Electrical Transients in Power Systems SECOND EDITION ALLAN GREENWOODCONTENTS Preface to the First Edition Preface L Frndamental Notions abwut Mectrical Transients wie + ne The Laplace Transform Method of Solving Differentiat Introduction 1 ‘Circuit Parameters 1 Mathematical Statement of the Problem and Its Physical Interpretation 3 Circuit Charucteristics or Thumbprints The Principle of Superposition 6 Problems 9 Equations 21 22 2.3 a4 25 26 The Concept of a ‘Transform 11 The Laplace Trensform 12 Some Simple Applications of the Laplace Transform in Circuit Problems 18 Building Other Transforms 26 Operational Impedance 27 Duhamel's Integral—Response of a Cizcuil to an Arhitrary Stimulus 24 Problems 33 References 36 Simple Switching Tansients a 32 33 34 Introduction 37 The Circuit Closing Transient 37 The Recovery ‘lransient Initiated by the Removal of a Short Circuit, 47 Double-Frequency Transients 52 Problems 37 References 61 Damping ad Some Observations on the RLC Circuit 62 1¥ Wb 62vill CONTENTS 4,2. The Basic Transforms vf the ALC Circuits 64 4.3 The Generalized Damping Curves 72 4.4 The Series RL Cireuit 75 4.5 Resistance Switching 80 4.6 Load Switching #3 4.7 Other Forms of Damping 87 4.4 Damping and Frequency 87 Problems 88 References 91 witching Transients 5.1 Normal and Abnormal Switching Transients 92 §.2. Current Suppression 92 5.3 Capacitance Switching 100 5.4 Other Restriking Phenomena WH 5.4 Transformer Magnetizing Inrush Current 113 5.6 Ferroresonance 116 Problems 122 References 124 ‘Transients in Three-Phase Circuits 6.1 Introduction 126 6.2. Importance of the Type of Neutral Connection 126 6.3 Switching a Three-Phase Reactor with an Isolated Neutral 128 64 Three-Phase Capacitance Switching 132 6.5 The Symmetrical-Component Method for Solving Three- Phase Switching Transients 140 Problems 147 References 149 Transients in Direct Current Circuits, Conversion Equipment and Stathe Var Controls 7.L Totroduction 13) 7.2 Interruption of Direct Current in Low Voltage Circuits 150 7.3. Transients Associated with HVDC Circuit Breakers 158 7.4 Delayed and Periodic Functions 160 7.5 Characteristics of the Thyristor and the Gate Turn Off (GTO) Thytistor 166 7.6 Commutation Transients—The Current-Limiting Static Circuit Breaker 169 7.7 Commutation Transients in Conversion Equipment 174 a2 150 = 18 CONTENTS 7.8 Transients in Static Ver Control Equipment 184 Problems 185 References 126 Electromagnetic Phenomena of Impartance Under Transient Conditions 8.1 Introduction 188 8.2 A Review of Electrostatic Induction with Some Transient Applications 189 8.3 A Review of Electromagnetic Induction and Related Topics 192 8.4 Steady-State Penetration of Magnetic Flux and Current into Conductors 200 8.5 Transient Penctration of Magnetic Flux and Ourrent into Conductors 20 8.6 Electromagnetic Shielding 219 8.7 Implicatians of Blectromagnetic Effects far Cryogenic Systems 228 8.8 Other Electromagnetic Manifestations of Practical Concern 229 Problems 230 References 231 Traveling Waves and Other Transients on ‘Transmission Lincs 9.1 Circuits with Distributed Constants 233 9.2 The Wave Equation 238 9.2 Reflection and Refraction of Traveling Waves 243 9.4 Behavior of Traveling Waves at Linc Terminations 246 9.5 Lattice Diagrams 255 9.f Attenuation and Distortion of Traveling Waves 257 9.7 Switching Operations Involving Transmission Lines 262 9.8 Multicenductor Systems and Multivelucity Waves 274 9.9 Switching Surges on an Iniegraicd System 287 Problems 294 References 298 Principles uf Transient Modeling of Power Systems and Components MAI Introduction 300 10.2 Frequeney Response of Networks and Components 3011 10.3 Capacitance of Windings 308 10.4 Frequency-Dependent Parameters 309 ly 188 233,12 ‘CONTENTS 10.5 Cirewit Reduction 312 References 321 Modeling Power Apparatus and the Behavior of Such Equipment Under Transient Conditions 111) Modeling of Transformers 322 11.2 Modcling of Generators M9 11.3 Modeling Motors 355 11.4 Model for an Overhead Transmission Line 363 ILS Models for Cables 370 11.6 Modeling of Steel Cores 372 11.7 Miscellaneous Components 378 Problems 380) References 382 Computing Aids tu the Calculation of Electrical Transients: 121 Intrednetion 385 12.2 The Transient Network Analyzer 386 12.3 The Digital Computer 392 12.4 The Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) 413 12.5 The Hybrid Computer 