever before. A careful analysis provides us with the following (flaws) discoveries:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Urban environment is being regarded landuse planning Citys carrying capacity ( as a whole) is not being analyzed Planning emphasis is upon land while population is being ignored Revolutionary and out of the box theories are strictly forbidden (regarded as undoable)

Statement of the Problem

How can contemporary urban planner define effective urban planning strategies for cities that would control sprawl, environmental degradation, utility distension, population explosion, and place discipline upon congestion?

Interestingly on the other hand statistics show that more people are moving to the urban areas. Inflow of migration towards the cities is increasing as economic and social opportunities are diminishing in the rural areas (Econ, 1975). Following urban folly has been discovered:

Lets assume initial city was built around an economic magnet. As population increased, there rose the need for urban planning and control. City hall established, regulations passed and infrastructure started to be laid out. Soon more people moved in, city expanded itself, and more migration required additional measures for landuse planning. Comprehensive plans provided some safeguards against unplanned expansions but there is not a single line in any of the comprehensive plans around the world that would suggest "citys carrying capacity and limits of expansions".

Following example is provided to illustrate the issue:

Cities are exploding with overpopulation and contemporary planners are playing the flute similar to the Roman Emperor Nero by praising the classical era of the urban environment. Cities are not experiencing problems due to failed infrastructure, lack of micro level planning but are experiencing problems due to the population explosion. This scenario leads the contemporary planner to assume different route than the one taken by the classical and ancient urban planning. Therefore, attention must be placed upon Population planning versus landuse planning. As population planning is controlled, landuse issues will settle themselves with traditional planning approaches.

As first diagram illustrates the state of the affairs in the urban environment, it would be similar to the following:

Initially ports, commercial activities and water channels become urban habitats without advance consideration of human habitat planning. Most of the cities are planned as economic hubs, sports centers, cultural outlets but it is very seldom that people perspective is emphasized in the urban environment. There are various sub divisions planned for housing and other activities but no known city was built under the auspices of "population planning".

It is a known fact that population of the planet is at constant rise with unprecedented growth. First time in the history of the world, there are over 5 billion people living on the planet earth while over fifty percent of them will be residing in the urban areas (Cohen 2003). Therefore, there is a great housing planning need for the population of 2.5 billion. Current cities are already overburdened, and cannot absorb additional population into the current urban areas (Moltoch, 1976).

Solution Exploration

Restating the urban problem in a different perspective would be that there becomes evident the need for the solutions pertaining to urban planning and population settlement issues. This single purpose ignites the flame for further exploration and resolving the urban planning issues. Therefore, purpose of the study is to bring forth a workable theory, which could be utilized as framework by urban theorists, scholars, and planners across the globe to resolve urban crux and maximize the desired service output to culmination.

A. Worlds largest cities as becoming megacities with population explosion B. Many megacities in developing countries have already started to feel the shock which has given rise to urban issues unprecedented for the urban planner

C. Migration towards cities is continuing with no end in sight D. Forests and open spaces are disappearing at an alarming rate without any replacement option E. Agricultural land is shrinking because new sub division have to be built to accommodate growing housing needs for the growing population F. More than 3 billion people would be residing in urban areas by the end of 2025 A.D. therefore there is urgency for proper solutions (before it is too late) G. Governments are spending a great percentage of its budgets to provide urban solutions which are causing drainage upon public resources H. Cities are expanding beyond control, and there is no exception of the developed or the developing world ( expansion issue is similar in both cases) I. Traditional solution are providing short term relief while long term solutions are missing

Are there any precise indicators pointing towards the compulsion of planning and urging for solutions?

Following indicators suggest the need for certain immediate actions for urban issues:

Cities are reaching their carrying capacity for population inclusion. Therefore, in order to continue providing similar services one of the two solutions are being exercised, (1) Expansion of the service area, and/ or (b) building or a new city

There is no standardized framework on (1) how future cities should be built? And (2) how current cities should be re-arranged for quality urban life?

As we have narrowed our discussion toward the age-old problem of the urban expansion, now we are ready to review established solution provided by the classical urban philosopher. Prior to proceeding toward these studies, there is need to establish the strength of the argument.

