The foundations of chemistry

Matter in our surroundings

Chemistry is the science that investigates and explains the structure and properties of matter. Matter includes all kinds of stuff that is all around usliving and non livingthat can be seen: such as plants, materials that make up human body, the metal and plastic of a telephone, the paper and ink of a book, the glass and liquid of a soda, soil and rock, etc., as well as things that cannot be seen: such as air and bacteria etc. A more formal definition of matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Mass is the measure of the amount of matter that an object contains. On Earth, mass is usually equated with weight. Various forms of energy such as heat, light, and electricity are not considered to be matter. The structure of matter refers to its composition what matt er is made ofas well as how matte r i s organiz ed. A property is a dist i ngui s hi ng charact eri s ti c of a s ubst ance t hat is used i n i ts i denti fi cat ion and des cri pt ion. The properties of matter describe the characteristics and behavior of matter, including the changes that matter undergoes. You can determine some properties of a particular chunk of matter just by examining or manipulating it. What color it is? Is it a solid, liquid, or gas? Does it dissolve in water? Does something happen when you mix it with another kind of matter? You determine all of these properties by examining and manipulating a chunk of stuff. Although you can find out a lot about a piece of material just by looking at it and doing simple tests, you cant tell what something is made of only by looking at it, no matter whether it is a spoonful of sugar or a rock picked up by a robot on the surface of Mars. Measurements usually are made or chemical changes observed, because most matter does not reveal its composition so easily.

The Macroscopic and Microscopic View of Matter

Observations of the composition and behavior of matter are based on a macroscopic view. Matter t hat is large enough to be s een is cal led macros cop ic, so all your observations in chemistry, and everywhere else, start from this perspective. The macroscopic world is the one you touch, feel, smell, taste, and see. The properties of iron are seen from a macroscopic perspective. But if you want to describe and understand the

structure of iron, you must use a different perspectiveone that allows you to see what cant be seen. The appearance and properties of a piece of matter are the result of its structure. Although you may get hints of the actual structure from a macroscopic view, you must go to a submicroscopic perspective to understand how the hidden structure of matter influences its behavior. The submicro scop ic vi ew gi ves you a gli mpse i nt o t he worl d of at oms. It is a world so small that you cannot see it even with the most powerful microscope, hence the term submicroscopic. Experimental evidence shows that matter is made up of particles. These particles of matter, known as atoms, are very small. Compared with the macroscopic world, the atoms are extremely small, beyond our imagination, by a billion times. In the study of chemistry, we use both macroscopic and submicroscopic perspectives. Particles of matter have space between them. Part i cles of mat te r are cont i nuous l y movi ng, t hat is t he y poss es s what we call ki neti c energy. Particles of matter have forces acting between them. This force keeps the particles together. The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another. Electrostatic forces among the particles, called inter-particle forces or, more commonly intermolecular forces, combine with the particles kinetic energy to create the properties of each phase as well as phase changes, the changes from one phase to another. Two types of electrostatic forces are at work: Intra-molecular forces (bonding forces) exist within each molecule and influence the chemical properties of the substance. Intermolecular forces (nonbonding forces) exist between the molecules and influence the physical properties of the substance. W he t he r a s ubs tance is a gas , l i qui d, or s oli d de pends on t he i nt erpl ay of t he pot e nti al e nergy of t he i nt ermol e cular att ract ions , whi ch t ends to draw t he mol ecul es t oget her, and t he ki net i c e nergy of t he mol ecules whi ch t ends to di s pers e t hem. Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the particles chemical bonds that make up the matter. Different chemical substances have different amounts of chemical potential energy because they are made up of different particles and have different positions relative to one another. Potential energy depends not only on position but also on composition. Composition affects potential energy because it determines which type of particles end up next to each other. The average kinetic energy, which is related to the particles average speed, is proportional to the absolute temperature. As the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy

increases as well, so the faster moving particles can overcome attractions more easily; conversely lower temperatures allow the forces to draw the slower moving particles together. The ice cubes you take out of a freezer soon become a puddle of liquid water. Then more slowly, it evaporates to become water vapor in the air. Water is unique. It is the only unique substance whose three phases solid, liquid, and gasare familiar from everyday experience. Each of the elements and most compounds can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas. A change of a substance from one state to another is called a change of state or phase change or phase transition. A physical state is one type of phase, any physically distinct, homogeneous part of a system. The water in a glass constitutes a single phase. Add some ice and you have two phases; or if there are bubbles in the ice, you have three. Liquids and solids are called condensed phases (or condensed states) because their particles are extremely close together. For example, (1) Salt and water have different compositions, so it isnt surprising that they have different properties. Salt is made up of the elements sodium and chlorine, while water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. You couldnt wash your hair with salt, just as you wouldnt sprinkle water on your popcorn. Sucrose (table sugar) and aspirin are both composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, but they have different behaviors and functions. You wouldnt use aspirin to sweeten your cereal or take a spoonful of sugar for a headache. Even though aspirin and sugar contain the same elements, differences in their structures determine their individual behaviors. These differences come about because of differences in the submicroscopic arrangement of their atoms. Aspartame and saccharin are substances with different compositions but similar tastes. Saccharin is made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, and sulfur. Aspartame also contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but it contains no sodium or sulfur. The way in which the components of aspartame and saccharin are organized must be a major factor in causing both of them to have a sweet taste.

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Classifying Matter by Physical State and Chemical Constitution

There are two principal ways of classifying matter: by its physical state as a solid, liquid or gas and by its chemical constitution as an element, compound, or mixture. When you examine an unknown piece of the stuff, you first ask, What is it made of? For example, Sucrose (table sugar) is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. This is a qualitative expression of composition. A qualitat ive ob servat io n i s one t hat can be made wit hout meas ure ment. After a qualitative analysis, the next question you might ask is how much of each of the elements is present. For sucrose, the answer to that question is that 100 g of sucrose contains 42.1 g of carbon, 51.4 g of oxygen, and 6.5 g of hydrogen. This is a quantitative expression of composition. A quant itat ive observat ion i s one t hat us es meas urement .

States of Matter: Identifying Matter by Its Properties

Commonly, a given kind of matter exists in different physical forms under different conditions. Most matter on Earth exists in one of three physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. The kinetic molecular theory of matter helps us interpret the properties of solids, liquids and gases. According to this theory, all matter consists of extremely tiny particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) which are in constant random motion. The difference in various states of matter is due to the difference in the distances between the constituent particles. The mai n i de nti fyi ng charact eri sti c of s ol i ds is t hei r ri gi dit y: they tend to retain their shapes when subjected to outside forces. Li qui ds and gas es , howeve r, are fl ui ds ; t hat is , t hey fl ow eas il y and change t hei r s hape i n re s ponse t o sl i ght outs i de forces . What distinguishes a gas from a liquid is the characteristic of compressibility (and in opposite, expandability). A gas is easily compressible, whereas a liquid is not. In fact, a given quantity of gas can fill a container of almost any size. By contrast, if we try to force more liquid water into a closed glass bottle that was already full of water, it would burst. These two characteristics, rigidity (or fluidity) and compressibility (or expandability), can be used to frame the definitions of the three common states of matter: (1) Solid t he form of matt er charact eriz ed by ri gi dit y; A solid is a rigid macroscopic system with a definite shape and volume. It consists of particle-like atoms connected together by spring-like molecular bonds. The particles in the solid lie next to each other in

a regular three dimensional array with a definite pattern. Each atom vibrates around an equilibrium position, but an atom is not free to move inside the solid. Solids are nearly incompressible, telling us that the atoms in a solid are just about as close together as they can get. Volumes of solids dont vary much with changes in temperature and pressure. In a solid crystal, the atoms are arranged in a periodic array, i.e., the individual particles that make up the solid occupy definite positions in the crystalline structure. The strengths of interactions between the individual particles determine how hard and how strong the crystals are. The elements and many compounds have a crystal structure when in their solid phase. In other solids, such as glass, the atoms are frozen into random positions. These are called amorphous solids. (2) Liquid t he form of matter t hat is a re l ati vel y i ncompres si ble fl ui d; a liquid has a fixed volume, but no fixed shape. A liquid flows and deforms to fit the shape of its container up to the volume of the liquid, because the particles lie together but are jumbled and move randomly (freely) around one another. Liquids are very hard to compress because their molecules are very close together, i.e., they are tightly packed and there is much less empty space. Together, these observations suggest a model in which the molecules of the liquid are loosely held together by weak molecular bonds. The bonds are strong enough that the molecules never get far apart but not strong enough to prevent the molecules from sliding around each other.

Solids and liquids can diffuse into liquids. The gases from the atmosphere diffuse and dissolve in water. These gases, especially oxygen and carbon dioxide, are essential for the survival of aquatic animals and plants. All living creatures need to breathe for survival. The aquatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence of the dissolved oxygen in water. Thus, we may conclude that solids, liquids, and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than t hat of solids. This is due to the fact that in the liquid state, particles move freely and have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the solid state.

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Gas t he form of mat ter t hat is an easil y compres s i bl e fl ui d; a given quantity of gas will fit into a container of almost any shape and size. Gases are much less dense than liquids and solids. Gases are capable of infinite expansion and are compressed easily. They consist primarily of empty space, meaning that the individual particles are quite far apart. Particles in the gas usually have great distances between them, as they move randomly throughout the container. Due to this random movement, the particles hit each other and also the walls of the container. The pressure e xerted by t he gas i s becaus e of t his force e xerted by gas parti cl es pe r unit area on t he wal ls of t he contai ner. However, when we start putting pressure and compress a gas enclosed in a cylinder, the particles come closer and it may result in the change of state. Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.

State Variables
The parameters used to characterize or describe a macroscopic system are known as state variables because, taken all together, they describe the state of the macroscopic system. They are: volume, pressure, mass, mass density, moles, number density, temperature and thermal energy. A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if its state variables are constant and not changing. As an example, a gas is in thermal equilibrium if it has bee n left undisturbed long enough for pressure, volume and temperature to reach steady value.

Phase Changes
In everyday language, the three phases of water are called ice, water, and steam. That is the term water implies liquid phase. Scientifically these solid, liquid, and gas phases of the compound called water. To be clear, the term water in the scientific sense means a collection of H 2O molecules and the terms liquid or liquid water denotes the liquid phase. Changes in the state are examples of physical change because there is no change in the identity of the substance. Ice can melt back to liquid water, and steam will condense on a cool surface to liquid water. But the basic composition of water has not changed. For example water, as outlined above, exists as ice (solid water) at 00C, as liquid water at 250C., and as steam (gaseous water) at 1000C. A physical change caused by temperature change (heating) can

generally be reversed by the opposite temperature change (cooling), and vice versa. This is not generally true for a chemical change. Thus t he t hree forms of matt e rs oli d, li qui d, gas compri s e t he common states of matter. Solid carbon dioxide (CO 2) is stored under high pressure. It gets converted directly to gaseous state on decreasing the pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming into liquid state. This property, together with the fact that this change occurs at -780C, makes solid carbon dioxide useful for keeping materials very cold. Because solid CO2 cools other objects and does not leave a liquid residue, it is called dry ice. Liquid carbon dioxide is obtained by putting carbon dioxide gas under pressure; it can exist only at pressures greater than 5 atm. When liquid carbon dioxide evaporates (changes to vapor), it absorbs large quantities of heat, cooling as low as -570C. Because of this property it is used as refrigerant. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder used in homes for cooking or the oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders is compressed gas. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as fuel in vehicles. Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily. Thus it can be stated that pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance, whether it will be solid, liquid or gas. But t he physi cal s tate of a s ubst ance us uall y means its s tate at room t emperat ure. For instance, at room temperature the physical state of water is liquid, salt is solid, and oxygen is gas, etc. Experimentally it is observed that particles of matter intermix on their own with each other. They do so by getting into the spaces between the particles. This i nt ermi xi ng of part i cl es of t wo di ffere nt t ypes of matt er on t hei r own is cal le d diffus ion. It is also observed that on heating, diffusion becomes faster. You can readily smell alcohol, gasoline, and mothballs when open containers of these substances are present in a room because the se liquid and solid substances have changed to gas and the molecules are present in the air. Similarly, we come to know the smell of a perfume sprayed in a room or the smell of food being cooked in a kitchen even from a far away distance. This is due to the particles of the aroma of perfume or food mixing with the particles of air spread from the room/kitchen, a phenomenon of diffusion, and reaching us even farther away. Compared with the rate of diffusion of solids and liquids, gases show the property of

