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Environmental Management
Soils: formation, composition and uses
- Elements of soil
Soil is the loose material on the Earths surface above the solid rock. Its thickness varies greatly from place to place. Most soils have three layers called horizons: Its known as the A horizon. It gains new material from the decomposition of vegetation. Minerals may also be washed out of this layer into horizons below by leaching, because of rain water. Material accumulates from horizons above and below. It contains many loose pieces of rock, broken off from the parent rock below by weathering.

Soil Profile

A B C

Topsoil Subsoil Weathered bedrock

Latosol is a type of soil commonly found under tropical rain-forests. The dominant colours are red and yellow. The topsoil is the darkest layer because of the concentration of humus from decomposition of dead branches and leaves. In these types of soil, the C horizon cannot be seen because they are deep and the zone of weathered rock hasnt been reached yet.

- What is soil composed of?

As there are many different types of soils, the percentages of the different constituents vary greatly from one another. About half of the soil isnt solid at all; it is made up of air and water in roughly equal parts. They keep changing depending on the weather. During the wet season water increases, while in the dry season air fills the empty spaces.

Average proportions of soil constituents

Air Water Mineral Matter Organic Material

- Mineral particles, soil texture, and farming opportunities

Mineral particles are formed by weathering of the rock that lies below the soil. Minerals are distinguished mainly according to particle size. Texture is the balance of mineral particles in a soil. It is determined by the relative percentages of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. It can be sandy, clayley, or loamy. Soil texture is important as it affects many of the factors which influence plant growth and farming. Pore space: pores are the gaps between the mineral particles. Aeration: amount of air present. Drainage: amount of water trapped in the pore spaces. Nutrients: ability of the soil to supply nutrients to plants. Easy of use: how easily they can be ploughed and cultivated.

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The best type of soil for farming is loam. It has both large and small pore spaces, which gives an air supply (large pores) and a water supply (small pores).Therefore, this soil retains some moisture for plants to use, but it also lets water drain through. There is enough clay for holding nutrients, making work easy. Farmers often describe sandy soils as hungry soils, because they need large and frequent feeding with fertilizers for crops to be grown successfully. Soil is the top layer of the Earths crust. It can be argued that it is the most important part of it for humans. Plants need it for growth. They in turn are the basis of the food chain which supports humans and all the land animals upon which humans feed.

Causes and consequences of land pollution

- Land pollution from farming
The main types of unmanaged wastes in rural areas are: 1. Farm animal wastes 2. Residues of farm additives 3. Run-off from urban and paved areas 4. Acid deposition 5. Toxic spillages and leakages

- Harmful effects of fertilizers and pesticides

Fertilizers and pesticides are a great way to increase food output from the land. However, if they are repeatedly applied to the land over long periods of time, they can harm the soil. Nitrates and phosphates are two common ingredients of fertilizers. They are leached from the soil into underground water supplies, and eventually find their way into surface water courses, where they enrich the water and accelerate algae growth. Because of this, the water is starved of oxygen by the decomposition of dead algae. The consequence: there is insufficient oxygen for the other plant and animal life in the water. This process is called eutrophication. Pesticides not only kill off insect pests, but also other species as well. This causes a great reduction in the variety of the local fauna. Vital organisms in the soil can also be killed as well, which causes the slow decomposition of organic materials. This means a slower release of plant nutrients into the soil and also affects the food chain.

- Salinization
Salinization is the increase of amounts of salt in the topsoil. Dry places are likely to contain salt in the soil. But in some places human activity increases the salt in the soil reducing crop output. It is a particular problem on irrigated land. It occurs most when large quantities of water are spread over the soil surface.

- Land pollution from industries and urban areas

People and industries are concentrated in towns and cities; therefore, these places are great producers of waste. The amount of land pollution is controlled by a combination of

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city size and the extent to which the disposal of waste is managed. In developing countries, waste amounts are larger as people cant afford waste collection or disposal. 1. Domestic waste: Waste comes from the preparation, cooking and serving of food; from the throwing away of rubbish, from heating and from its burning. Domestic waste is usually thrown untreated on to the street or into a nearby water course. The lack of sewerage and sanitation systems both contribute to this waste disposal. Diseases frequently appear in the overcrowded slum areas of developing world cities. 2. Toxic waste: Industrial wastes include leftovers from food-processing and scraps of wood and metal. But wastes from metals are of greatest concern, especially lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium. All of them are a threat for human health. Toxic effects of other metals are usually greater for life in rivers and lakes. Nitrates and phosphates can occur in soil and water. Many industrial wastes can cause diseases and are very dangerous towards life in general, not only human. 3. Nuclear waste: Nuclear waste is likely to cause serious long-term environmental implications. It can cause the emission of radioactivity and disposal of waste. The half-life is the time taken for half of the radioactivity of a radioactive substance to die away. Some substances die away relatively quickly, so they are easy to dispose of, usually in the sea. However, even this is controversial. Nuclear power stations emissions can cause cancer in children in the surrounding areas. It takes many years to make them disappear, and may still be dangerous to people and other kinds of life for many more years. This needs to be stored safely deep underground or at the plant.