Several scholars have laid criterion for the development of urban theory, which was reviewed by F. Stuart Chapin Jr.,

Theory refers to a system of thought which through logical verbal or mathematical constructs supplies an explanation of urban areas-"

Further Stuart Chapin explains that urban theory must be able to provide solutions in discovering analyzing various mixes of qualities, and finding the ways to put these mixes into optimal utilization. For the validity of the theory, his thesis is that there ought to be several established criteria for verification of the validity of the urban theory, which are:

The theory must have a dynamic aspect if it is to have utility in representing the process by which cities are structured and by which they grow

Must be susceptible of empirical verification Should have internal logic and consistency It must not be so abstract as to have no relation to reality

Background Research/ Literature Review

Early City emerged alongside water navigational channels, and with the acclimatization of land transport systems, urban areas moved farther away from the labyrinth and waterways. Adaptability of cities can be attributed to the factors such as need for human shelter with the scope of constant improvements and replanning. It is also interesting that human development had long followed symmetrical patterns, similar to the oldfangled urban design. It is the status quo of urban design accepted and adopted by the classical as well as the contemporary planner shaping current urban design of the built environment that is acknowledged as city and or the metropolis. Urban plans, which are difficult to conceive, are extra ordinary and are not part of the norm, are often resisted and are also austere at the implementation stage. During the past millennium, city building process has gone through several stages, which has been documented and is characterized by cultural, economic, social and political factors. In each stage city has transformed with distinct criteria for development and design purposes. In early stages where cities were center of cultural

and religious factors, urban design was asymmetrical with the cultural and religious styles while special emphasis was given to special architecture, aesthetics and pedestrian friendly pattern and design. Later after the seventh century as cities transformed into the economic and production centers, city became magnet of economic and production facilities and of a style different of the past. City was no longer the uni-modal attraction because now it was housing several centers of attractions such as trade posts, ports, markets, cultural outlets, churches, warehouses, and human and animal shelters. City design transformed from aesthetics to utility orientation while urban design took distinct direction, which required additional social and political control regarding the space, design of buildings, right of way, nuisance of pollution and congestion. Classical and medieval cities both have these common elements that are social, cultural, and economy directed where strength and emphasis is contrasted according to the generation and eon it portrays.

Classical City was not the major human shelter because of the scattered economic activity, which took place elsewhere also in a region outside the city limits. Early cities were contained and many of the contemporary urban problems such as crime, pollution and urban poverty were absent from the city landscape but are of immense engrossment to the contemporary urban planner.

Technological developments and automation of labor has compromised human civilization as it has major impact upon the urban design and the city landscape. During the twentieth century, massive industrialization gave rise to the concentration of the population in urban areas for economic motivation as it instituted new epoch in urban development and city design. Cities, which were earlier built as trade posts and market places started to transform into major production and manufacturing centers. Agricultural products and other commodities, which were initially individually cultivated and marketed locally, found a ready market filled with fervent clientele and anxious consumers. Therefore cities became a magnet of economic activities giving rise to other factor such as permanent construction of markets, production, manufacturing and packaging facilities, construction of new housing stock, building of roads and transportation networks, and fabrication of social factors such as political alliances, religious sects, class structures and so on.

However, the growth of urban environment with prolonged history has stimulated the case study of the various theories of urban development. Various scholars of the past vainly argued with ignorance of contemporary human developments that cities are still the activity centers of economics, social and political spheres while massive urbanization is detonating towards the civic movements and unprecedented urban growth and construction of new cities.

Contemporary scholars are quibbling with the patriarchal theory that has evolved from the cultural, economic, social and political framework, while there is a capital shift in human behavior regarding the urban life structure and metastasis pointing towards a contrasted area. Urban life, which once was associated with lofty and exquisite lifestyles, has now become ordinary with social and physical depravity of the cities. Urban lifestyle is not fascinating and appealing like the olden days rather it has become conventional and standard way of life.

Urban amenities what were once standard among the elite and upper class of the cities have now departed while larger populations migrated to the cities in search of better social, economical and physical lifestyles. City streets what once were aesthetically pleasing and were built with classical styles and visual pleasure are now exploding with poor working class population. Gardens of yesterdays are now over burdened with environmental degradation. Crime, urban poverty, social and political chaos, congestion, pollution, shortage of housing stock, presence of unskilled labor force and limited economic opportunities have haunted modern day cities. Shantytowns (in developing countries), urban sprawl (in developed countries), are a few of the modern day urban predicament requiring immediate attention for solution and extrication.