diffusing very fast into other gases due to high speed of particles and large space between them. The term vapor i s oft en us e d t o re fer t o t he gaseous s tate of any ki nd of mat ter t hat normal l y e xi sts as a li qui d or a s oli d. Some s ubst ances are des cri bed as volat ile, whi ch me ans t hat t he y change to gaseous st at e easi l y at room tempe rat ure. Alcohol and gasoline are more volatile than water. The substance naphthalene, used as mothballs, is an example of a solid substance that is volatile. On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with greater speed. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. The particles leave their fixed positions and start moving more freely. A stage is reached when the solid melts and is converted to a liquid. The t e mperat ure at whi ch a soli d me lts to become a l i qui d at t he at mos pheri c press ure is cal led i ts melt ing po int. At the melting point the solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium. The melting point is the temperature of the solid when its crystal lattice begins to disintegrate. The melt i ng poi nt of a soli d is an i ndi cati on of t he s t rengt h of t he force of att ract ion bet ween i ts parti cl es . If more heat is applied after the solid has reached its melting point, the additional energy is used to overcome the inter-particle forces until the crystal lattice collapses and becomes a liquid. During the process of melting for ice, the temperature of the system (i.e., remaining ice to be melted + the water formed from the melting so far) does not change after melting point is reached, till all the ice melts. This happens if heat energy is supplied continuously to the system. This energy gets used up in changing the state (solid water, i.e., ice) by overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles. That is, in going from solid to liquid (melting), the particles become arranged in a less ordered state. To create the relative disorder from the solid crystal to liquid, slightly more heat is added at the point of de-crystallization. That energy from heat is utilized to break the solid lattice. This heat does not result in a temperature change. As this heat energy is absorbed by ice without showing any rise in temperature, it is considered that it gets hidden into the contents of the system and is known as latent (or hidden) heat. So, particles in water at 00C (273K), the melting point of ice, have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same temperature. The process of mel ti ng t hat is change of soli d st at e i nt o li qui d is known as fus ion.

The temperature inside the freezer compartment of a refrigerator is typically about -200C. Suppose you were to remove a few ice cubes from the freezer, place them in a sealed container with a thermometer, and then heat them. We will assume that the heating is done so slowly that the inside of the container always has a single, well defined temperature. After steadily rising from the initial -200C, the temperature remains fixed at 00C for an extended period of time. This is the interval of time during which ice melts. As its melting, the ice temperature is 0 0C and the liquid water temperature is 00C. Even though the system is being heated, the liquid water temperature does not begin to rise until all the ice has melted. If you were to turn off the flame at any point, the system would remain a mixture of ice and liquid water at 00C If a liquid substance is cooled, the temperature falls and the liquid becomes a solid. The t e mpe rat ure of a li qui d when i t begi ns to form a crys t al l at ti ce and be comes a s ol i d i s called i ts freezing po in t or cry sta lliz at ion po int. In going from liquid to solid (freezing), the particles become arranged in a more ordered state. For them to attain the order of a solid, slightly less heat is withdrawn at the point of crystallization. That not withdrawn heat is stored in the form of primarily potential energy to build the solid lattice. When thermal energy is withdrawn from a liquid or solid, the temperature falls. When thermal energy is added to a liquid or solid, the temperat ure rises. However, at the transition point between solid and liquid (the melting point) extra energy is required (the heat of fusion). Because of the ability of some substances to super cool, the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. The melting point and the freezing point of a substance are the same temperature, provided the pressure is the same. Whether we use the word freeze or melt depends on how we usually encounter a substance. Water, for example, freezes (and melts) at 00C. Salt (NaCl) melts (and freezes) at much higher temperature, 804 0C, and oxygen (O2) freezes (and melts) at a much higher temperature, -2180C. But there are some solids that directly change into gases, and vice versa, with no intervening liquid phase. This transformation of a solid directly to vapor is called sublimation. The reverse processin which a gas being transformed directly into a solid without ever being a liquid, is called a deposition. When dew forms, water vapor in the air condenses into its liquid state. Condensation is the reverse of evaporation. In condensation, gaseous particles come closer togetherthat is, they condenseand form a

liquid or sometimes a solid. Dew is liquid water formed by condensation of water vapor from the atmosphere. Frost is solid water formed by direct condensation of water vapor from the atmosphere without first forming liquid water. Snow is formed by a similar process in the upper atmosphere. It is also possible to have change of state without the need to heat or change the pressure. A change of state from liquid to vapor takes place without the liquid reaching the boiling point. You know that cans of turpentine must be kept tightly closed to prevent the liquid from evaporating. Water, when left uncovered, slowly changes into vapor. A familiar example is the drying up of wet clothes when hung open outside. We know that particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles with different amounts of kinetic energy. In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface have higher kinetic energy than the potential energy of the intermolecular attractive forces holding the liquid molecules to one another. If these high energy molecules at the surface move in the right direction, they can break free (of their neighbors) from the forces of attraction of other particles and enter the gas phase by getting converted into vapor. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapors is called vaporization or evaporation. Evaporatio n i s t he proces s by whi ch part i cl es of a li qui d form a gas by es capi ng from t he s urface. The rate of evaporation increases with: an increase of surface area: because evaporation is a surface phenomenon, the rate of evaporation increases with increase in surface area. For example, while putting clothes for drying up we spread them out. an increase of temperature: with the increase in temperature, more number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapor state. a decrease of humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air. The air around us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water vapor at a given temperature. If the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation decreases. A best example is the poor drying up of wet clothes hung open outside on a rainy day.

an increase in wind speed: it is a common observation that clothes dry faster on a windy day. With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapor move away with the wind, decreasing the amount of water vapor in the surroundings. Also evaporation causes cooling. In an open vessel, the liquid keeps on evaporating. The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to regain the energy lost during evaporation. This absorption of energy from the surroundings makes the surroundings cold. This is the reason for people wearing cotton clothes in summer. During summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the surroundings or body surface and change into vapor. The heat energy equal to the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the body leaving the body cool. Cotton, being a good absorber of water vapor helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation. For the same reason of evaporation, we see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water. The water vapor present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets. If you put some water in an open beaker, it will eventually evaporate completely. Air movement and gas diffusion remove the water vapor from the vicinity of the liquid surface; so many molecules are not able to return to the liquid. However, during evaporation of a liquid in a closed container, as molecules at the surface gain sufficient kinetic energy, they escape the liquid and go into the space at the top of the container. More and more molecules begin to fill this space. As the number of molecules in the vapor state increases, more and more gaseous molecules collide with the liquid water surface, exerting pressure on it. Some of the molecules in the vapor collide with the liquid surface and stick; that is, the vapor condenses to liquid. The rate of condensation steadily increases as the number of molecules in the volume of vapor increases, until the rate at which molecules are condensing on the liquid equals the rate at which molecules are vaporizing. The vapor formed exerts pressure as the vapor molecules collide with the walls of the container and gradually both the amount of vapor and the pressure it exerts increase. This process continues until the air inside the container reaches vapor-liquid equilibrium. In other words, once the air in the container has reached saturation or 100% humidity, then the rates of evaporation and

condensation are equal. This is an example of the case of dynamic equilibrium because molecules still move continuously from the liquid phase to the vapor phase and from the vapor phase back to the liquid phase but there is no net change in the masses of the two phases. Now the partial pressure exerted by the vapor reaches its final, maximum value, and the volume of the liquid does not change. When the pressure has reached this value, particles are evaporating and condensing at equal rates. The parti al pres s ure of t he vapor ove r t he li qui d, meas ured at equil i bri um at a gi ven t emperat ure i s called i ts vapor pressure. Temperature and vapor pressure are related. The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature. As described previously, the distribution of molecular energies in the liquid phase is a function of temperature. At a higher temperature, more molecules have sufficient energy to escape the surface of the liquid. The equilibrium vapor pressure must, therefore, increase with temperature. To represent vapor pressure as a function of temperature, we use vapor pressure curves. All points along the vapor pressure vs. temperature curves represent conditions of pressure and temperature at which liquid and vapor are in equilibrium. Conceptually, the vapor pressure of a liquid is a measure of the tendency of its molecules to escape from the liquid phase and enter the vapor phase at a given temperature. This tendency is referred to as the volatility of the compound. The value of the vapor pressure of a substance indicates how easily the substance evaporates. For example, a volatile liquid such as ethanol has a high vapor pressure than water. This implies that the inter-particle forces holding the ethanol molecules together as a liquid are weaker than those i n water, because ethanol molecules are less polar than water molecules. Therefore, it evaporates easily, and its vapor exerts more pressure in a closed cylinder. At the same temperature, a less volatile liquid such as water has a low vapor pressure. Because the water molecule is polar, inter-particle forces among water molecules are strong, and they tend to remain in the liquid state. A liquid in an open container can never reach equilibrium with its vapor because the vapor is constantly escaping. But, exposed to the atmosphere, liquids having high vapor pressures will evaporate more quickly than those with low vapor pressures. If you have a beaker of water open to the atmosphere, the atmosphere presses down on the surface. When heat energy is added to a liquid, it

increases the kinetic energy of the molecules, and the temperature of the liquid increases. Heating a liquid always increases its vapor pressure. When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature under a given applied pressure (usually atmospheric), bubbles of vapor begin to form below the surface. If the vapor inside the bubbles is less than the applied pressure on the surface of the liquid, the bubbles collapse as soon as they form. If the temperature is raised sufficiently, the vapor pressure is high enough that the bubbles can persist, rise to the surface, and burst, releasing the vapor into the air. Thi s process i s call e d boiling and i s di ffere nt from evaporati on. When a liquid boils, we see bubbles, the reason being when the liquid boils not just the surface molecules escape like in evaporation, but there are actually bubbles forming within the liquid itself. Normally atmospheric pressure would prevent those bubbles from forming. But when a liquids vapor pressure is high enough, at least as high as the outside atmospheric pressure, then those bubbles can form, survive, and float to the surface, burst and then release their entire vapor. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of the liquid gain enough energy to change into the vapor state. The boiling po in t of a li qui d is t he tempe rat ure at whi ch its vapor pres s ure is equal t o t he ext ernal pres s ure s urroundi ng t he l i qui d. The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form bubbles inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point is, now (as of 1982) defined by IUPAC, the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar. The vapor pressure of water is 760 torr at 1000C, its normal boiling point. A liquid in a vacuum environment has a lower boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid in a high pressure environment has a higher boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point of a liquid varies dependent upon the surrounding environmental pressure (which tends to vary with elevation). Different liquids (at a given pressure) boil at different temperatures. The normal boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to exactly one atmosphere (760 torr). As he at ene rgy i s added t o a pure li qui d at it s boi li ng poi nt , t he t empe rat ure remai ns const ant until

t he phase change i s complet e, because the energy is used to overcome the cohesive forces in the liquid to form vapor. If the applied pressure is lower than 760 torr, say on a mountain, water boils below 100 0C. For water, the boiling point temperature is 100 0C (373K). The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of liquid at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point is known as the latent heat of vaporization. The heat of vaporization of water is 2.26 X 106 joules per kilogram, which is about 500 times higher than the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by Celsius degree, 4180 J. Because energy is conserved, energy is released when vapor changes to a liquid. As the vapor condenses, the particles move closer together. Particles in steam, that is, water vapor at 1000 C (373K) have more energy than water at the same temperature. This is because particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of vaporization. For example, when 1 kg of steam condenses at waters normal boiling point, 1000C, it releases as heat the same energy it gained when it vaporized, 2.25 X 106 J. Perhaps you know that burns from steam are usually more severe than burns received from hot water. This occurs because the stream transfers a great deal of heat to the skin when it condenses. Thus the state of matter can be changed into another state by changing the temperature. The rate of evaporation is higher at higher temperature. If the temperature of a liquid such as isopropyl alcohol is raised high enough, not only will molecules of alcohol escape from its surface, but also, bubbles of the vapor will form below the surface. The boiling point of a substance is the temperature of the substance when its vapor pressure equals the pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid. For a liquid in an open container, the pressure exerted on its surface is atmospheric pressure. Normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils in an open container at normal atmospheric pressure. The normal boiling point of isopropyl alcohol is 82.30C (355.5 K). The normal boiling point of mercury is 356.8 0C (629.73 K) and that of ammonia is -33.350C (239.80 K). Because mercury has such a low vapor pressure at room temperature, its temperature must be raised to a high level to boil under normal atmospheric pressure. On the other hand, the vapor pressure of ammonia at room temperature is so great that it boils well below room temperature at normal atmospheric pressure.

