Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a process in which water is forced through a semipermeable membrane. Openings in the membrane are small enough to hold back most dissolved minerals such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, fluoride and chloride. The process is relatively new for home use and has become widely available since about 1980. Water entering the membrane is called feed water and the water passing through the membrane is called permeate, treated or product water. The water held back is called the concentrate or reject water (Figure 1). Rejection refers to the percent of the materials removed from the feed water as it passes through the membrane. Recovery refers to the percent of feed water that becomes permeate. The rejection rate of most home RO units is about 80 to 90 percent for the minerals common in hard water, a recovery of about 5 to 35 percent. On most small RO units without a booster pump, 80 to 95 percent of the feed water goes to the drain, but larger units that operate at high pressures waste only 20 to 25 percent. In the water treatment industry, RO is sometimes referred to as hyperfiltration. The process looks like filtration at the submicron, molecule or ionic size range. Membranes do have small openings but also have an electrical charge which helps reject some ions. If the openings in membranes could be controlled with absolute accuracy, all particles larger than the openings would be rejected. Because this is not possible, membranes allow some of most dissolved materials to pass through. The treated water therefore is much less contaminated but not completely free of contaminants. The performance of RO depends on the membrane, the size of the unit, pressure, temperature and water quality. The purchaser may need to answer several questions in order to make a wise selection. The bulletin Questions to Ask Before Buying Water Treatment Equipment, MF-923, addresses general equipment questions.

Figure 1. The reverse osmosis process. membrane type has certain advantages and limitations depending upon use and feed water quality. Some membranes require chlorinated water, others will not tolerate chlorine and still others can be used with either. The rejection rate for various contaminants is also variable. Membranes for home units may be films, tubes or hollow fibers. Advertisements including terms such as thin film composites (TFC) and spiral wound refer to construction of the membrane cartridge. All membranes in home-size RO units are in a disposable cartridge. Membrane materials and the configuration of the cartridge need not concern the user. The user need only understand that there are differences in membranes. Users must depend upon the manufacturer or dealer for performance information.

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Properties and Membrane Types

Reverse osmosis membranes are made from cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, aromatic polyamide resins and mixtures of these materials. Each

Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State University, Manhattan

Selecting a Reverse Osmosis Membrane

How well do RO membranes remove contaminants? The ability of a membrane to reject an ion is primarily related to ion size but also depends on the electrical charge. Ions of low charge are more difficult to reject. The amount of a particular ion and the total dissolved solids (TDS) content of the water as well as the pressure difference across the membrane are also important. Remember, most but not all ions will be rejected by the membrane. Flow through a membrane is proportional to the net pressure across the membrane. The net pressure is the difference between inlet pressure and the sum of the osmotic pressure plus back pressure, which is usually the pressure in the treated water storage tank. Osmotic pressure is a term related to the chemical bonding of dissolved materials for the water molecules. The osmotic pressure, equivalent to about 1 pound per square inch (psi) for every 100 parts per million (ppm) of TDS, does not affect the pressure as measured with a gauge. It does affect the ease of removal of water from a solution in an equivalent manner. Many home RO systems have significant variations in the net pressure. Low net pressure results not only in lower production but also in lower quality water.

Figure 2. Flow rate versus pressure at various temperatures (T) for RO membranes.

Some manufacturers frequently list a rejection rate for contaminants the unit should remove but others report rejection rate only for the total dissolved solids (TDS) or the rate for a test mixture of salts. If test conditions for a particular contaminant are not indicated, the buyer should request more information. The test conditions are important. Asking a few questions of the supplier usually will determine if the rejection rate is an average for the range of net pressures or the best that can be expected at the highest net pressure. To expect manufacturer tests that duplicate the conditions of your situation is unrealistic. Information on the variations in rejection rate of any ion of particular interest such as nitrate or sodium, however, should be available. At normal household water system pressures of 25 to 50 psi, the rejection rate for nitrate ions with many membranes is too low for recommendation. With either higher operating pressures or specific membranes, however, a rejection of 80 percent or more is possible. As noted before, the TDS content is an important factor. How much water does the RO unit produce each day? System capacities vary from as little as 2 to 5 gallons per day to as much as any household would need. The cost also varies, but the need for treated water should be the controlling factor. If the contaminant is a hazard only if ingested, water used for cooking and drinking needs treatment. A small unit that supplies a separate faucet at each location for water consumption is sufficient. If the contaminant(s) can be absorbed through the lungs and skin, the shower and wash water also should be treated. A large home unit or small commercial unit is necessary. Most major manufacturers produce units in a wide range of sizes. The price and complexity of management increase with size. Small units have a throwaway membrane and filter cartridges. Larger units often have cleanable filters. Because they are too expensive to discard when partially plugged, they usually are cleaned several times before replacement. The larger units usually last longer, however, and produce higher quality water at a lower cost per unit. How long will RO membranes last? Reverse osmosis membranes are manufactured of organic chemicals that degrade with age, may be attacked by some chemicals and are often plugged by some minerals. Selecting the appropriate type, pretreating to remove problem chemicals or minerals and minimizing the shelf storage before use all help increase the life of RO membranes.