421 References 421 ‘System and Component Parameter Values for Use in Transient Calculations and Means to Obtain Them by Measurement 13.1 Introduction 424 13.2. Transient Parameter Values for Transformers 424 13.3 Transient Parameter Values for Reactors 444 13.4. Transient Parameter Valucs for Generators 445 43.5 Measurement of Transicnt Recovery Voliages in a Power Plast 446 13.4 ‘Transient Parameter Values for Motors 448 13.7 Transient Parameters for Transmission Lines and Cables 451 13.8 Characteristics of Bus Work 446 13.9 Capacitance of Instrument Transformers 459 Problems 460 References 461 Lightning 14.1. The Scope of the Lightning Problem 463 14,2 The Physical Phenomenon of Lightning 464 14.3 Interaction between Lightning and the Power System 469 322 aa is td 17 CONTENTS. xi 14.4 Computation of a Specific Lightning Event 478 14.5 Induced Lightning Surges 487 14.6 Thunderstorm Tracking and Other Recent Developments 484 Problems 485 Referemecs 487 Insulation Coordination 490 ISL Some Basic Ideas About Insulation Coordination 490 15.2 The Strength of Insulation 491 15.3 The Hierarchy of Insulation Coordination 499 15.4 Test Volluge Waveforms und Trunsicnt Ratings 5(11 15.5 Deterministic and Statistical Approaches to Insulation Coordination 504 Problems 510 References 511 Protection of Systems and Equipment Against Transient Overvoltages 513 16.1 Introduction $13 16.2 Protection of Trunsmission Lines Against Lightning 513 16,3 Lightning Shielding of Substations 517 16.4 Surge Suppressors und Lightning Arsestets 517 16.5 Application uf Surge Arresters 538 16.6 Surge Suppressurs for Direct Current Circuits $47 16.7 Surge Capacitors and Surge Reactors 348 16.8 Surge Protection of Rotating Muchines 554 16.9 Transient Voltages and Grounding Practices 556 16,1) Protection of Control Cireuits 560 16.11 Surge Protection Schome for an Industrial Drive System 366 Problems 569 References 573 Case Studies in Electrical Transients 575 17.1 Introduction 575 17.2 Misoperation of Protective and Switching Equipment During Source-Side Faults 575 17.3 Transients Associated With Bank-lo-Hank Capacitor Switching 579 17.4 Voltage Fscalution Due to Multiple Reignitions During Switching 583 17.5) Transient Behavior of a Transformer Coil 390)xii CONTENTS 17.6 Internul Resonance in a Transformer Winding 599 17.7 An Tovestigation of Arrester Separation Distance 605 References 610 18 Fquipment for Measuring Transients él 18.1 Some General Observations on the Measurement of Transients 611 18.2 Frequency Response, Bandwidth, and Rise Time 613 18.3 The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope fl6 48.4 Cameras for Cathode Ray Oscilloscupes 628 18.5 Magnetic Recording uf Transients 625 18.6 Equipment for Measuring Transient Currents 629 18,7 Transient Voltage Measuring Equipment 641 Problems 651 References 653 19 Measuring Techniques and Sorge Testing «54 19.1 Introduction 654 19.20 Minimizing Problems of Interference 654 19.3 Differential Measurements 660 19.4 Multichannel Sequence Timer 661 19.5 Low voltage Surge Testing 663 19.G Measurement of Random Disturbances 671 19.7 Mexsurement of Fast T'ransicats 678 19.8 Surge Voltage ‘lesting 686 19.9 High Power Testing 99 19.10) Case Studies in Transient Measurements 70% Problems 723 References 724 Appendix 1 Table of Laplace ‘Nransform Pairs 727 Appendix 2. Natural Cosines 723 Appendix 3. Natural Sines Ta Appendix 4 Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions 735 Appendix § Statistical Information TH Index 740 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION book is a distillation of my experience teaching electrical transicnts to successive classes of college students und practicing engineers. It also reflects fourteen years of considerable involyement with practical transient problems on electeic utility and industrial power systems. Its purpose ix to teach students and engineers the fundamentals of this vital subject and to equip them to recognize and solve transient problems in power networks and components, Practically has beca @ paramount concern in its prepa- ration, Many of the basie motions concerning the transient behavior of electric circuits were well explored by Steinmetz and other early pioneers. What is new is the emergence and re-emergence of perennial problems in dliffercat guises with new applications aud new equipment, Like successive