As with boiling and condensing, the kinetic energies of the particles of a substance do not change during melting or freezing. Water boils at 1000C, but it also condenses from a gas to a liquid at the same temperature. The refore, boil i ng poi nt and condens at ion poi nt are t he s ame t empe rat ure for each s ubst ance. Simply put, water boils at 2120 Fahrenheit. At this point, no matter how long you continue to boil, it always stays the same temperature. As the water evaporates and becomes steam it is also the same temperature, 2120F. The only way to make the steam hotter (and/or to boil the water at a higher temperature) is to put the system under pressure. This is what a pressure cooker does. If we fit an absolutely tight cover to the pan so no steam can escape while we continue to add heat, both the pressure and temperature inside the vessel will rise. The steam and water will both increase in temperature and pressure, and each fluid will be at the same temperature and pressure as the other. Steam has six times the heat potential when it condenses on a cool food product. This increased heat transfer potential is why steam is such an effective cooking medium. If you put water into a pot and cover it with a tightly sealed lid, the steam will remain trapped and pressure will build and that rises the temperature at which the liquid boils. So at 15psi your food is cooking at 2570F instead of just 2120F. When you turn off the heat and begin to drop the pressure you will sometimes hear the food begin to boil inside the closed pot as the pressure drops and the contents come back down to the normal boiling temperature. This is the principle behind the pressure cooker. The chemical reactions involved in cooking food occur more slowly at the lower temperature, so it takes longer to cook food in boiling water at high altitudes than at sea level. Similarly, at pressures lower than normal atmospheric pressure, a liquid boils at a temperature below its normal boiling point. From t hese obse rvat i ons , you can concl ude t hat t he boil i ng poi nt of a l i qui d i ncre ases whe n t he pres s ure on t he li qui d i ncreases and decreas es whe n t he press ure on t he li qui d de cre as es .

Other Forms of Matter

Some other forms of matter cannot readily be described as solid, liquid, or gas. May be they look like solids or gases but sometimes behave

like a liquid. These forms of matter are liquid crystals, amorphous solids, and plasmas.

Liquid Crystals
When a solid melts, its crystals lattices disintegrate and its properties lose their three-dimensional pattern. However, when some materials called liquid crystals melt, they lose their rigid organization in only one or two dimensions. For example, the liquid crystal has rod like molecules. The interparticle forces in a liquid crystal are relatively weak and their arrangement is easily disrupted. When the lattice is broken, the crystal can flow like a liquid. Liquid crystals displays (LCDs) are used in watches, thermometers, calculators, and laptop computers because liquid crystals change with varying electric charge.

Amorphous Materials
Materials like butter and wax have a definite shape and fixed volume, yet they are not classified as solids but rather as amorphous materials. An amorphous material has a haphazard, disjointed, and incomplete crystal lattice. Candles and cotton candy are everyday examples of amorphous materials.

Plasmas
The most common form of matter in the universe but the least common on earth is plasma. The sun and the other stars are composed of plasma. Plasmas can also be found in fluorescent lights. Plasma is an ionized gas. It can conduct electrical current but, like an ordinary conducting wire, it is electrically neutral because it contains equal numbers of free electrons and positive ions. Plasmas form at very high temperatures when matter absorbs energy and breaks apart into positive ions and electrons, or sometimes even into atomic nuclei and free electrons. In stars, the energy that ionizes the gases is produced by nuclear fusion reactions.

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat:

There is a common misunderstanding about heat and temperature. Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold a substance is relative to another substance, i.e., temperature measures the intensity of heat, the hotness or coldness of a body. Heat is a form of energy that always flows

spontaneously (w i t hout any ai d of an e xte rnal agent ) from a hotter body to a colder bodyit never flows in the reverse direction. In other words, heat energy flows between objects that are at different temperatures. Temperature is related to the direction of that energy flow: when two objects at different temperatures touch, energy flows from the one with the higher temperature to the one with the lower temperature until their temperatures are equal. Energy t rans fer t hat takes pl ace s ol el y because of a t emperat ure di ffe rence is cal le d heat flow or heat tran sfer, and e nergy t rans fe rred i n t hi s way is call e d heat. When you hold an ice cube, its cold seems to flow into your hand, actually, heat flows from your hand into the ice. Energy is an extensive property (as is volume), but temperature is an intensive property (as is density): a pot of boiling water has more energy than a cup of boiling water, but the temperatures of the two water samples are the same. To start, we need a means to measure the temperature of a system. This is what a thermometer does. A thermo meter can be any s mall macros copi c s yst em t hat unde rgoes a meas urabl e change as i t e xchanges t hermal energy wi t h it s s urroundi ngs . In the laboratory, t he mos t common means use d for me as uri ng te mperat ure i s t he gl ass -t ube t he rmome t er, a devi ce t hat cont ai ns a fl ui d t hat expands when it i s heat ed. It is placed in contact with a larger system whose temperature it will measure. When the thermometers fluid-filled bulb is immersed in a substance hotter than itself, heat flows from the substance through the glass and into the fluid, which expands and rises in the thermometer tube. If a substance is colder than the thermometer, heat flows outward from the fluid, which contracts and falls within the tube. There are t hree most i mport ant s cal es for meas ure me nt of t emperat ure, t he y are: Cel si us (formerl y cal led ce nti grade), t he Kel vi n (K), and t he Fahre nheit (F). The SI base unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K); note that the Kelvin has no degree sign (o). The Kelvin scale, also known as the absolute scale, is preferred in all scientific work, although the Celsius scale is used frequently. The three scales differ in the size of the unit and/or the temperature of the zero point. The Celsius scale is based on changes in the physical state of water: 00C is set as waters freezing point, and 1000C is set at its boiling point (at normal atmospheric pressure). The Kelvin (absolute) scale design is based on the expansion and contraction of gases. The Kelvin scale uses the same size degree unit as the Celsius scale1/100

of the difference between the freezing and boiling point of waterbut it differs in zero point. The zero point in Kelvin scale, 0K, is called absolute zero and equals -273.150C. In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures have positive values. Water freezes at +273.15 K (0 0C) and boils at +373.15 K (1000C). We can convert between the Celsius and Kelvin scales by remembering the difference in zero point: since 00C = 273.15 K, T (in K) = T (in 0C) + 273.15 T (in 0C) = T (in K) 273.15 The Fahrenheit scale differs from the other scales in its zero point and in the size of its unit. Water freezes at 32 0F and boils at 210F. Therefore, 180 Fahrenheit degrees (2120F 320F) represents the same temperature change as 1000C (or 100K). Because 100 Celsius degrees equal 180 Fahrenheit degrees, 1 Celsius degree = 180/100 Fahrenheit degrees = 9/5 Fahrenheit degrees To convert a temperature in 0C to 0F, first change the degree size and then adjust the zero point. T (in 0F) = 9/5 T (in 0C) + 32 To convert a temperature in 0F to 0C, do the two steps in the opposite order; that is, first adjust the zero point and then change the degree size. T (in 0C) = [T (in 0F) 32] X 5/9. The only temperature with the same numerical value in the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is -400; that is, -400F = -400C. The kinetic energy associated with the random motion of molecules is called thermal energy, and the thermal energy of a given material is proportional to the temperature. As the temperature rises, particles move faster. So, we can say that with increase in temperature the kinetic energy of particles also increases. However thermal energy in a sample also depends on the number of molecules in the sample. The water in a swimming pool and a cup of water taken from the pool has the same temperature, so their molecules have the same average kinetic energy. The water in the pool has much more thermal energy than the water in the cup,

simply because there are a large number of molecules in the pool. A large number of particles at a given temperature have a higher total thermal energy than a small number of particles at the same temperature. Chemi cal reacti ons and physi cal changes occur wi t h eit he r t he s i mult aneous evol uti on of heat (e xot hermi c proces ses ) or t he abs orpt ion of heat (e ndot hermi c proces ses ). When an object is heated or cooled, the quantity of energy transferred depends on three things: the quantity of material, the magnitude of the temperature change and the identity of the material gaining or loosing energy. Heat capac it y (us ual l y denoted by a capi tal C, oft e n wit h s ubs cri pt s ), or therma l capac it y, i s t he meas urable phys i cal quantit y t hat charact e ri ze s t he amount of heat re qui red t o change a s ubst ance's te mperat ure by a gi ven amount . In the International System of Units (SI), heat capacity is expressed in units of joule(s) (J) per Kelvin (K). Derived quantities that specify heat capacity as an intensive property, independent of the size of a sample, are the molar heat capacity, which is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance, and the specific heat capacity, often simply called specific heat, which is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material. The term heat capacity is unfortunate because it gives the erroneous impression that a body contains a certain amount of heat. Remembe r t hat heat is energy i n t rans it t o or from a body, not t he energy res i di ng i n a body. The re is not hi ng li ke a change i n t he amount of heat contai ne d i n a body; t hi s is a meani ngless concept . Heat is al ways ene rgy i n t ransi t as a res ul t of temperat ure diffe rence. The re is no s uch t hi ng as t he amount of heat i n a body. The term specific heat does not use the word heat in the way that we have defined it. Specific heat is an old idea, dating back to the days of the caloric theory when heat was thought to be a substance contained in the object. The term has continued in use even though our understanding of heat has changed. The amount of heat transferred in a process is usually expressed in joules or in calories. The SI unit of energy and work is the Joule (J). The amount of he at requi re d t o rais e t he temperat ure of one gram of l i qui d wat er from 14.50C t o 15.50C, i s 4.184J. One cal ori e is defi ne d as e xact l y 4.184J. The so-called large calorie, used to indicate the energy content of foods, is really one kilocalorie, that is, 1000 calories. The heat capacity of a body is t he amount of heat re qui red t o rais e its te mperat ure 10C. The heat

capacity of a body is its mass in grams times its specific heat. The heat capacity refers to the mass of that particular body, so its units do not include mass. The units are J/0C or J.0C-1. The specif ic heat of a s ubst ance is t he amount of heat requi red t o rais e t he te mpe rat ure of one gram of t he s ubst ance one degre e Cel si us (als o one Kel vi n) wit h no change i n phase. Changes in phase (physical state) absorb or liberate relatively large amounts of energy. Specific heat . = amount of heat in joules (Mass of substance in g) (Temperature change in 0C)

The units of specific heat are J/g. 0C or J.g-10C-1 . The specific heat of each substance, a physical property, is different for the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of the substance. For example, the specific heat of ice is 2.09 J/g. 0C near 00C, for liquid water it is 4.18 J/g. 0C; and for steam it is 2.03 j/g. 0C near 1000C. The specific heat for water is quite high. The specific heat depends only on the material from which an object is made.