Cynthia Cockburn stated in her research that renowned scholars of urban planning have vague idea of the term of "urban poverty" or poverty in the urban scene at large. According to her research cities and urban areas are now increasingly filled with relatively poor people who are semi-skilled, are marginally employed and are living in dwindling urban life style. Urban theory has not dealt with the emerging topic of urban poverty because there endures broad definition of the poverty, which haphazardly have been applied to the urban poor population.

Rural life structure has become more difficult due to absence of needed housing, economic opportunities, and social needs of the overgrown and surplus labor force of semiskilled working class. Urban structures identified by Fainstein are processes of economic activity, which as active agents are carried out via the economic process of the urban areas. Another essential element identified here is that urban life has transformed itself into a social norm of the 21st century transforming society into a global village. There has been a major transformation of urban theory into new dimensions giving birth to the De-centralized City theory.

Other urban problem identified here is of mass scale dependence upon social urban welfare systems. The welfare state, which emerged due to the social inequalities of the mass industrialization, has become imminent that it has created a permanent underclass of social welfare dependent population. Initially, it was the embedded belief in fate exercised by crude explanation of the 19th century Church that emphasized on the following belief and practices with maintaining the class culture:

The rich man in the castle The poor man at his gate God made them high and lowly And ordered their estate

All things Bright and Beautiful

(Adopted from Branch, Melville, 1951)

Urban issues such as the emergence of permanent underclass, urban crime, poverty, and unemployment has acquired much of the attention of the 21st century planner. Poverty results in creating criminal human behavior, and acknowledging this several governments have emphasized theirs attention towards the factors generating poverty, economic disability and crime resulting in efforts in:

1.

Generating community spirit

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2.

Planning with inclusions of voluntary associations, informal private sector partnership, and private-public organizations

3. 4.

Community as a whole involvement in urban plans Solidifying the physical planning with economic and social reforms

With introduction of these community development programs governments have not emphasized on the theory of social transformation instead it has been trying to improve social conditions where physical structure of the city has been under constant attack of increased population. Whatever social reforms are introduced, they become inadequate in capacity or magnitude due to the increase of demands in the program itself or to the fact of limited capacity.

It was Andreas Faludi in 1973 who presented the Theory of Procedural Planning and the concept of rationality in Urban Planning field. According to Faludi, rationality is the method by which an intelligent human approaches the problem of taking actions to secure his goals, further concluding that, rational process of thought and action which ultimately aims at promoting human growth". State intervention in various levels of urban planning and development has been considered the states intervention in the private land market creating opportunities and limiting certain actions of the private citizen. Rationale as prescribed by A. Faludi has become the tool what state has utilized often in creating economic opportunities and controlling definite developments in established part of the cosmopolitan.

In developed countries, zoning has been widely used affecting prices of land in zoned ambience undeniably and in refutation.

For example, an acre of land prior to zoning would cost X$ while after being zoned as commercial price increment would be 10X$ causing an immediate speculation of the land value. Contrary to the speculation, devaluation also occurs as parcels of land are zoned agricultural and residential, instead of being commercial and industrial.

In 1942, British Royal Commission on Urban Development provided the following comments regarding zoning control:

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"It is only if all the land in the country were in the ownership of a single person or body that the necessity for paying compensation and collecting betterment on account of shift in value due to planning would disappear altogether".

In various stages, state levied special taxes (capital gain and betterment) in value of land charges. Local governments also levied special conditions in developmental gains to varying degrees to various parcels of planned and zoned land. It was specified clearly that increase of land value would be subject to special taxation that would occur without change of landuse and due to planning and zoning ordinances.

In several States, local governments purchased huge parcels of land and after zoning and planning it were disposed off to private investors. These methods were applied by the following mechanisms:

1. 2.

Purchased from willing sellers Compulsory taken by the power of eminent domain

State and Local governments adopted the behavior that land under capitalism is a necessary condition that is becoming scarce due to increased demand, since it is non-reproduce and is gifted by nature and is not product of the labor of man.

Since private control of land is the key to production and manufacturing and accumulations of capital, therefore capital states in the West completely avoided the strategies of land nationalization and community control. Urban land has increased its value due to the fact of several factors but most important are the followings:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Presence of infrastructure Aggregation of population Market and labor availability Transportation and logistics activities networks Safeguards of planning against sudden devaluation of land Scarcity of land in a given zone

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City as a result has become beacon of interest of various groups with state posing as referee of securing each groups interests and safeguarding the assailable and ignoble underclass, thus introducing "Advocacy Planning and Pluralist Reforms.