genera. tions of cigarettes and candy bars, these problems are much the same in different Wrappers. | have attempted to set out the fundamental ideas at the beginning of the buok and made a consistent effort to show theresfter how one peels away the superficial differences in practical transient studies, to a Point where basic principles can be applied. Where formal mathematical analysis is called for, | have chosen to use the Laplace transform method. This is explained but not justified, in Chapter 2. However, there are many places in the hook where solutions to problems are reached by relatively simple process of deduction, which stresses Physival insight. In such instances mathematical rigor has been subordinated to physical understanding; mathematics is often ysed to facilitate this understauding rathcr than as 2 substitute for it. It is ™y cxperience that the majority of students and engineers. expecially those wha do not have 3 mathematical turn of mind, proceed best hy first considering the particular and ihen progressing to the more general. ‘The material tends to increase in complexity as the book progresses: single-phase circuits are studicd before dhree-phuse circuits, and lumpy Sircuits before distributed circuits. This has one added Advantage when the hook is used for course text purposes, Certain chapters can be used as a basis for an undergraduate course, which could stand by itself, or lead naturally to a graduate course based om the material of other chapters. ‘The presentation is broader im seope than most other texts on this subject, for it combines the experimental with the analytical and supplements both iiladv PREFACE TU THE FIRST EDITION with many examples from actual investigations, Though basic knowledge of transients may ot have wdvanced in recent yeurs at the same rate us formerly, there has been a tremendous proliferation in the techaiques used to study transients. The use of computers is a good example Chapter 14 is devoted to this topic. Recent advances in instrumentation for measuring transients has been spectacular; useillosenpes with storage tubes, sampling tubes, aad traveling wave tubes are eet examples. These devices and their iit din Chapter 16, ee ane acaba td to the breadth of this hook. In Chapter 8 T have ulicmpted to draw from diverse places in the literature and pul together as a consistent whole a collection of facts regarding certain electromagnetic phenomena that play a significant part in many transient glectric disturbances. These relate to electric and magactic coupling between Circiits, more especially to the transient penetration of current, and flux into conduciurs, These have an important bearing on such mutters as pickup, shielding, attenuation or damping, and losses, The sccond arcu concerns the circuit characteristics of power system components. Onc may be very adept at manipulating equations, hut this will be of little value unless the results can he reduced to practical terms. | have therefore included a compilation of typical characteristics of system clements, such as the capacitance and inductance of transformers, reactors, buswork, and the natural frequencies and time constants of such apparatus. I wish to acknowledge the considerable contributions that many of my colleagues and associates in the Generul Electrical Company have made indirectly to this book through countless discussions over the years on the subject of transients. | would like to make special mention of Dr. ‘T. HT. Lee, W. F. Skeals, and E, J. Tuohy, for most stimulating exchanges on many topies. ALLAN GREENWOOD Media, Pennsylvania March 1970 PREFACE It is twenty years since I wrote the first preface; itis as relevant now as whea it was written. This is not to say that nothing has changed, but that my objectives and approach remain the same. Thus, the abiding fundamentals have been left untouched in this edition, except where more recent ex- Periences have changed my own perceptions and insights and where, hopefully, I have been able ta improve the presentations as a consequence. During the 1950s and 1960s, engineers were slowly beginning to apply computers to the solution of power system transient problems. The past two decades have sccn an enormous prowth in this activity, which has been both a blessing and a curse. A blessing because it has made it possible to attack and resolve very