Phase Change and Heat of Transformation

Suppose you start with a system in its solid phase and heat it at a steady rate. The solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance have different specific heats. A phase change is characterized by a change in thermal energy without a change in temperature. The amount of heat energy that causes a 1 kg of a substance to undergo a phase change is called the heat of transformation of that substance. For example, laboratory experiments show that 333,000 J of heat are needed to melt 1 kg of ice at 0 0C. The symbol for heat of transformation is L. The heat required for the entire system of mass M to undergo a phase change is, Q = ML. Heat of transformation is a generic term that refers to any phase change. Two specific heats of transformation are the heat of fusion, Lf, the heat of transformation between a solid and a liquid, and the heat of vaporization, Lv the heat of transformation between a liquid and a gas. The heat needed for these phase changes is Q = + MLf melt/freeze and Q = + MLv boil/condense, where the + indicates that heat must be added to the system during melting or boiling but removed from the system during freezing or condensing. You must explicitly include the minus sign when it is needed. The energy released as 1 kg of a substance solidifies at its freezing point is called its heat of fusion. The heat of fusion of water, for example,

is 3.34X105 j/kg. The same energy is absorbed if 1 kg of a substance is heated until it melts. In other words, the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the heat of fusi on or latent he at of fusi on or ent hal py of fus ion or s pe ci fi c mel ti ng heat .

Pure Substance or a Mixture

The various materials we see around us are either substances or mixtures of substances. Most of the matter you encounter every day is a mixture. The most gene ral way to cl as si fy matt er by composit ion i s i n t erms of puri t y. The re are onl y t wo cat egori es he re. A sampl e of matt er is ei t her pure made up of onl y one ki nd of matt eror i t is a mi xt ure of differe nt ki nds of matt er. The behavior of mixtures is based on the composition, structure, and behavior of the pure substances that compose them. Suppose you mix the pure white sand with the pure white sucrose. You may not be able to notice any difference, but if you add this mixture to your cereal or tea, its a different story. The sweet taste of the sugar is still there, but so is the grittiness of the sand. Every particle of this stuff is not the same, so the properties are not the same throughout. Some parts taste sweet, while others are gritty and tasteless. The composition is also not fi xed, but instead depends on how much sand is mixed with the sugar. A mixture retains the properties of its components: Pure sugar is different from a mixture of sugar and sand. Each component of a mixture retains its behavior. Sugar dissolves and sweetens the tea, but sand is insoluble. It settles to the bottom of the cup. A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in which the basic identity of each substance is not changed, i.e. each substance retains its own composition and properties. In the sugar and sand mixture, the sand does not influence the properties of the sugar, and the sugar does not influence the properties of the sand. They are in contact with each other, but they do not interact with each other. Unlike pure substances, mixtures do not have specific compositions. For example, a sand-and-sugar mixture can be any combination of sand and sugar. In any mixture, the composition can be varied and each component of the mixture retains its own properties. An important characteristic of all mixtures is that they can have variable composition. Consequently repeating the same experiment on mixtures from different sources may give different results, whereas the same treatment of a pure sample will always give the

same results. A mixture can be separated by physical means because each component retains its properties.

The Separation of Mixtures into Pure Stuff

One characteristic of a mixture is that it can be separated into its components by physical processes. The word physical means that the process does not change the chemical identity of a substance. How could you separate a sand/sugar mixture into pure sand and pure sucrose? The simplest physical means would be to look at it with a microscope and separate the bits of sugar and sand with tweezers. You are right in thinking that there must be an easier way. Separating mixtures by using physical changes is one easier way. A phys i cal change i s a change i n mat te r t hat doe s not i nvol ve a change i n t he i dent it y of i ndi vi dual s ubs tance s, i .e., a phy s ica l c hange is a change i n t he form of mat ter but not i n it s che mi cal i dent it y. In ot he r words , a phys i cal change occurs wit h no change i n che mi cal composi ti on. Changes of physical state are examples of physical change. The process of dissolving one material in another is an example of a physical change, like sodium chloride (table salt) in water forming a clear liquid like pure water though many of its other characteristics are different from pure water. The water and sodium chloride in this liquid retai n their chemical identities and can be separated by some method that depends on the physical changes. Distillation is one way to separate the sodium chloride and water components from this liquid. Other examples of physical changes include boiling, freezing, melting, evaporating, dissolving, and crystallizing. Physical properties are usually altered significantly as matter undergoes physical changes. Separation of a mixture by physical changes takes advantage of the different physical properties of the mixed substances. Physical properties are characteristics that a sample of matter exhibits without any change in its identity. A phys ica l propert y i s a charact eris ti c t hat can be obs e rve d for a materi al wit hout changi ng its chemi cal i de nt it y. Al l s ubst ances als o exhi bit phys i cal propert ies t hat can be obs erved i n t he absence of any change i n composi ti on. Examples of the physical properties of a chunk of matter include its: Physical state (solid, liquid, gas), color, density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, solubility and electrical and thermal conductivities are physical properties. Some physical properties of a substance depend on the conditions, such as temperature and pressure, under which they are measured. You can separate a mixture of sugar and

sand using differences in the physical properties of the two substances. Water is added and the mixture is stirred. The sugar dissolves in the water, but the sand does not. The mixture is passed through a filter that traps the sand but allows the sugar solution to pass through.

Two Kinds of Mixtures

Mixtures themselves can be categorized as either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Sometimes, when you look at a sample of matter, its easy to tell that sample is a mixture, that is, the most easily recognized type of mixture is one that is not uniform throughout. Such a mixture, in which different portions of the sample have recognizably different properties, is called a heterogeneous mixture. The prefix hetero means different. In a heterogeneous mixture the individual components can be seen as separate (different) substances. The components of the mixture exist as different regions, often called phases. A heterogeneous mix ture i s a mi xt ure t hat contai ns vi si bl y differe nt phas es (part s ), e ach of whi ch has di ffe rent propert ies . In ot her words , a het e rogene ous mi xt ure contai ns a di fferent compos iti on at di ffe rent places . In a heterogeneous mixture the properties in one region are different from those in another region. A non uniform appearance is a characteristic of all heterogeneous mixtures. For example, if we throw some salt into a bucket of sand and stir the contents around for a short while, we will find that some parts of the mixture have more salt than sand, whereas some parts are mostly sand. The mixture is heterogeneous. A mixture of potassium dichromate with iron fillings, a mixture charcoal and salt, a piece of granite, foggy air, orange juice, vegetable soup etc are all examples of heterogeneous mixtures. The separation of sand and sugar took advantage of a difference in the physical properties of the two substances. Sugar dissolves in water but sand does not. When sugar dissolves in water, the two pure substances, sugar and water, combine physically to form a mixture that has a constant composition throughout. This means that no matter where you sample the mixture, you find the same combination of sugar and water. Even with a powerful light microscope, you could not pick out a bit of pure sugar or a drop of pure water. This type of mixture is called a homogeneous mixture. The prefix homo means the same. Homogenous mixtures are the same throughout.

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture that contains only one visibly distinct phase (part), which has uniform properties throughout. A homogeneous mixture consists of two or more substances in the same phase. In a homogeneous mixture the constituents are distributed uniformly and the composition, appearance and properties of the mixture are uniform throughout the given samples. No amount of opti cal magni fi cati on wi ll reveal a homoge ne ous mi xt ure t o have differe nt properti es i n di ffe rent re gi ons. Another name for a homogeneous mixture is solution. Even though solutions may appear to be one pure substance, their compositions can vary. For example, you could make your tea very sweet by dissolving a lot of sugar in it or less sweet by dissolving only a little bit of sugar. Illustration of Making Tea: First, water is taken as a solvent in a saucer pan. This water (solvent) is allowed to boil. During heating, milk and tea leaves are added to the solvent as solutes. They form a solution. Then, the solution is poured through a strainer. The insoluble part of the solution remains on the strainer as residue. Sugar is added to the filtrate, which dissolves in the filtrate. The resulting solution is the required tea.

Alloys
When you hear the word solution, something dissolved in water probably comes to mind. But we can also have solid solutions (alloys) and gaseous solutions (air). Liquid solutions do not have to contain water. Gasoline is a liquid solution of several substances. Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be separated into their components by physical methods, i.e., alloys are solid solutions that contain different metals and sometimes nonmetallic substances. Brass is a mixture of approximately 30% zinc and 70% copper. Steel, for example, is a generic term for a range of homogeneous mixtures of iron and substances such as carbon, chromium, manganese, nickel, and molybdenum. Because pure gold is soft and bends easily, most gold jewelry is not made from pure gold, but rather from an alloy of gold with silver and copper. A solution has a solvent and a solute as its components. The component of t he s ol uti on t hat diss ol ve s t he ot her component i n i t i s cal led t he solvent (us ual l y t he component pres ent i n l arger amount ). The component of t he s ol uti on t hat is di ss ol ve d i n t he s ol vent i s cal led t he solute (us uall y pre se nt i n le ss e r amount ). When you dissolve sugar in water, sugar is the solutethe substance being dissolved. The substance that dissolves the solute, in this case water is the solvent.

Examples: 1. A solution of iodine in alcohol known as tincture iodine has iodine (solid) as the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent. 2. Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid solutions. These contain carbon dioxide (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as solvent. 3. Air is a homogeneous mixture of several gases (mainly nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and very small quantities of argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor). Binary solutions are those consisting of two components. Here each component may be solid, liquid or in gaseous state as show in the table given below. Type of Solution Gaseous Solutions Liquid Solutions Solute Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid Solvent Common Examples Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gas Gas Gas Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid Solid Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas Camphor in nitrogen gas Oxygen dissolved in water Ethanol dissolved in water Glucose dissolved in water Solution of hydrogen in palladium Amalgam of mercury with sodium Copper dissolved in gold

Solid Solutions

When the solvent is water, the solution is called an aqueous solution. Many of the solutions you encounter are aqueous solutions, for example, soda, tea, contact-lens cleaner, and other clear cleaning liquids. In addition, most of the processes of life occur in aqueous solutions.

Properties of a solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture. The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm in diameter. So, they cannot be seen by naked eyes. Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the solution. So, the path of light is not visible in a solution.

The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. The solute particles do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a solution is stable.

Concentration of a solution
In a solution the relative proportion of the solute and solvent can be varied. Depending upon the amount of solute present in a solution, it can be called a dilute (i.e., relatively very small quantity of solute), concentrated (i.e., relatively very large quantity of solute) or a saturated solution. Dilute and concentrated are comparative terms. For example, the amount of salt, sugar or barium chloride that can be dissolved in water at a given temperature is not the same. At any particular temperature, a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of dissolving is said to be a saturated solution. In other words, when no more solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is called a saturated solution. The amount of solute present in the saturated solution at this temperature is called its solubility. Solub il it y of a s ubstance is it s maxi mum amount t hat can be di ss ol ved i n a s pe ci fi ed amount of s ol ve nt. It depends upon the nature of the solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure. If the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution. Different substances in a given solvent have different solubility at the same temperature. Concentration is a measure of the number of the number of particles of a substance, or the mass of those particles, that are contained in a specified volume. The concen trat ion of a s ol uti on i s t he amount of s ol ute pre s ent i n a gi ven amount (mas s or vol ume) of s ol uti on, or t he amount of s ol ute dis sol ve d i n a gi ve n mass or vol ume of sol ve nt . Concentration of solution = Amount of solute / Amount of solution Or Amount of solute / Amount of solvent There are various ways of expressing the concentration of a solution, like (i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution (w/w) = Mass of the component in the solution (solute) X (100) Total mass of the solution

For example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by mass, it means that 10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water resulting in a 100 g solution. In industrial applications, commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass percentage of sodium hypochlorite in water. (ii) Volume percentage (v/v) = Volume of the component X (100) Total volume of solution For example, 10-% ethanol solution in water means that 10 ml of ethanol is dissolved in water such that the total volume of the solution is 100 ml. solutions containing liquids are commonly expressed in this unit. Another example, a 35% (v/v) solution of ethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the engine. At this concentration the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of water to 255.4K (-17.6 0C.). (iii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution (m/v) = Mass of solute X 100 Volume of solution

