Reproduction in Humans

The Male Reproductive System Sperm is made in the testes (singular testis). They are contained in two sacs collectively called the scrotum, which are found outside the body. (200-500 million) Sperm is produced at a rate of 120 million per day. The testis is outside the abdominal cavity, so sperm do not over heat, which is important for their development. Sperm develops at 34 degrees C. Each testis consists of a series of highly coiled structures known as the seminiferous tubules. (5 m) Sperm are produced in these tubules before they are sent to the epididymis to be stored and to mature. The epididymis leads into the vas deferens, or sperm duct. As the sperm travels along the sperm duct, it gets awash by secretions from three sets of accessory glands the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and the Cowpers glands. Seminal vesicles produce an alkaline clear fluid which contains large amounts of sugar fructose to provide energy for the sperm to move. The prostate gland secretes a milky, alkaline fluid (neutralizes acid to protect sperm) The Cowpers gland secretes mucus-like fluid (lubricant). The fluids from the glands mix with sperm to form semen. The two sperm ducts open into the top of the urethra, a tube through which both semen and urine flow. The urethra passes through the centre of the penis.

The Female Reproductive System The female gonads are the ovaries, which produce the female gametes and secrete the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone. The ovaries store the immature ova of the female. The oviducts (or fallopian tubes) are narrow muscular tubes leading from the ovary to the uterus. The uterus is shaped like an inverted pear and it is where the embryo implants and grows into a baby.

The inner lining of the uterus, or the endometrium, is thick & is richly supplied with blood vessels. The entrance to the lower end of the uterus is the cervix. This is a circular ring of muscle leading to the vagina, or the birth canal. The vagina has elastic tissue and is able to stretch during childbirth to allow passage for the baby. During sexual intercourse, the penis deposits semen in the vagina. The vulva is the opening of the vagina. The walls of the oviduct are lined with tiny hairs, called cilia. They beat and the smooth muscles contract, causing peristaltic movements which send the ovum down the oviduct to the uterus.

The Male and Female Gametes in Man Gametes is another name for reproductive cells. The male gametes are known as sperms or spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon), while the female gametes are called eggs or ova (singular: ovum). They are formed by meiosis in the testes of the male and the ovaries of the female and have 23 chromosomes each. The fusion of the 2 sets of chromosomes will result in the diploid cell.

A sperm has: a head with a nucleus, little cytoplasm and an acrosome (contains enzymes to break down layers of cells surrounding the ovum), a middle piece containing mitochondria which provides energy for the sperm to move, a tail which helps to propel the sperm towards the ovum.

An ovum is a relatively large, spherical cell with: A nucleus and abundant cytoplasm containing nutrients, A jelly-like coat called the zona pellucida, A layer of follicle cells which surrounds and protects it. Spermatogenesis Spermatogenesis is the making of sperm in the testes Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules in the testes.

Seminiferous tubules contain two types of cell, which are germ cell and sertoli cell. Sertoli cells act as nurse cells and ensure that germ cells have adequate nourishment. They also nourishes maturing sperm. Spermatogenesis begins as the hypothalamus secrete Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) into the pituitary gland stimulating it to secrete Luteinizing hormone LH and follicle stimulating hormone FSH into the blood. Spermatogenesis LH stimulates cells between the siminiferous tubules called Leydig cells to secrete the hormone testosterone. Testosterone stimulates sperm production by stimulating germ cells to divide and move inwards, but also acts as an inhibitor of the hypothalamus in a negative feedback system. Testosterone causes immature germ cells called primordial germ cells to divide by mitosis to form mature ones called spermatogonium. The spermatogonium then grows larger to form a primary spermatocyte. Spermatogenesis The primary spermatocyte (2n)then divides by meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes (n) (first division) and then spermatids (n) Second division). These spermatids are immuture and have to undergo differentiation to become mature spermatids. FSH stimulates spermatogenesis to complete the development of spermatozoa from spermatids. It this differentiation, a centriole develops into a flagella or tail, the golgi body is converted into the acrosome, the nucleus becomes condensed and enlongated, and mitocondria divide and concentrate in the middle piece so they can provide energy for movement of the flagella. After sperms are made they then migrate to the epididymis where they are stored. Spermatogenesis Spermatogenesis Hormonal control of spermatogenesis Oogenesis Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries of female and is the production of eggs also called oocytes.