- Example of land and water pollution: Pakistan

It has the worlds largest canal irrigation system, which allows one quarter of the land area to be cultivated. Rivers provide the necessary water to irrigate crops. There is little rain, which is why the massive complex of canals is needed. The major crops are cotton, wheat, rice, and sugar cane. New irrigation techniques were introduced in the 1970s, including fertilizers and pesticides. The expanding use of them in agricultural regions is a big source of ground water pollution. The main source of water pollution there is human waste, which causes diseases to widespread. A few people have access to sanitary facilities. Everyone else makes use of roadsides, fields or streams. Many untreated sewage goes into the irrigation system, risking crop contamination. The discharge of industrial wastes also affects greatly the system.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

Solar energy Wind power Wave power Precipitation Water power Fresh water Forests and plants 3

Renewable Essentially renewable

Marcos Lund Santiago Zalaya Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal) Minerals (copper, lead, zinc, etc.) Fish stocks Animals Soil

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Non-renewable

Non-renewable if overused by humans

Soil erosion, desertification, and conservation

- Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the loss of topsoil by wind and water. It is a natural and constant process, but usually slows because of the protective covering of vegetation. New soil formation from the weathering of surface rocks can replace what is lost. Rates of soil erosion are higher in dry climates, where there is little vegetation, and in steep slopes in wet climates, where water flows downhill rapidly during heavy rainfall. Bad farming speeds up the process of erosion. Topsoil is lost first, which causes a huge fall in crop output, and sometimes there is no choice but to abandon farming the land.

- Human causes of soil erosion

People take out vegetation without even thinking in the possible consequences which affect the soil. Clearances of trees on slopes has great potential risks because: Tree roots will no longer be present to hold the soil in place. Tree leaves and branches will not be there to break the force of the falling rain. Obstructions like the tree stems will no longer be available to restrain surfacewater flows down the slope. On steep slopes, farmers find it easier to plough up and down the slope, but they are creating natural channels in the furrows for rainwater to flow down the slope carrying away the soil particles. Causes of soil erosion in a mountainous area: Farming on steep slopes Overgrazing Overcultivation Poor farming practices The desire to make money and the pressure from the increasing population for food have both contributed to overgrazing and overcultivation. If there are too many animals grazing, patches of bare soil appear which gradually increase in size. Growing the same crop year after year drains the soil of certain nutrients which means less plant growth, which increases the risk of further soil erosion.

- Consequences of soil erosion

Crop yields go down. Pasture land becomes less productive. Farmers respond by buying and using fertilizers. Farmers incomes go down while costs of farming go up. For many farmers, feeding their families becomes a struggle. 4

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More trees will be cut down where available. Crop stubble is removed from crop land for livestock feed. Soil is lost. Eroded topsoil ends up in rivers, which increases the amount of sediment, which makes rivers overflow the top of their banks causing floods. Rivers silt up HEP dams; fish breeding areas are damaged. Deep water channels are difficult to keep open to shipping as it costs port and harbour authorities more time and money.

- Desertification
Desertification occurs when deserts spread and engulf areas that formerly carried surface vegetation cover and farming settlements. Land is turned into a desert as a result of human activity, although other factors may also contribute. Soil erosion and salinization both may result in desertification, because both can create land surfaces unable to support vegetation. Semi-arid regions where rainfall is concentrated in one season and the amount that arrives is very variable from year to year are the areas which are most at risk. In dry years, overcultivation, overgrazing and further deforestation for fuel wood begin the train of events that end with soil erosion. Causes of desertification: causes Symptoms of desertification Reduced crop yields Reduced total biomass Reduced wood biomass Reduced water availability Advancing sand dunes Natural Decline in rainfall Increased disruption to life drought processes Overgrazing Human Overcultivation Activities Irrigation and salinization Demand for food Population increase Demand for fuel wood Effects - food; + hunger & malnutrition - available feed for livestock - wood for fuel & longer searches for fuelwood supplies Longer searches for surface / underground supplies Farmland, settlements, water holes, etc. overwhelmed Peoples need to relief aid increases, some migrate,Increased refugees becoming Decline in soil erosion vegetation Desertification by wind cover and rain

- Example: The Sahel in Africa

The Sahel is a broad belt of land across Africa on the southern side of the Sahara Desert. In the 1970s and 1980s, it was every year drier than average. Famine affected vast regions. UNEP announced that the Sahara Desert was advancing southwards by 6-10km per year. In Niger, about 250,000 hectares are being lost to desertification each year. Vegetation has been completely destroyed by farmers. Dunes have grown faster, as they form from the soil eroded off agricultural land. In the mid and late 1990s, normal and above average rainfall began to fall again. The Eden Foundation is working about the issue; and the strategies being used include: 5

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Research in field stations. Passing on advice and giving demonstrations to farmers. Providing farmers with new seeds. Returning some vegetation cover by spreading seeds of perennial plants that will naturally re-seed and regenerate in future years. What the Sahel needs in sustainable environmental management. Soil erosion will be stabilized, fertility will be improved, and the region will become a potential source for wood for fuel and building materials. Resources must be managed: the amount consumed each year should be less than the amount produced. This way, halting desertification should be permanent. Methods for tackling the causes of desertification: Cause Overcultivation Overgrazing Deforestation Population pressure Method Higher yielding/drought resistant seeds Crop rotation Reduce numbers of cattle by using higher-yielding breeds Rotate grazing land Tree planting schemes Alternatives to fuel wood Policies for reducing birth rates Alternative employment