This unit is commonly used in medicine and pharmacy. It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 ml of the solution. (iv) Parts per million (ppm): When a solute is present in trace quantities, it is convenient to express concentration in parts per million (ppm) and is defined as; Parts per million = Number of parts of the component X 106

Total number of parts of all components of the solution As in the case of percentage, concentration in parts per million can be expressed as mass to mass, volume to volume and mass to volume. A liter of sea water (which weighs 1030 g) contains about 8 X 10-3 g of dissolved oxygen (O2). Such a small concentration is also expressed as 5.8 g per 10 6 g (5.8 ppm) of sea water. The concentration of pollutant in water or atmosphere is often expressed in terms of ug ml-1 or ppm. (v) Mole fraction: commonly used symbols for mole fraction is x and subscript used on the right hand side of x denotes the component. It defined as:

Mole fraction of a component = Number of moles of the component Total number of moles of all the components Mole fraction is useful in relating some physical properties of solutions, say vapor pressure with the concentration of the solution and quite useful in describing the calculations involving gas mixtures. (vi) Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter (or one cubic decimeter) of solution Molarity = Moles of the solute Volume of solution in liter For example, 0.25 M (ml L-1) solution of NaOH means that 0.25 mol of NaOH has been dissolved in one liter. Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute per kilogram (kg) of the solvent and is expressed as: Molality (m) = Moles of the solute Mass of solvent in kg For example, 1.00 mol kg-1 (or 1.00m) solution of KCl means that 1 mol (74.5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water. Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its own merits and demerits. Mass %, ppm, mole fraction and molality are independent of temperature, where as molarity is a function of temperature. This is because volume depends on temperature and the mass does not. Concentration is a widely used way of representing mixtures of different substances. Examples include: The concentration of oxygen in air Pollen counts, given during hay fever seasons, which are simply the number of grains of pollen contained in a measured volume of air The amount of illegal drug in a certain volume of blood, indicating the extent of drug abuse The proper dose of an antibiotic, based on a patients weight. Every solid does not dissolve in a given liquid. In general, a solute dissolves in a solvent if the intermolecular interactions are similar in the two

(vii)

or we may say like dissolves like. W hen a soli d s ol ute is added t o t he l i qui d s ol vent , s ome s ol ut e di ss ol ves and i ts concent rati on i ncreas es i n sol ut ion. Thi s proces s is known as dis sol ut ion. Some s ol ute parti cl es i n s ol ut ion coll i de wi t h t he s ol i d s ol ute parti cl es and get se parated out of s ol ut i on. This proce ss i s known as crys t all iz ati on. A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the same rate. Under such conditions, number of solute particles going into solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached. At this stage the concentration of solute in solution will remain constant under the given conditions, i.e., temperature and pressure. Similar process is followed when gases are dissolved in liquid solvents. A phase is one of several different homogeneous materials present in the portion of matter under study. A heterogeneous mixture of sugar and salt is said to be composed of two different phases: one of the phases is salt; the other is sugar. Similarly, ice cubes in water are said to be composed of two phases: one phase is ice; the other is liquid water. Ice floating in a solution of sodium chloride in water also consists of two phases, ice and the liquid solution. Note that a phase may be either a pure substance in a particular state or a solution in a particular state (solid, liquid, or gaseous). Also the portion of matter under consideration may consist of several phases of the same substance or several phases of different substances.

Suspension
Non homogeneous systems in which solids are dispersed in liquids are called suspensions. A suspens io n i s a het e rogeneous mi xt ure i n whi ch t he s ol ute parti cl es do not dis sol ve but re mai n s us pended t hroughout t he bul k of t he me di um. Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye. The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible. The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable. They can be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.

Colloidal Solution
A colloid is a substance made of particles whose size is intermediate between those in solutions and suspensions. The particles in a colloid are approximately 500 nm or less in diameter and do not settle on standing. The

particles of a colloid are uniformly spread throughout the solution. However, due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a suspension, the mixture appears to be homogeneous. But actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for example milk. Milk appears smooth in texture to the naked eye, but magnification would reveal fat and protein globules within the liquid. Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we cannot see them with naked eye. But, these particles can easily scatter a beam of visible light passed through them. This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect after the name of the scientist who discovered this effect. Tyndall effect can also be observed when a fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole. This happens due to the scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air. Also Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which acts as particles of colloid dispersed in air. The particles in a colloid cannot be separated from the dispersion medium (solvent) by ordinary techniques like filtration. But a special technique of separation known as centrifugation can be used to separate the colloidal particles. The components of a colloidal solution are the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the dispersed phase, and the component in which the dispersed phase is suspended in known as the dispersing medium. Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid, or gas) of the dispersing medium and the dispersed phase. The main types are: aerosols, foams, emulsions, sols, and gels. Aerosols are extremely small solid or liquid particles suspended in air or another gas. Foams form when a gas is suspended in a liquid or a solid. Emulsions form when small particles of a liquid are suspended in another liquid. Sols form when solid particles are suspended in a liquid. Gels are solid particles arranged as a fine network in a liquid to form a jelly.

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Colloid type Aerosol Aerosol Foam Emulsion Sols Solid foam Gels Solid sols

Phase of dispersing medium Gas Gas Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid Solid

Phase of dispersed Examples substance Liquid clouds, fog, mist, insecticide spray Solid dust, smoke, automobile exhaust Gas froth, whipped cream, shaving cream Liquid milk, salad dressing, face cream Solid milk of magnesia, paint, mud Gas cork, polyurethane, foam, rubber, sponge, pumice Liquid agar, gelatin, jelly, cheese, butter Solid alloys, colored gemstone, milky glass

Separating the Components of a Mixture

Most of the natural substances are not chemically pure. Different methods of separation are used to get individual components from a mixture. Separation makes it possible to study and use the individual components of a mixture. Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical methods like handpicking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life. Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a mixture. The following is a list of typical cases of separation of components of a mixture. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. To To To To To To To To obtain colored component (dye) from blue/black ink. separate cream from milk separate a mixture of two miscible liquids. separate a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride/ find whether the dye in black ink a single color or not. separate a mixture of two miscible liquids obtain different gases from air obtain pure copper sulfate from an impure sample.

Substances: Pure Matter

The word pure is often used to describe common things. In chemistry, pure means that every bit of the matter being examined is the same substance. A pure substance is matter with the same fixed composition and

properties. A pure substance i s a form of matte r t hat has t he same phys i cal and chemi cal prope rti es , no mat te r what i ts source. A pure substance is a kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process. It can be separated into simpler substances only by chemical reactions (if at all). For example; if the sugar in a bag from the supermarket is a substance, then it is pure sucrose. Every bit of matter in the bag must have the same properties and the same fixed composition as every other bit. Now, consider a bag of high quality, dry, white sand. White sand is the common name for substance called silicon dioxide. It is white and crystalline like sugar, and when the sand is examined, every particle has the same fixed composition (53.2% oxygen, 46.8% silicon). Both sand and sucrose are substances, but they have different properties and composition.

Units of Measurement
Making observations is fundamental to science. A quantitative observation, or measurement, always consists of two parts: a number and a scale (called a unit). Both parts must be present for the measurement to be meaningful. Scientists recognized long ago that standard systems of had to be adopted if measurements were to be useful. The two major systems are the English system used in U.S and the metric system used by most of the rest of the industrialized world. This duality causes a good deal of trouble; for example, parts as small as bolts are not interchangeable between machines built using the two systems. As a result, the U.S has begun to adopt the metric system. Most scientists in all countries have for many years used the metric system. In 1960, an international agreement set up a system of units called the International System, or the SI system. This system is based on the metric system and units derived from the metric system. The fundamental SI units are listed below: Physical quantity Mass Length Time Temperature Electric current Amount of substance Luminous intensity Name of unit Abbreviation Kilogram Meter Second Kelvin Ampere Mole Candela kg m s K A mol cd

Because the fundamental units are not always convenient (expressing the mass of a pin in kilograms is awkward), prefixes are used to change the size of the unit. One physical quantity that is very important in chemistry is volume, which is not a fundamental SI unit but is derived from length. A cube that measures 1 meter (m) on each edge has a volume of (1 m)3 = 1 m3. Recognizing that there are 10 decimeters (dm) in a meter, the volume of this cube is (1 m)3 = (10 dm)3 = 1000 dm3. A cubic decimeter, that is (1 dm)3 , is commonly called a liter (L), which is a unit of volume slightly larger than a quart. 1000 liters are contained in a cube with a volume of one cubic meter. Similarly, since 1 decimeter equals 10 centimeters (cm), the liter can be divided into 1000 cubes each with a volume of one cubic centimeter: 1 liter = (1 dm)3 = (10 cm)3 = 1000 cm3 Also since, 1 cm3 = 1 milliliter (ml) 1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 1000 ml Thus 1 liter contains 1000 cubic centimeters or 1000 milliliters. Chemical laboratory work frequently requires measurement of volumes of liquids. An important point concerning measurements is the relationship between mass and weight. Although these terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they are not the same. Mass is a measure of the resistance (inertia) of an object to a change in its state of motion. Mass is measured by the force necessary to give an object a certain acceleration. On Earth we use the force that gravity exerts on an object to measure its mass . We call this force, the objects weight. Since weight is the response of mass to gravity, it varies with the strength of the gravitational field. Therefore, your body mass is the same on the earth, or on the moon, but your weight would be much less on the moon than on the earth because of the moons smaller gravitational field. Because weighing something on a chemical balance involves comparing the mass of the object to a standard mass, the terms weight and mass are used interchangeably (like atomic weight to mean atomic mass), although this is incorrect.

Uncertainty in Measurement
The number associated with a measurement is obtained using some measuring device. For example, consider the measurement of the volume of

a liquid using a burette. If the meniscus (or liquid surface within the tube) of the liquid occurs, say, at about 20.15 milliliters, it means that about 20.15 mL of liquid has been delivered from the burette (if the initial position of the liquid meniscus was 0.00 ml). Note that we must estimate the last number of the volume reading by interpolating between the 0.1 ml marks. Since the last number is estimated, its value may be different if another person makes the same measurement. If five different people read the same value, the results might be as follows: 20.15 ml, 20.14 ml, 20.16 ml, 20.17 ml, and 20.16 ml. These results show that the first three numbers (20.1) remain the same regardless of who makes the measurement; these are called certain digits. However, the digit to the right of the 1 must be estimated and therefore varies; it is called an uncertain digit. We customarily report a measurement by recording all the certain digits plus the first uncertain digit. In this example it would not make any sense to try to record the volume of thousandths of a milliliter because the value for hundredths of a milliliter must be estimated when using burette. It is very important to realize that a measurement always has some degree of uncertainty. The uncertainty of a measurement depends on the precision of the measuring device. For example, using a bathroom scale, you might estimate the mass of a grapefruit to be approximately 1.5 kg. Weighing the same grapefruit on a highly precise balance might produce a result of 1.47 kg. in the first case, the uncertainty occurs in the tenths of a kg place; in the second case, the uncertainty occurs in the thousandths of a kg place. Suppose we weigh two grapefruits on the two devices and obtain the following results: Grape fruit 1 Grape fruit 2 Bath room scale Balance 1.5 kg 1.476 kg 1.5 kg 1.518 kg

Do the two grapefruits have the same mass? The answer depends on which set of results you consider. Thus a conclusion based on a series of measurements depends on the certainty of those measurements. For this reason, it is important to indicate the uncertainty in any measurement. This is done by always recording the certain digits and the first uncertain digit (the estimated number). These numbers are called significant figures of a measurement.

The convention of significant figures automatically indicates something about the uncertainty in a measurement. The uncertainty in the last number (the estimated number) is usually assumed to be + 1 unless otherwise indicated. For example, the measurement 1.86 kg can be taken to mean 1.86 + 0.01 kg. when making a measurement, it is important to record the results to the appropriate number of significant figures. For example, if a certain burette can be read to +0.01 ml, you should record a reading of twenty-five milliliters as 25.00 ml, not 25 ml. This way of at some later time when you are using results to do calculations, the uncertainty in the measurement will be known to you.