The ovary produces one approximately every 28 days from puberty up to about age 40-50. A female is born with about 2 million oocytes before birth, but only about 450 ever develop. Before birth primordial germ cells divide by mitosis to form oogonia. Each oogonia then grows in size to form primary oocytes (egg). Primary oocytes are enclosed by a single layer of cells called granulosa cells (or follicle cells). This structure is called a primordial follicle During her fertile years, every month a primordial follicle will grow and mature to form a graafian follicle. Oogenesis Development of the graafian follicle begins as the hypothalamus secretes GnRH which causes the release of FSH and LH into the blood. FSH stimulates the follicle cells to divide to form a multi-layer around the primary oocyte. In addition FSH cause cells from the stroma of the ovary to form another layer outside these cells, collectively known as the theca. The theca secretes female sex hormones. As the primary oocyte develops it secrets oestrogen. Oestrogen repairs the uterus lining, cause follicle cells to divide and inhibits FSH in a negative feedback system. Oogenesis The diploid primary oocyte then undergoes the first meiotic division to form 2 haploid cell. The division is unequal forming a large secondary oocyte (egg) and a first small polar nuclei which eventually degenerates. It proceeds to meiosis 2 but remains in mataphase 2 and does not continue until fertilization takes place. The secondary oocyte starts to grow in the follicle. In this a thick jelly layer called the zona pellucida is formed around the oocyte. A fluid-filled space, the antrum also develops in the developing structure. At this stage it is mature and is referred as a graafian follicle. The LH simulates ovulation on day 14 of the cycle. Oogenesis Oogenesis & ovulation

Hormonal control of oogenesis

Events of the menstrual cycle and hormonal control Day 1 to 5 The first five days of the menstrual cycle are marked by menstruation Day 6 to 10

The immature follicles in the ovary are stimulated by a hormone called the follicle-stimulating hormone from the pituitary gland to grow and develop. The follicles secrete oestrogen which causes the repair and growth of the uterine lining. Oestrogen also inhibits FSH. Day 11 to 17

Ovulation occurs on Day 14 and is the release of the ooctye from the graafian follicle. It is caused by a surge of LH and FSH in the blood. The remaining follicle cells form the corpus luteum, which continue to secretes the hormones oestrogen progesterone. They both keeps the uterine lining thick and well supplied with blood vessels. Progesterone also causes milk formation and inhibits LH & FSH (negative feedback). Events of the menstrual cycle and hormonal control. Day 18 to 28 If no fertilisation takes place, the egg breaks down and is released in menstruation. The corpus luteum persists for some time before degenerating. This takes place about 28 days from the start of the cycle. When this happens, progesterone & oestrogen production stop, and the uterine lining (endometrium) breaks down (menstruation). If fertilisation occurs, the embryo implants itself in the uterine lining which remains thick to nourish the growing fetus. The embryo secretes a hormone called human chrionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which prevents the corpus luteum from degenerating so that it can continue to produce progesterone and oestrogen. Later in the development of the embryo, the placenta takes over the production of these hormones. Fertilization Fertilization is the fusion of the sperm with an egg. It occurs in the fallopian tube.

It occurs as millions of sperm surround the egg in which only one will eventually enter. With the help of the enzyme hyaluronidase, sperm burrow through the follicle cells surrounding the oocyte. Contact of sperm with the zona pellucida triggers acrosome reaction to digest it. The sperm wiggles it way in and upon reaching the cell membrane of the oocyte, a number of reactions occur. Fertilization The oocyte completes it second meiotic division to form a haploid gamete (ovum) and the second polar body. (polar body degenerates). An electrical charge across the membrane changes, which causes cortical granules to harden the zona pellucida, preventing further entry of other sperms. The sperm also losses its tail and the head moves towards the nucleus. The head upon reaching swells and releases the chromosomes, which fuses with the ovum nucleus to form a zygote. (fertilization or conception) Cell division and implantation After fertilization, the zygote starts to move toward the uterus. It is swept along by peristaltic contractions of the oviduct and movement of cilia lining the oviduct. As it moves it starts its first stage of embryonic development called cleavage in which the zygote divides to form a ball or cells, but does not grow in size. They just get smaller and smaller. Cell division and implantation About 4 days after it forms a solid mass of cell called called a morula. This continues to divide to form a hollow fluid filled ball called a blastula About 7 days after, the blastula becomes blastocyst. Cell division and implantation The blastocyst burrow and become implanted into the uterus. It is able to do this by the action of trophoblast cells which have finger-like projection called chrionic villi which are able to hold on to the uterus and digest the uterus so implantation can occur. fertilization

Early embryonic development After implantation the trophoblast develops into the chorion, which develops a blood circulation. The chorion comes in contact with uterine blood vessels and gain nourishment from it. The blood vessels of the chorion and the mother grow and expand to form the placenta. By about nine days, a complex embryo called a gastrula develops from the blastocyst by the process of gastrulation. Cells migrate to different areas, forming the gut cavity and three main layers. The three layers are the endoderm (inner layer), mesoderm (middle) and ectoderm (outer). Gastrulating Early embryonic development

The table shows the fate of the three layers. Extra-embryonic development After implantation , the embryo produces four extra-embryonic membranes known as the amnion, yolk sac, the chorion and the allantois. The amnion is the outer most membrane which is a sac for the embryo. The cells secrete amniotic fluid in which the embryo is suspended in. This cushions the embryo against mechanical damage. The yolk has no obvious function in humans by serves as a food source in reptiles and birds. The chorion is the outer most layer derived from trophoblast cells. It forms villi on the fatal side of the placenta. Extra-embryonic development The allantios is a sac like out growth from the gut of the embryo which fuses with the chorionic villi. The fused structure forms the embryos part of the placenta. The allantois forms the umbilical cord, which is a tube containing two arteries and one vein. The umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood containing waste products such as urea from the foetus to the mother. The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood containing nutrients from the mother to the foetus.