Reverse Osmosis Systems

Reverse osmosis systems normally contain a number of components (see Figure 4). All systems do not contain all these components but usually perform the following functions. Prefilter. A prefilter removes small suspended particles from feed water to reduce the load on the

Figure 3. Rejection versus net pressure.

Figure 4. Elements in a reverse osmosis system. membrane (see Microfiltration, MF-882). Normally the concern is for particulates, but chlorine could be a problem if it would damage the membrane. A carbon filter will remove chlorine (see Activated Carbon Filters, MF-883). Prefiltering, therefore, maybe a sediment filter, a combination carbon-sediment filter or separate carbon and sediment filters. Booster pump. Booster pumps are common on the larger RO units to increase the net pressure. Some small units also have a booster pump to increase rejection and production rates. The need for a booster pump depends upon the contaminants, the TDS content, the membrane and the production or rejection required. Post filtration. The primary function of postfiltration is to remove any undesirable taste, odor or organic residual from the treated water. Some organic materials pass through membranes but are easily adsorbed on a carbon filter (see Activated Carbon Filters, MF-883). Since few materials pass through the membrane, the load on the carbon filter is light and the adsorption capacity should remain high a long time. Postfiltration is good insurance for removal of undesirable contaminants. Storage tank. Since flow through a membrane is slow, most systems have a storage tank for treated water. A few also have storage for rejected water or operate on the waterline so that only treated water is diverted. The systems normally run almost continuously and store enough treated water to provide for an acceptable demand. Pressurized storage tank systems provide the pressure to produce flow when the valve is open, but this pressure also reduces the net pressure across the membrane. Non-pressure storage tanks are most common on larger systems and require pumps or an elevated tank for gravity flow. Controls. The simplest systems use a restrained bladder in the storage tank. At the minimum net pressure desired, the bladder is full and cannot expand. Any additional storage quickly raises the storage tank pressure to the feed line pressure and stops production. Many other small systems use a pressure-sensitive switch or valve. When the tank pressure reaches a set value, the

feed flow shuts off. Systems with booster pumps have electrical controls. A pressure or float switch senses the storage tank conditions and starts or stops the system as needed. A few systems flush the membrane with treated water at shutdown to reduce mineral deposits and extend the life of the membrane. Monitoring. RO systems should be monitored to ensure proper operation. A major problem with many home water treatment devices is that the user does not know if they are working. Reverse osmosis is easy to monitor with a conductivity or total dissolved solids meter. Some systems have a built-in monitor, and portable meters are available. When the meter reading increases, the operator knows that ions are getting past the membrane, and it is time to change the membrane. Pressure gauges, which are common with large units, allow the user to know when the filters and membrane are plugged and need cleaning or changing.

Equipment Available
Home RO units come in various sizes, styles and types. Faucet mount, countertop and under-the-counter units that serve a single point-of-use are common. These units produce as little as a gallon to perhaps 20 gallons per day and the reject water usually flows down the drain. The storage is usually 1 to 3 gallons and may be a built-in pressure tank or a separate container. The membrane cartridges are often about the size of other filter cartridges about 10 inches longbut membranes may be several sizes and shapes. Some faucet-mounted systems use a cartridge that contains sediment and carbon filter and RO membrane all in one. When higher rejection rates or more treated water is needed, a commercial system is necessary. These units are too large to fit under the sink and usually are located in the basement or laundry room. They may be freestanding or wall mounted but require more space because of size and maintenance requirements. These systems frequently contain more than one membrane. The membrane cartridges for these larger systems are longer and frequently larger in diameter. Cartridges 2, 3, and 4 feet long, with diameters up to 3 inches are common.