Precision and Accuracy

Two terms often used to describe the reliability of measurements are precision and accuracy. Although these words are frequently used interchangeably in everyday life, they have different meanings in the scientific context. Accuracy refe rs to t he agreement of a parti cul ar val ue wi t h t he t rue val ue. Precis ion refers t o t he degree of agreement among s everal meas ure me nts of t he s ame quantit y. Precision reflects the reproducibility of a given type of measurement. Two different types of errors are noted. A random error (also called an indeterminate error) means that a measurement has an equal probability of being high or low. This type of error occurs in estimating the value of the last digit of a measurement. The second type of error is called systematic error (or determinate error). This type of error occurs in the same direction each time; it is either always high or always low . In quantitative work, precision is often used as an indication of accuracy ; we assume that the average of a series of precise measurements (which should average out the random errors because of their equal probability of being high or low) is accurate, or close to the true value. However, this assumption is valid only if systematic errors are absent. That is, high precision among several measurements is an indication of accuracy only if systematic errors are absent.

Significant Figures and Calculations

Calculating the final result for an experiment usually involves adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing the results of the various types of measurements. Since it is very important that the uncertainty in the final

result is known correctly, we have developed the rules for counting the significant figures in each number and for determining the correct number of significant figures in the final result. Rules for counting significant figures. 1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures. 2. Zeros. there are three classes of zeros: a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These dont count as significant figures. In the number 0.0025, the three zeros simply indicate the position of the decimal point. This number has only two significant figures. b. Captive zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures. The number 1.008 has four significant figures. c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only if the number contains a decimal point. The number 100 has only one significant figure, where as the number 1.00X10 2 has three significant figures. The number one hundred written as 100. , also has three significant figures. 3. Exact numbers. Many times calculations involve numbers that were not obtained using measuring devices but were determined by counting: 10 experiments, 2 apples, 8 molecules. Such numbers are called exact numbers. They can be assumed to have infinite number of significant figures. Other examples of exact numbers are 2 in 2r (circumference of a circle) and the 4 and 3 in 4/3 r3 (the volume of a sphere). Exact numbers also can arise from definitions. Thus, in the statement 1 inch = 2.54 cm, neither the 2.54 nor the 1 limits the number of significant figures when used in a calculation. Note that the number 1.00X102 above is written in exponential notation. This type of notation has at least two advantages: the number of significant figures can be easily indicated, and fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small number. For example, the number 0.0000060 is much more conveniently represented as 6.0 X 10 -5 (the number has two significant figures.) Next, let us consider how uncertainty accumulates as calculations are carried out. The detailed analysis of the accumulation of uncertainties depends on the type of calculation involved and can be complex. However,

the following simple rules have been developed for dete rmi ni ng t he appropri at e number of s ign if ican t f igures i n t he res ult of a cal cul ati on. 1. For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation. For example, consider the calculation: 4.56 X 1.4 = 6.38 corrected to 6.4 (two significant figures) Limiting term 1.4 has two significant figures. The product should have only two significant figures, since 1.4 has two significant figures. 2. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the least precise measurement used in the calculation. For example, consider the sum: 12.11 + 18.0 + 1.013 = 31.123 corrected to 31.1 (one decimal place) (Limiting term 18.0 has one decimal place.) The correct value is 31.1, since 18.0 has only one decimal place. Note that for multiplication and division, significant figures are counted. For addition and subtraction, decimal places are counted. In most calculations you will need to round numbers to obtain the correct number of significant figures. Following rules should be applied when rounding. Rules for rounding: 1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the fi nal result, then round. 2. if the digit to be removed a. is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same. For example, 1.33 rounds to 1.3 b. is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1. For example, 1.36 rounds to 1.4. Although rounding is generally straightforward, one point requires special emphasis. As an illustration, suppose that the number 4.348 needs to be rounded to two significant figures. In doing this we look only at the first number to the right of the 3: (i.e., digit 4 in between 3 and 8). The number is rounded to 4.3 because 4 is less than 5. It is incorrect to round sequentially. For example, do not round 4 to 5 to give 4.35 and then round the 3 to 4 to give 4.4. W he n roundi ng, us e onl y t he fi rst number t o t he ri ght of t he l ast s i gni fi cant fi gure .

Dimensional Analysis
It is often necessary to convert a given result from one system of units to another. The best way to do this is by a method called the unit factor method or, more commonly, dimensional analysis. Some equivalents in the English and metric systems are given table. Consider a pin measuring 2.85 cm in length. What is its length in inches? To accomplish this conversion, we must use the equivalence statement: 2.54 cm = 1 inch; if we divide both sides of this equation by 2.54 cm, we get, 1 = 1 inch / 2.54 cm. Length 1 m = 1.094 yd 2.54 cm = 1 in Mass 1 kg = 2.205 lb 453.6 g = 1 lb volume 1 L = 1.06 qt 1 ft 3 = 28.32 L

Thi s expre s si on i s call ed a unit fact or. Since 1 inch and 2.54 centimeters are exactly equivalent, multiplying any expression by this unit factor will not change its value. The pin has a length of 2.85 cm. multiplying this length by 2.85 cm X 1 inch / 2.54 cm = (2.85 / 2.54) inch = 1.12 in Note that the centimeters units cancel to give inches for the result. This is exactly what we wanted to accomplish. Note also that the result has three significant figures, as required by the number 2.85. Note that two unit factors can be derived from each equivalence statement. For example, from the equivalence statement 2.54 cm = 1 in, the two unit factors are 2.54 cm / 1 in and 1 in / 2.54 cm How do you choose which one to use in a given situation? Simply look at the direction of the required change. To change from inches to centimeters, the inches must cancel. Thus the factor 2.54 cm / 1 in is used. To change from centimeters to inches, centimeters must cancel and the factor 1 in/ 2.54 cm is appropriate. In the English system, we can write many unit factors, such as 1 yd , 1 yd , 1 mi , 4 qt , 2000 lb 3 ft 36 in 5280 ft 1 gal 1 ton The reciprocal of each of these is also a unit factor.

Elements: The Building Blocks

All matter is composed of substances. If you classify an unknown piece of matter as pure, it means that the stuff is made up of only one substance. But there are two types of substances. One type of pure substance can be broken down into simpler substances. This type of substance is called a compound. Another type of substance cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Such a substance is called an element. Elements are the simplest form of matter. They are the building blocks from which other forms of matter are made. All the substances of the universe are elements, compounds formed from elements, or mixtures of elements and compounds. Lavoisier defined an element as a substance that cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction into simpler substances. An element i s t he si mplest ki nd of mat e rial wit h uni que physi cal and chemi cal prope rt ies . For instance, neither of the two gases obtained by the electrolysis of water-hydrogen and oxygen-- can be further decomposed, so we know that they are elements. Millions of the substances are known to chemists, but only 117 are elements. These 117 elements combine with each other to form all the millions of known compounds. Thats why the chemical elements are often referred to as the building blocks of matter. Of the 117 known elements, only about 90 occur naturally on Earth. The remainder is synthesized, usually in barely detectable amounts, in high-energy nuclear experiments. Less than half of the 90 naturally occurring elements are abundant enough to play a significant role in the chemistry of everyday stuff.

Compounds: Are More Than One Element

Most substances are compounds. Most elements occur in chemical combination with other elements in the form of compounds. A compound i s a s ubs tance compos ed of t wo or more el ements chemi call y combi ne d, i.e., it consists of two or more elements linked together in characteristic and definite proportions. Also, a compound is a pure substance that cannot be broken down (separated) into simpler substances (elements) by any physical process. Instead the separation of a compound into its constituent elements requires a chemical reaction. For example, if you were to collect and analyze the samples of the compound water from a faucet, an iceberg, a river and a

rain puddle, you would find that every sample (barring impurities) is 11.2% hydrogen and 88.8% oxygen by mass. Every compound has its own fixed composition and that composition results in a unique set of chemical and physical properties. Compounds typically have characteristics very different from the elements of which they are composed. The physical and chemical properties of a compound are entirely different from the properties of its constituent elements. Binary compounds are substances that contain two elements, ternary compounds contain three elements, and quaternary compounds contain four elements, and so on. More than 10 million compounds are known and the number keeps growing. New compounds are discovered and isolated from natural chemical sources such as plants and colonies of bacteria. Compounds are also synthesized in laboratories where they are tested for a variety of uses ranging from medicine to manufacturing.

Mixtures Elements or compounds just mix together to form a mixture and no new compound is formed. A mixture has a variable composition. A mixture shows the properties of the constituent substances. The constituents can be separated fairly easily by physical methods.

Compounds Elements react to form new compounds/ The composition of each new substance is always fixed. The new substance has totally different properties. The constituents can be separated only by chemical or electrochemical reactions.

Density
Both mass and volume are a function of the amount of material present (extensive property). Density is independent of the amount of material (intensive property). Density is the amount of matter (mass) contained in a unit volume. The density of a sample of matter is defined as the mass per unit volume. Density = Mass / Volume

People often speak of a substance as being heavier or lighter than another substance. What they actually mean is that the two substances have different densities; a specific volume of one substance is heavier or lighter than the same volume of the second substance. Equal masses of substances with different densities occupy different volumes; the contrast in volume is often striking. An object placed in a liquid either floats on the liquids surface, sinks to the bottom of the liquid, or remains at some intermediate position in which it has been placed in the liquid (neither floating nor sinking), depending on how its density compares to that of the liquid. A fl oati ng obj e ct has a dens it y t hat is greate r t han t hat of t he li qui d, and a st ati onary obj e ct (nei t he r fl oats nor s i nks ) has a de nsit y t hat is t he same as t hat of t he li quid. For example, oil floats on water, because, in addition to not mixing with water, oil has a lower density than water. That is, given equal volumes of the two liquids, the oil will have a smaller mass than the water. Density is a useful way to characterize a substance because each substance has a unique density. One milliliter of air and one milliliter of iron do not weigh the same amount. There is much more mass in 1 milliliter of iron; its density is greater. In density calculations the mass is usually represented in grams, and volume is given in either milliliters (mL) or cubic centimeters (cm cube or cc). Densities are usually expressed as g/cm3 or g/mL for liquids and solids and as g/L for gases.

Specific Gravity
For convenience, values of density are often related to a standard, well-known reference, the density of pure water at 3.980C. This referenced density is called the specific gravity. It is the ration of the density of the object in question to the density of pure water at 3.98 0C. Specific gravity = density of object (g/mL) / density of water (g/mL) Specific gravity is a unit less term. The density of water is 1.000 g/mL at 3.980C, the temperature at which the density of water is greatest. Because the density of water at 3.980C is 1.000 g/mL, the numerical values for the density and specific gravity of a substance are equal. That is, an object with a density of 2.000 g/mL has a specific gravity of 2.000 at 3.98 0C. Variations in the density of water with changes in temperature, however, are small enough that we can use 1.000 g.mL up to 250C without introducing significant errors into our calculations.

Intensive and Extensive Properties

It is important to recognize that properties can also be classified according to whether they depend on the size of the sample. Consequently, there is a fundamental difference between properties such as density and specific gravity and properties such as mass and volume. An intensive property is a property of matter that is independent of the quantity of the substance. Density and specific gravity are intensive properties. For example, the density of one single drop of water is exactly the same as the density of a liter of water. An extensive property depends on the quantity of a substance. Mass and volume are extensive properties. There is an obvious difference between 1 g of silver and 1 kg of silver, the quantities and, incidentally, the value, differ substantially.