The Placenta The placenta is an organ which forms after implantation. It comprises of cells derived from both the mother and the growing foetus. The foetal part of the placenta consists of finger-like projections called chorionic villi, which help to increase the surface area for absorption. The maternal part of the placenta consists of projections from the endometrium. The maternal and foetal blood vessels are in close proximity with each other, but do not have direct contact. They are separated by spaces filled with blood from the arterioles in the uterus wall.

Maternal and foetal circulations are kept separate because: To prevent damage to the foetus blood vessels caused by higher blood pressure of maternal circulation To prevent agglutination of foetus blood as mother and foetus may be of different ABO blood groups.

The placenta performs the following functions: passes from the mother to foetus by diffusion through the blood: nutrients such as glucose and amino acids, oxygen, antibodies,

passes from the foetus to mother by diffusion through the blood: Metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide,

prevents the passage of drugs, pathogens and chemicals from maternal blood to foetal blood, produces progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterine lining. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin HCG, which prevents the break down of the corpus luteum until four months. The umbilical cord linking the foetus to the placenta contains two important vessels from the foetus the umbilical artery (there are two of them) and the umbilical vein. Development of the Foetus and Birth

A few weeks before birth, the foetus rotates such that it is head downwards in the uterus. When it is time for labour, the hormone oxytocin is released, causing powerful rhythmic contractions in the uterus. The amniotic sac bursts to release the amniotic fluid before the baby is pushed out through the cervix and vagina. Effect of maternal behavior on foetal development. Alcohol is able to cross the placenta easily. It excessive drinking it can cause :

a. Poor muscle tone b. Reduced growth c. Being hyperactive and poor concentration d. Mental retardation e. Small head and brain Effect of cigarette smoking Cigarette smoke contain carbon monoxide, tar and nicotine. Heavy smoking reduces the average birth weight by 6-10%. Nicotine has the ability to cause vasoconstriction in the umbilical cord reducing blood flow to the fetus. It also results in a smaller placenta. Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin to form caboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces oxygen carraige to both the mother and the feotus. The feotus develops smaller, deform or retarded. Illegal drugs Of the illegal drugs, heroin and cocaine are of most concern. Cocaine or crack (pure cocaine) has the ability to to make the baby addicted and will usually have to undergo withdrawal symptoms after birth. Permanent brain damage of the foetus may occur resulting in mental retardation and premature birth. Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects involving the urinary tract and, possibly, other birth defects (9, 10). Cocaine may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke, which can result in irreversible brain damage and sometimes death.

Cocaine use during pregnancy can cause placental problems, including placental abruption. In this condition, the placenta pulls away from the wall of the uterus before labor begins. This can lead to heavy bleeding that can be life threatening for both mother and baby. The baby may be deprived of oxygen and adequate blood flow when an abruption occurs. Heroin abuse can cause serious complications during pregnancy, including miscarriage and premature delivery. Children born to addicted mothers are at greater risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), as well. These risks include poor fetal growth, premature rupture of the membranes (the bag of waters that holds the fetus breaks too soon), premature birth and stillbirth (death within 4 months). Most babies of heroin users show withdrawal symptoms during the 3 days after birth, including fever, sneezing, trembling, irritability, diarrhea, vomiting, continual crying and seizures. 14.4 Family Planning

You should be able to: discuss the advantages and disadvantages of birth control methods. Contraception is the prevention of conception, that is, the fusion of the sperm and the egg. There are 4 main groups: Natural contraceptive methods rely on the womans knowledge of her fertile period. The barrier method prevents the sperm from reaching the egg, and can be either physical or chemical. Hormonal methods work by consuming pills containing the hormones progesterone and/or oestrogen to prevent ovulation. Surgical methods are permanent sterilisation techniques. Key Concepts Sexual reproduction enables rapid colonisation of an area, but lacks the variation produced by asexual reproduction. Gametes (the sperm and egg cells) are produced by meiosis. The menstrual cycle in women is under the control of hormones, including oestrogen and progesterone.

Around day 14, ovulation occurs. The uterine lining remains thick for the rest of the cycle to prepare for implantation, and will be shed if fertilisation does not occur. Semen is deposited at the vagina, and swim up through the cervix and the uterus to reach the fallopian tube, where fertilisation takes place. Key Concepts The zygote develops into an embryo, then a foetus after eight weeks. After implantation, the amnion and placenta develop from embryonic cells. The amnion protects the developing embryo from shock and allows it to move freely. The placenta allows the efficient exchange of substances between the mother and foetus, without foetal blood coming into contact with the maternal circulation. Contraceptive methods generally fall into four main groups: natural, mechanical, chemical and surgical methods. Natural avoid intercourse during fertile period Barrier physical or chemical barriers to prevent sperm from meeting egg Hormonal use of hormones to prevent ovulation Surgical permanent sterilisation methods