Davidoff in 1965 suggested that urban planning should include pluralist characteristics similar to the political pluralism. A new term of "Advocacy Planning" was thereof born under the pluralism concept. As suggested by the Davidoff, process of advocacy planning invites social and political values to be debated, rejects planners as technicians, serves public interests with integration of diversity, and prescribes courses of action for future desired states of planning. Davidoffs definitions and process has become standard against which contemporary planners take actions in inclusive and democratic planning settings.

Where there have been several advantages of Advocacy Planning strategy, there are also pitfalls that raise concerns regarding the state of affairs of contemporary planning activities. As suggested earlier in this reading, that class domination and certain group control at the local and state government levels ignores wide approval and fails to take into account the inherent inequality of bargaining power among several groups. Certain dominant and influential group gets away with more than what is would have received under fair participatory process. Also another dilemma points towards the social, economic, and influence disequilibria among groups. Several other shortcomings of the Advocacy Urban Planning are that elite groups represent powerless margin groups, which due to rivalry among their peer fails to adopt the muchneeded changes in the urban environment of the metropolitan.

Abstract of the theory of migration and forecasted measurement process

Ebenezer Howard was a scholar, visionary and urban planner who foresaw urban problems of the 19th century and established the theory of Garden City with suggestions that the theory would lower the burden upon urban growth. By mixture of the Town and Country into one location city would be maintained and country spirit of the ancient time could be kept alive. His suggestions regarding the urban growth and great cities transforming themselves into slums was similar to the Malthus "Theory of Population Explosion".

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Malthus shed light upon the human growth while Howard explored the possibility of "Urban Growth". In the researchers opinion, Malthus heavily influenced Howards work.

Exploring Garden city theory, we deduce the following research question originally outlined by Ebenezer Howard:

The key to the problem how to restore people to the land-- is indeed a "Master Key".

(Howard, 1898)

He further concluded,that each city is regarded as magnet, each person as a needle; and so viewed". He outlined the problem with careful analysis of the situation on pointing out the reasons on why people aggregate towards the cities and urban areas. He discovered the answer in defining each city space as having some "attractions". His major goal throughout his theory of Garden Cities of Tomorrow has revolved around the idea of remarrying the town with the country and providing a combination of both of the worlds in one location.

He further got caught into the economical argument that original question which was posed earlier got lost in the detailed economics and statistics and practicability of the Garden City Movement. He further concluded that his version of the Garden City would be perfect because it would contain both of the worlds, while economical statistics proved it was practical but it was later learnt that as outlined in the theory, Garden City would not function as suggested in theoretical framework. First two Garden Cities simply failed because there was no urge from the population to rush towards an ideological city environment while there existed "Normal City" with most of the qualities enlisted in the proposed Garden City of Tomorrow. Howards argument that the Garden City was practical socially, economically and otherwise did not get lost in the crowd of Urban Theories but it was recognized partially.

The actual Garden City was to contain a shopping building in the center of the city with the following details:

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Adjacent to the Central Park and beyond the Fifth Avenue, circled by Columbus and Newton boulevards, there would be "Crystal Palace". Explaining the Crystal Palace, Howard provided details of the place stating that it would be a wide glass of arcade, which would, tempts people to the Central Park in most doubtful of weathers. Here manufactured goods are exposed for sale, and here most of the class of shopping which requires the joy of the deliberation and selection is done.

The central theme of the Howards Crystal Palace has been widely accepted and is evident in making of the "Shopping Malls". There are shopping malls bearing similar characteristics what Ebenezer Howard initially envisioned more than a century ago. Malls in the new city have become essential element of the modern society. Malls have crossed the boundaries of the developed world and are now being integrated in less developed countries across the globe.

Another element that has been borrowed from the Howards Garden cities of tomorrow movement is haphazard attempts of ornamentation of urban areas with patches of parks, gardens, open spaces, and various other elements. Circular Railway and circular roads around cities with emphasis on mass transit are also evident what has been borrowed from Howards Garden city among several cities around the globe.

Therefore, it is concluded that simple and partial modifications of Ebenezer Howards work have been successfully implemented in various urban settings with emphasis upon different micro level planning. Focus of this study has been to modify the Garden Cities theory presented by Howard. Problem statement has been provided, need analysis has been investigated, and it has been hypothesized that "non-traditional approach" impending towards the city is obligatory to elucidate contemporary urban planning and population crises.