Chemical Properties and Changes

Physical properties alone are not enough to describe a substance. For a complete description, you need to know about another set of properties called chemical properties. Chemical properties describe the ability of a substance to react with other substances or to decompose. Chemical properties are those that can be observed only when there is a change in the composition of the substance. A chemica l property i s a charact e ris ti c of a mat eri al i nvol vi ng it s chemi cal change. Chemical properties are exhibited by matter as it undergoes changes in composition. These properties of substances are related to the kinds of chemical changes that the substances undergo. Examples: 1) A chemical property of iron is its ability to react with oxygen to produce rust. 2) Aluminum reacts with oxygen too, but the compound formed, aluminum oxide, coats the aluminum and protects it from further oxidation. 3) Platinum does not react with oxygen at room temperature; lack of reactivity is also a chemical property. 4) A chemical property of magnesium is that it can combine with oxygen to form magnesium oxide (a white powder), releasing energy in the process. 5) The ability of a gasoline to burn is a chemical property. 6) High flammability is a chemical property of hydrogen. Have you ever noticed that hydrogen peroxide (H3O2) solution always comes in brown bottles? Its packaged in this way because in bright light, hydrogen peroxide breaks down into water

and oxygen gas. The instability of a substanceits tendency to break down into different substancesis another chemical property. A chemical property always relates to a chemical change, the change of one or more substances into other substances. Another term for chemical change is chemical reaction. A chemica l chan ge or che mica l react ion i s a change i n whi ch one or more ki nds of matt er (t he reactants ) are t rans forme d i nt o a new ki nd of matt er or seve ral new ki nds of matt e r (t he product s ) and e nergy i s absorbe d or rel eas ed. The representation of the change using chemical formulas is called a chemical equation. As substances undergo chemical changes, they demonstrate their chemical properties. For example, the rusting of iron, during which iron combines with oxygen in the air to form a new material called rust, is a chemical change. The original materials (iron and oxygen) combine chemically and cannot be separated by any physical means. To recover the iron and oxygen from rust requires a chemical change or a series of chemical changes. In additi on, a phys i cal change may s ugge st t hat a che mi cal change has als o t aken pl ace. For instance, a color change, a warming, or the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed could indicate a chemical change.

Atoms and Chemical Change

All matter is made of atoms, and any chemical change involves only a rearrangement of the atoms. The smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity through all chemical and physical changes is called an atom. Atoms and therefore all matter consist principally of three fundamental particles electrons, protons and neutrons. These are the basic building blocks of atoms. The masses of protons and neutrons are nearly equal, but the mass of an electron is much smaller. Neutrons carry no charge. The charge on a proton is equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, to the charge on an electron. Because any atom is electrically neutral it contains an equal number of electrons and protons. Several elements occur naturally as molecules. A molecu le is an i nde pe nde nt st ruct ural uni t consis ti ng of t wo or more at oms chemi cal l y bound toget her. It is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can have stable independent existence. In nearly all molecules two or more atoms are bonded together in very small, discrete units (particles) that are electrically neutral. The mole cule is t he li mit of t he phys i cal s ubdi vis ion, whi l e t he atom is t he li mi t of chemi cal s ubdi vis ion.

Individual oxygen atoms are not stable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. At these conditions, atoms of oxygen quickly combine to form pairs resulting in a diatomic molecule of O 2. A diatomic molecule is a molecule that contains two atoms. It is the simplest type of molecule that can exist. Hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are other examples of diatomic molecules. Some other elements exist as more complex molecules. A tri atomic molecule is a molecule that contains three atoms. Counting on numerically, we have tetra atomic molecules and pent atomic molecules and so on. One form of phosphorus molecules consists of four atoms, and sulfur exists as an eight atom-ring shaped molecules at ordinary temperature and pressures. Molecules that contain two or more atoms are called polyatomic molecules. The atoms present in a molecule may all be of the same kind, or two or more kinds may be present. On the basis of this observation molecules may be classified into two categories: homoatomic and heteroatomic. A homoatomic molecule is a molecule in which all atoms present are of the same kind. A substance containing homoerotic molecules must be an element. A heteroatomic molecule is a molecule in which two or more kinds of atoms are present. Substances that contain heteroatomic molecules must be compounds because the presence of two or more kinds of atoms reflects the presence of two or more kinds of elements. Molecules of compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom in a definite ratio. A water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A molecule of methane consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Consider the chemical change in which water is broken down into hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms. Whatever atoms are contained in the water that decomposes, are found in the hydrogen and oxygen molecules that are formed. Atoms do not just disappear. This is an example of the law of conservation of mass, which says that in a chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed. It would be equally correct to call this law of conservation of matter.

Chemical Reactions and Energy

Energyto power an automobile, to heat a home, or to support life is an abstract idea: energy is invisible, it is not a substance, it has no mass, and it occupies no volume. We have witnessed energy changing matter

sunlight melts snow, for exampleand energy being transformed from one form to another, the way chemical energy in gasoline is changed into mechanical energy to move a vehicle. A portion of the energy in the gasoline, however, does not contribute to moving the vehicle and is dispersed to the surroundings as heat. If we add up the energy used to cause motion and the energy distributed to the surroundings, we find that the total amount is equal to the energy contained in the gasoline that was burned. In other words, energy is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Heat is a familiar form of energy. Adding heat makes water boil. Heat is given off when wood burns in a fireplace or when gas oline burns in an engine. But where does the heat energy come from when wood burns? R Buckminster Fuller, a 20th century inventor, described a burning log like this: Trees gather the energy in sunlight and combine it with water and carbon dioxide to make the molecules that compose the wood. When wood is burned, the chemical products are carbon dioxide and water, and the fire is, as Fuller said, all that sunlight unwinding. The sunlight unwinding is the chemical energy stored in molecules that make up the wood. Sunlight through the transforming power of green plants, is the source of chemical energy contained within all molecules we consume as food and fuel. In general, physical and chemical changes are accompanied by energy changes. Energy is often defined as the ability to do work. Essentially all work involves moving something. The object doing work transfers some of the energy it possesses to the object on which the work is done. The t ot al ene rgy an object poss ess es is t he s um of it s pot ent ial ene rgy and ki ne ti c ene rgy. Potent ia l energy i s t he ene rgy due t o t he pos it io n of t he obj e ct . K inet ic energ y i s t he energy due t o t he motio n of t he obj ect . A key concept i s t hat t he e nergy i s conserved: i t may be conve rt ed from one form t o t he ot he r, but it is not de st roye d. In nat ure, si t uati ons of l owe r e nergy are t ypi cal l y favored ove r t hos e of hi gher ene rgy. Much of the matter in the universe is composed of positively and negatively charged particles. A well known behavior of charged particles results from interactions known as electrostatic forces: opposite charges attract each other, and like charges repel each other. When work is done to separate a positive particle from a negative one, the potential energy of the particles increases. That increase in potential energy is converted to kinetic energy when the particles move together again. Also when two positive (or two negative) particles are pushed toward each other, their potential energy

increase, and when they are allowed to move apart, that increase in potential energy is changed into kinetic energy. Charged particles move naturally toward a position of lower energy, which is more stable. The chemical potential energy of a substance results from the relative positions and the attractions and repulsions among all its particles. Some substances are richer in this chemical potential energy than others. Fuels and foods, for example, contain more potential energy than the waste products they form. When gasoline burns in a car engine, substances with higher potential energy (gasoline and air) form substances with lower potential energy (exhaust gases). This difference in potential energy is converted into the kinetic energy that moves the car, heats the passenger compartment, and makes the lights shine and so forth. Similarly, the difference in potential energy between the food and air we take in and the water products we excrete is used to move, grow, keep warm and so on. Note again the essential point: energy is neither created nor destroyedit is always conserved as it is converted from one form to the other. Many reactions give off energy. For example, burning wood is a chemical change in which cellulose, and other substances in the wood, combine with oxygen from the air to produce mainly carbon dioxide and water. Energy is also produced and released in the form of heat and light. Chemical reactions that give off energy are called exothermic reactions. A dramatic example is the rapid decomposition of nitroglycerin that breaks and moves rocks; the complex nitroglycerin molecule is converted to four gaseous products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. Some chemical changes absorb energy. Chemical reactions that absorb energy are called endothermic reactions. The decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen is an endothermic reaction because it doesnt occur unless energy, in the form of an electric current, is passed through the water. Photosynthesis is probably the most important endothermic process on Earth. Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that absorb light energy from the sun and produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is given off as a product of the reactions.

Laws of Chemical Combination

The following two laws of chemical combination were established after much experimentation by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust.

Law of conservation of mass:

In every chemical operation an equal quantity of matter exists before and after the operation. The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction. The number of substances may change and, by definition, their properties must, but the total amount of matter remains constant. In other words, the total mass of the reactants (what is consumed in a reaction) did not differ from the total mass of the products (what is produced in the reaction). Even in a complex biochemical change within an organism, such as metabolism of the sugar glucose, which involves many reactions, mass is conserved: Mass conservation means that based on all chemical experience, matter cannot be created or destroyed. 180 g glucose + 192 g oxygen ---- 264 g carbon dioxide + 108 g water 372 g material before change ---- 372 g material after change

Law of definite (constant) proportions (or composition):

In a given chemical compound, the proportions by mass of the elements that compose it are fixed, independent of the origin of the compound or its mode of preparation. In other words, no matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass. The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is that part of the compounds mass contributed by the element. It is obtained by dividing the mass of each element by the total mass of compound. The percent by mass (mass percent, mass %) is the fraction by mass expressed as a percentage. Consider calcium carbonate, the major compound in marble. It is composed of three elementscalcium, carbon, and oxygenand each is present in a fixed fraction (or percent) by mass. The following results are obtained for the elemental mass composition of 20.0 g of calcium carbonate (for example, 8.0 g of calcium / 20.0 g = 0.40 parts of calcium): Anal ysi s by mass (grams .20.0 g) 8.0 g calcium 2.4 g carbon 9.6 g oxygen 20.0 g Mas s Fract i on (part s /1.00 part ) 0.40 calcium 0.12 carbon 0.48 oxygen 1.00 part by mass Pe rce nt by Mas s (part s /100 part s ) 40% calcium 12% carbon 48% oxygen 100% by mass

As you can see, the sum of the mass fractions (or mass percents) equals 1.00 part (or 100%) by mass. The law of definite composition tells us that pure samples of calcium carbonate, no matter where they come from, always contain these elements in the same percents by mass. Because a given element always constitutes the same mass fraction of a given compound, we can use that mass fraction to find the actual mass of the element in any sample of the compound: Mass of element = mass of compound X part by mass of element One part by mass of compound

Or, more simply, mass analysis tells us the parts by mass, so we can use that directly with any mass unit and skip the need to find the mass fraction first: Mass of element in sample = Mass of compound in sample X Mass of element in compound

Mass of compound

Atomic theory of matter: Early Ideas about Matter

About 2500 years ago, t he Gree k phi l os ophe rs thought about the nature of matter and its composition. They propos e d t hat matt er was a combi nati on of four fundament al el ement s ai r, eart h, fi re , and water. These Greek philosophers also argued the question of whether matter could be divided endlessly into smaller and smaller pieces or whether there was an ultimate smallest particle of matter that could not be divided any further. Democri t us , 460-370 B.C., was a phi losophe r who proposed t hat t he worl d is made up of empt y s pace and ti ny part i cl es cal le d at oms. Democritus thought that atoms are the smallest particles of matter and that different types of atoms exist for every type of matter. The idea that matter is made up of fundamental particles called atoms is known as the atomic theory of matter. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), a French chemist, laid the experimental foundation of modern chemistry. In 1782, he made measurements of chemical change in a sealed container. He observed that the mass of reactants in the container before a chemical reaction was equal to the mass of the products after the reaction. Lavoisier concluded that when a chemical reaction occurs, matter is neither created nor destroyed but only changed. Lavoisiers conclusion became known as the law of conservation of matter. This is another name for the law of conservation of mass.