complicated problems in a breadth and depth incunceivahlc in former times. A curse boeause some engineers have heen seduced by the methods and lost sight of the physical aspects of the phenomena involved. For this reason I have continued to stress the physical while broadening and updating the computational treatment of transients in accordance wil Present practices. To use a computer for solving a transient problem requires some repre- Sentation or model of the component ur system involved. Two new chapters have been added to address the subject uf modeling; models fur rhost types of power equipment ure discussed, The adequacy of models, the caution fequired in using them, the necd for validation, and the relationship between the model and the physical eatity it represents, are all stressed. A serious omission in the First Edition was any concerted treatment of insulation coordination. ‘This has been correetcd with the inclusion of Chapter 15 which is exclusively devoted to this topic, This chapter and Chapter 16 on protection, reflect lhe revolution that metal uxide surge arresters have caused in the power industry Mote illustrative material in the way of figures and diagrams and worked ckamples have been included in this new edition, One entirely new chapter of case studies has been added, which demonstrates modeling and ccrmputa- ional techniques as they have been applied hy practiciag engineers to specific problems, References have been updated from the published work of the Last twenty years, many of them from the last five years, ‘There has been a virtual explosion in the equipment for measuring sleetrical transients, most especially where digital techniques are involved, ‘This hus required heavy revision of the two chapters on measuring equip-xvi PREFACE ment and measuring test methods. This hus heen supplemented by the inclusion of case studies showing how the new equipment is applied. The original text has been criticized for its lacie of problems that ie reader could work through for himself, Accordingly, a number of suck problems, well over a hundred in all, have been added at the end of most chapters. Answers are provided, It is my plan to produce a supplement of ions in due course. ; ae aan to acknowledge the many contributions of others to this book, | would mention in particular the generations of students from whom 1 eve learned so much as I have strivem to teach them. Also, my sincere thanks go to Ms, Hazel Butler for typing the manuscrip!—a formidable task, well done. ALLAN GREENWOOD Tortola, British Virgin Islands March 1990 1 Fundamental Notions about Electrical Transients 11 INTRODUCTION Au electrical transient is the outward manifestation of a sudden change in circuit conditions, as when a switch Opens ur closes or a fault occurs on a system. ‘The trunsicmt period is usually very short. The traction of their ‘Operaling time that most circuits spend in the transient condition is insig- nificant compared with the time spent in the Steady stale. Yet thesc transient Periods urc extremely important, for it is at such times that the circuit components are subjceted tu the greatest stresses from excessive currents or voltages. In extreme cases damage results, This may disable 1 maching, shut down a plant, of black aut a city, depending upon the circuit involved, For this reason a clear appreciation of events twking place during transient periods is essential for a [ull understanding of the behavior of clectric circuits, Tt is unfortunate: that many clectrics! cousineers have only the baziest conception of what is happening in the circuit at such tinics, Tndectl, some appear to view the subject as bordering on the occult. Yet transients can be Understood: they can be calculated and sometimes prevented, of at least controlled, su ast be innocuous to the circuit or power system on which they appear. In this chapter we consider some basic ideas about electri Transients which will lay the ground work for their stuily in preuter depl 1.2 CIRCUIT PARAMETERS Examination of any electric circuit shows that it is made up of thee kinds of Parameter: Resislanee R Inductance L Capacitance ¢ All componcuts. whether in 2 utility system, industrial circuit, ur elsewhere, Possess cach of these attributes to a greater or lesser depres. Under Meady-stile conditions une will frequently predominate, for example, in- 