Maintenance and Operation

Small RO systems that operate on the waterline pressure have few or no moving parts and require less maintenance. Most of the troubles are associated with filter or membrane plugging and membrane leakage or failure. A reduction in the production of treated water is usually a sign of filter or membrane plugging. The filters are usually the problem. If replacing filters does not restore near-full production, the membrane cartridge may need replacement. If the water production rate suddenly increases, the water tastes different, increases in hardness, or the TDS meter reading increases, the membrane is leaking or possibly ruptured. Regular monitoring is the only way of knowing that an RO unit is functioning correctly.

Often the membrane for larger units can be cleaned several times before being replaced. Manufacturers normally provide cleaning solutions and instructions. In some models, the RO unit has additional valves and piping to facilitate cleaning, but sometimes the RO system piping must be partially disassembled. The cleaning solution depends upon the materials responsible for plugging the membrane. Acid treatments are common. Use and disposal of the cleaning fluids and flushing of the RO system before returning it to service require extra care. The pumps, gauges and other controls on larger units facilitate monitoring but also require maintenance. Water production is a function of temperature, pressure and TDS content. When any of these changes, there is a corresponding change in production. An increase in water temperature or pressure will increase production. Increasing TDS will decrease production. TDS is probably the most stable, particularly when using groundwater. Pressure changes occur in all water systems, and temperature changes seasonally. Other water treatment processes may be used with reverse osmosis to improve performance or reduce maintenance. Water softening frequently is recommended ahead of the home RO system. Softening removes calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese, which contribute to membrane plugging and failure. Acids and phosphate compounds may be introduced to precipitate or prevent precipitation of various compounds. The prefilter either will capture the resulting materials or they will pass through with the reject water.

Costs for Reverse Osmosis

Filter ReWater Installaplacement Produced Purchase tion (Dollars/ (gal/day) (Dollars) (Dollars) Year) Estimated Water Cost (cents/gal)

Type of System

Faucet Mount 1-3 Counter2-5 top Under Counter 6-12 Whole House 200 +

40-60

DIY*

Discard 5-10 Unit 50-100 7-l0

100-300 DIY

400-600 100-250 75-150 6-10 2,500+ 200+ 300+ 1-2

*Do it yourself (no plumbing required)

Cost
Assuming a life of 10 years and an interest rate of 10 percent, the annual cost of ownership of a $400 unit which produces 10 gallons per day (gpd) is about $65 per year. Including maintenance, the annual cost (not including labor) would increase to about $150 to $225 (4 cents to 6 cents per gallon). When labor for installation, monitoring and maintenance are included, the cost may nearly double. Most home RO units treat only about 5 to 10 percent of the flow and waste the remainder. This waste may be a serious disadvantage when the water supply or home waste treatment system

is limited. Assuming that the well and pump costs are written off against other uses, however, the energy cost for the treated water would only be about $15 to $20 per year if electricity costs $0.10/Kwh. This only adds about $0.005/gal to the cost. Using the same analysis for a larger RO unit that costs $2000 and produces 250 gpd, the total cost per gallon shrinks to $0.008. The savings due to scale of operation are significant, but the daily or annual costs favor the small unit. A large unit that produces 250 gpd may cost $2.00/day while the small, 10 gpd unit costs $0.65/day. See accompanying costs for reverse osmosis.

Renting Versus Owning

Many dealers rent RO units, allowing the user to try the equipment before making a long-term commitment. Rental rates vary substantially which may influence the decision to rent or buy. When considering rental, be sure to find out if there is a minimum rental period and what it is, who is responsible for maintenance, if monitoring equipment is included or if the dealer is responsible for monitoring, and who is responsible for accidental damage or loss.

G. Morgan Powell Extension Natural Resource Engineer

Richard D. Black Extension Irrigation Engineer

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, MANHATTAN, KANSAS MF-884 Revised

May 1990

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Walter R. Woods, Director. All educational programs and materials available without discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or handicap. JH 5-905M

File Code: Engineering 4-5 (Water Quality)