As provided by Ebenezer Howard in defining the needs for Garden Cities, it is considerable that continued flow of the migratory population (towards the cities) is taking place that is stressing the urban planner to outstretch the city. Current situation analysis provides that cities are under constant threat of (a) scarcity of land, (b) insufficiency in provision of utilities, (c) congested transportation networks, (d) environmental pollution, (e) and social problems such as crime and urban poverty. Before we could go in length providing solutions lets consider why people move towards urban areas.

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It has been established that, "people follow jobs". Therefore, we are able to establish that where there is economic opportunity; population congregation will ultimately be the outcome. For analyzing a marginal individual migrating towards the "Economic Opportunity" following equation has been conceived.

Migration Equation

Economic Opportunity = Income (potential)*, * = [speculative]

Economic Opportunity = Income* / Shelter cost + Food cost + Transport cost

It can be rewritten as following:

O = I / F+H+T (Commute or transportation cost)

O=I/

Since economic opportunities in urban areas are attached with the inward migration to the city, therefore O of the opportunity is interchangeable with the M of migration.

M=I/

Therefore, it is to suggest that the enormous response towards the migration into cities is due to the mass appeal of economic, social and mixture of other opportunities, but determining factor in migration of masses can only be attributed to the equation illustrated above.

As values are interchanged into the theory format, there are three possible outcomes of the equation solution.

A. >1 B. =1 C. <1

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Migration decisions are taken with the understanding that if response is >1, then migration will not take place (exceptional situations and isolated cases omitted for simplicity purposes).

Solutions with =1 would indicate that migration is likely to occur

Solutions with <1 indicate that migration is occurring.

Table-1

Response levels >1 =1 <1

Migration Trend No migration Unskilled, semiskilled labor migration Mass migration and population movement can occur

Following table can provide in depth illustration of various migration trends that are likely to take place as explained with the equation itself.

Table-2

Response levels 1.0 1.5 1.6 2.0 Above 2.0

Migration Trend Unskilled, semiskilled labor migration Skilled population migration All level migration will occur

Howards initial theory of Garden City is being reformulated to shift from the landuse planning towards population planning. This shift is required to provide rationality in urban planning. Necessary elements from Howards Garden City are listed below:

Central Square or the Crystal Palace Circular Railway

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Width of the Boulevards Central Park Built area and open spaces Unlike Howard, it is not necessary for the urban planner to provide in details of the exact layout of the urban design and allocate exact location of each and every element of the urban area. Micro level management and distribution of the city enclave should be left up the planners, developers and the financiers. Therefore, modifications are of macro level.

Continuous City Urban Design

Sustainable urban development can only be accomplished by redirecting the rural-urban migration flow (back) to the rural areas. Small sized urban developments connected by transportation arteries known as continuous city are the solution to the comprehensive urban issues.

Formulation of theoretical framework:

1. 2. 3.

Spreading out the population in small pockets connected by major transportation arteries. Each pocket should be 5 mile long with 3 mile width to make each community walkable. Each community should be pure residential with light commercial on main roads.

4. The main transportation route located opposite of the residential community should separate
commercial and industrial communities. 5. Each residential and commercial should be placed alternatively on opposite sides to keep the aesthetics control. 6. Each regional transportation artery should be bypassed by an intersecting transportation route at 40 mile grid. 7. Remaining land should be agricultural, scenic and open areas.

Refer to Diagram 1, 2, and 3 for illustration of pockets of developments alongside major travel arteries.

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Resulted communities will be walkable, neighbor friendly, pollution free and will spread out the population, therefore releasing the pressure upon government services, utilities and the environment. By introducing Continuous City, design future of the urban areas will become idealistic mass global adaptation.

Conclusion

Cities are developing, new sub divisions, and new shantytowns are springing up in every country around the globe. Green prairies and grazing pastureland is being grabbed for human habitat without consideration of landuse sustainability. There are some local landuse plans and zoning ordinances, which prohibit landuse conversion without advance permission from the planning authorities, but majority of the land converted is outside the city jurisdiction of many existing cities. At the current rate it is not very far when all open space, natural habitat and land reserves will needed for additional commercial and housing needs. Continuous City theory does not stop the sprawl but it provides tools for total land planning in the countries where zoning and local landuse control mechanisms are missing. Continuous City urban design defines boundaries for every sub division and transfers population growth into the next sub division resulting in continuous quality of life standard maintenance. Therefore, it is concluded that Continuous City theory and

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urban design are the best mechanisms to control urban sprawl and solve a variety of urban landuse issues under one sunshade.

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