12) FUNDAMENTAL. NOTIONS ABOUT ELECTRICAI TRANSIENTS ductance in a reactor. In the transient siate, however, conditions may be very different. On occasion the distributed capacitance af the reactor winding will momentarily be its must important feature. ‘The resistance, induclance, and capacitance of a circuit are distributed quantities; that is, each small part of the circuit pussesses its share. But it is frequently found that they can be treated as “lumped” constants, conoen- truted in particular branches, without seriously impairing the accuracy of calculations, We shall sc treat them in much of this book. In circumstances where the technique is not suitable, as ia dealing with long transmission lines, different approach will be used. ‘The parameters L and ¢ arc characterized by their ability to store energy, L in the magnetic field and C in the electric Geld of the circuit, ‘These stored energics are functions of the instantuneous curreal J and voltage V, and are, respectively, dzP and bev? In contrast, the parameter Ris a dissiputer of eaergy, the rate of dissipation being KJ al any instant. Under steady-state conditions, ihe energy stored in the various induct- ances and capacitances of a direct current circuit ure constant, whereas in an alternating current circuit, energy is being transferred cyclically between the Ls and Cs of the circuit as the current and vollage rise and fall at the frequency of the supply. “This latter process is attended by certain losses, depending upon the resistance: present. The losses will be supplied by the various sources in the system. When any sudden change occurs in a cirewit, there is generally a redistri- bution of cnergy to meet the new conditions, and in a way, it is this that we are studying when we inquire into the nature of transients. It is very portant to realize that this redistribution of energy cannot take plave instantaneously for two reusums: 1. To change the mugnetic energy requires a change of current. But change of current in an inductor is opposed by an emf of magnitude £ lide, ‘An instantaneous change of current would therefore require un infinite voltage to bring it about. Since this is unrealizable in practice, currents in inductive cireuits do aot change abruptly and conseyuently there can be na abrupt change in the magnetic cnergy stored. Another way of stating this is that the magnetic flux linkage of a circuit cannot suddenly change. 2. To change the electtic energy requires a chunge in voltage. The voltage actoss a capacitor is given by V= QC, where Q is the charge, and its rate of change is dv de. & cst ole = Als MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THR PROBLEM = 3 For an instantancous change of voltage an infinite current must flow. This too in unrealizable; consequently the voltage across © capacitor cannot change ubruptly mor can the cnergy stored in its associated electric field, ‘The redistribution of energy following a circuit change takes a finite time, and the process during this interval, as at uny other time, is governed by the principle of energy conservation, that is, the rate of supply of energy is equal to the rate of storage of energy plus the rate of energy dissipation These three simple facts—current through um inductor cannot suddenly change: voltage across a capacitor caunot suddenly change; cnerey conserva- tion must he preserved at all times—are fundamental to understanding electrical transicnts. ‘To fully appreciate the implications of these Eacis is to touch the essence of the subject. 1.3 MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND IES PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION ‘The statement of any circuit transient problem properly starts with the setting down of the differential equation or equations describing the be- havior of the system when excited by the particular stimulus being studied. This is usually done quite readily with the aid of Kirchhoff’s laws, Consider the very simple prablem depicted in Fig. 11. As « consequence of closing a switch, w capacitor is charged through w resistor. ‘To find the current, we might express the circuit equation using Kirchhoff's first law ay follows: r= i+ v= n+ | oar (13a) To find voltage across the capacitor, the differential equation might be STitlen wv VeRCTI+Y, (1.3.2) inasmuch as Rt I ~ vi cmv | Fig. 1.1, The RC circuit.