Prousts Contribution
In 1799, another French chemist, Joseph Proust, observed that the composition of water is always 11 percent hydrogen and 89 percent oxygen by mass. Regardless of the source of the water, it always contains these same percentages of hydrogen and oxygen. Proust studied many other compounds and observed that the elements that composed the compounds were always in a certain proportion by mass. This principle is now referred to as the law of definite proportions.

Daltons Atomic Theory

John Dalton (1766-1844), an English school teacher and chemist, studied the results of experiments by Lavoisier, Proust, and many other scientists. He realized that an atomic theory of matter mus t explain the experimental evidence. For example, if matter were composed of indivisible atoms, then a chemical reaction would only rearrange those atoms, and no atoms would form or disappear. This idea would explain the law of conservation of mass. Also, if each element consisted of atoms of a specific type and mass, then a compound would always consist of a certain combination of atoms that never varied for that compound. Thus, Daltons theory explained the law of definite proportions, as well. Dalton provided his atomic theory of matter in 1803 which states that all matterwhether element, compound, or mixtureis composed of small particles called atoms. Although his theory has been modified slightly to accommodate new discoveries, Daltons theory was so insightful that it has remained essentially intact up to the present time.

Postulates of Daltons Atomic Theory

The main points of Daltons atomic theory, an explanation of the structure of matter in terms of different combinations of very small particles , are given by the following postulates: 1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions. 2. An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom, each atom of a given kind having the same properties. Mass is one

such property. Thus, the atoms of a given element have a characteristic mass. 3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The relative numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in simple ratios. Water, for example, a compound of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 2:1. 4. A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of atoms present in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations present in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not created, destroyed or broken down into smaller particles by any chemical reaction.

Deductions from Daltons atomic theory:

Today, we know that atoms are not truly indivisible; they are themselves made up of particles. Nevertheless, Daltons postulates are essentially correct. It explains the difference between an element and a compound. Atomic theory also explains the two laws of chemical combination. Dalton described a phenomenon from his atomic theory that occurs when two elements form more than one compound. His observation is now called the law of multiple proportions. W he n t wo el ement s form a se ri es of compounds , t he mass es of one element t hat combi ne wi t h a fi xed mass of t he ot her el ement are i n t he rat io of s mal l i nt egers to each ot her. If elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers. For example, carbon (C) and oxygen (O) combine under different conditions to form two compounds, say X and Y. Analysis shows that compound X contains 1.333 g of oxygen per 1.000 g of carbon, and compound Y contains 2.667 g of oxygen per 1.000 g of carbon. Although at this point we know nothing about the chemical formulas of the two oxides of carbon, we can say immediately that molecules of compound X contain half as many oxygen atoms per carbon atom as do molecules of compound Y. The evidence for this is that the ratio of masses of oxygen in X and Y, for a fixed mass of carbon in each, is 1.333:2.667 or 1:2. If the formula of compound X were CO, then the formula of compound Y would have to be CO 2, C2O4, C3O6, or some other multiple of CO2. If compound X were CO 2, then the compound Y would be

CO4, C2O8, and so on. From these data, we cannot say which of these (or an infinite number of other possibilities) are the true formulas of the molecules of compounds X and Y, but we do know this: the number of oxygen atoms per carbon atom in the two compounds is the quotient of integers. Daltons atomic theory gave chemists a model of the particle nature of matter. However, it also raised new questions. If all elements are made up of atoms, why are there so many different elements? What makes one atom different from another atom? Experiments in the late 19th century began to suggest that atoms are made up of even smaller particles. Present -day chemistry explains the properties and behavior of substances in terms of three of these smaller particles.

The Discovery of Atomic Structure

Daltons atomic theory was almost true. Dalton had assumed that atoms are the ultimate particles of matter and cant be broken up into smaller particles and that all atoms of the same element are identical. However, his theory had to be modified as new discoveries were made in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, we know that atoms are made up of smaller particles and that atoms of the same element can be nearly, but not exactly, the same.

Thomsons Discovery of Electrons

In 1897, a British scientist named J.J. Thomson showed that Daltons theory was not quite right. Thomson discovered that there are small particles inside the atom. Thus, atoms can be divided into even smaller parts. Thomson experimented with a cathode-ray tube. He discovered that a positively charged plate attracted the beam and made it bend down. Thomson concluded that the beam must be made of particles that have negative charges, because opposite charges attract. The negatively charged particles that Thomson discovered are now called electrons. Thomson showed that electrons are part of atoms, but his experiment did not provide a way of knowing where electrons were located in atoms. So, he made a guess that the electrons were mixed throughout an atom, like plums in a pudding. Thoms ons propos e d model of t he atom is s omet i mes cal le d t he pl um-puddi ng model , aft er a dese rt t hat was popular i n Thoms ons day.

RutherfordDiscovering the Nucleus

The discovery of electrons stunned scientists and made them want to find out more about the atom. In 1909, a former student of Thomsons named Ernst Rutherford decided to test Thomsons theory. He designed an experiment to study the parts of the atom. He aimed a beam of small, positively charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil. Rutherford put a special coating behind the foil. The coating glowed when hit by the positively charged particles. Rutherford could then see where the particles went afte r hitting the gold. This experiment would show if atoms have different parts or if they are all the same throughout, as the plum-pudding model suggested. Rutherford started with Thomsons idea that atoms are soft blobs of matter through which electrons are evenly distributed. Therefore, he expected the particles to pass right through the gold in a straight line. Most of the particles did just that. But to Rutherfords great surprise a few of the particles were deflected (turned to one side). Some even bounced straight back. Rutherford realized that the explanation for this must be most matter in an atom is found in a very small part of the atom. Based on his experiment, Rutherford revised the atomic theory in 1911. He made a new model of the atom. Rutherford proposed that in the center of the atom is a tiny, extremely dense, positively charged area called the nucleus. Because like charges repel, Rutherford reasoned that positively charged particles that passed close by the nucleus were pushed away by the positive charges in the nucleus. A particle that headed straight for a nucleus would be pushed almost straight back in the direction from which it came. From his results, Rutherford calculated that the diameter of the nucleus was 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of the gold atom. From Rutherfords results, the important idea emerged that atoms are mostly empty space with a tiny, massive nucleus at the center. An atoms electrons move very fast in the empty space surrounding the nucleus. Rutherford used cathode-ray tubes for other experiments. He wanted to find out about the positive charge in atoms nucleus. The re s ul t of t he se experi ment s was t he di s cove ry of anot her part i cle, cal led t he prot on. By 1920, Rut herford had re fi ned t he concept of t he nucle us and concl ude d t hat t he nucl eus has posi ti vel y charge d part i cle s cal le d prot ons . A proton is a s ubat omi c parti cl e carryi ng a charge equal t o but opposit e t hat of an elect ron; t hat i s , a proton has a charge of +1. Rutherford knew the

approximate mass of a proton and could determine how many protons were in atoms. However, he could not account for all of the mass of an atom. Rutherford predicted that an atom contains another undiscovered particle. But, it wasnt until 1932 that the existence of the neutron was proved by English physicist James Chadwick. A neut ron is a neut ral part i cl e wi t h a mas s si mi lar t o a prot on but has no charge . An at oms neut rons occupy t he nucl eus al ong wit h i ts prot ons . Neutrons were difficult to find because they have no charge, unlike protons and electrons.

The Nucleus Model of the Atom: Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Although Dalton had postulated that atoms were indivisible particles, experiments conducted around the beginning of the last century showed that atoms themselves consist of particles. These experiments showed that an atom consists of two kinds of particles: a nucleus, the atoms central core, which is positively charged and contains most of the atoms mass, and one or more electrons. An electron is very light, negatively charged particles that exists in the region around the atoms positively charged nucleus. The charge on the electron is found to be 1.602 X 10 -19 coulombs and the mass 9.109 X 10-31 kg., which is more than 1800 times smaller than the mass of the lightest atom (hydrogen). This shows quite clearly that the electron is indeed a subatomic particle. The nucl eus of an at om als o has a s t ruct ure; t he nucl e us i s composed of t wo di ffere nt ki nds of part i cl es , prot ons and ne ut rons . An important property of the nucleus is its electric charge. From experi me nts , res earche rs di s cove red t hat each el e me nt has a uni que nuclear charge t hat is an i nt eger mul t i pl e of t he magni t ude of t he el e ct ron charge . This i nte ger, whi ch is a charact eri s ti c of an el e ment , is cal le d t he atomi c numbe r (Z). A hydrogen atom nucleus, whose magnitude of charge equals that of the electron, has the smallest atomic number, which is 1. A proton is a nuclear particle having a positive charge equal to that of the electron and a mass more than 1800 times that of the electron. The atomic number (Z) is therefore the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Now we can define an element as a substance whose atoms all have the same atomic number. Rutherfords model of atomic structure left one major problem unsolved. It was known that hydrogen, the simplest atom, contained only one proton and that the helium atom contained two protons. Therefore, the

ratio of the mass of a helium to that of a hydrogen atom should be 2:1. (Because electrons are much lighter than protons, their contribution to atomic mass can be ignored). In reality, however, the ratio is 4:1. Rutherford and others postulated that there must be another type of subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus. James Chadwick, an English physicist, in 1932 showed that a third type of subatomic particle exists and named it neutron because it is electrically neutral particle having a mass slightly greater than that of proton. The neutron is a nuclear particle having a mass almost identical to that of the proton but no electric charge. The mystery of mass ratio could now be explained. A typical helium nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons whereas a typical hydrogen nucleus contains only a proton; the mass ratio, therefore us 4:1. Consider the nucleus of some atom, say the naturally occurring sodium atom. The nucleus contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons, thus the charge on the sodium nucleus is +11e. We characterize a nucleus by its atomic number (Z) and its mass number (A). The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. In general the mass number is given by Mass number (A) = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons The number of neutrons in an atom equals the difference between the mass number and the atomic number, or (A Z). Except for the most common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. The nucleus of the naturally occurring sodium atom has an atomic number of 11 and a mass number of 23 (11 + 12). A nuclide is an atom characterized by a definite atomic number and mass number. The short hand notation for any nuclide consists of the symbol of the element with the atomic number written as a subscript on the left and the mass number as superscript on the left. You write the nuclide symbol for the naturally occurring sodium nuclide as follows: Mass number ----
23

Na

Atomic number --- 11 Two striking things about the nucleus are its small size compared with the overall size of the atom and its extremely high density. The electrons move rapidly within the available atomic volume, held there by the attraction

of the nucleus. The nucleus is incredibly dense: it contributes 99.97% of the atoms mass but occupies only about 1 ten-trillionth of its volume. Thus the tiny nucleus accounts for almost all the atoms mass, and its great density is dramatically demonstrated by the fact that a piece of nuclear material about the size of a pea would have a mass of 250 tons. An important question to consider at this point is, i f al l atoms are compos ed of t hese s ame compone nts , why do di ffe rent at oms have differe nt che mi cal propert ies? The ans wer to t hi s ques ti on l ies i n t he numbe r and t he arrange me nt of t he el e ct rons . The el ect rons const it ute most of t he at omi c vol ume and t hus are t he part s t hat i nt ermi ngl e when at oms combi ne to form mol e cul es . The refore , t he number of el e ct rons poss ess ed by a gi ven at om great l y affe ct s it s abili t y t o i nte ract wit h ot her at oms . As a result, the atoms of different elements, which have different numbers of protons and electrons, show different chemical behavior.

Isotopes and Atomic Masses

An atom is normally electrically neutral, so it has as many electrons about its nucleus as the nucleus has protons; that is, the number of electrons in a neutral atom equals its atomic number. A sodium atom has a nucleus of charge +11, and around this nucleus are 11 electrons (with a charge of -11, giving the atom a net charge of 0). Charge neutrality requires the presence in an atom of equal number of protons and electrons. However, because neutrons have no electrical charge, their numbers in atoms do not have to be the same as the number of protons or electrons. Most atoms contain more neutrons than either protons or electrons. Contrary to the first postulate of Daltons atomic theory, atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass? Studies of atoms of various elements showed that the number of neutrons present in atoms of an element is not constant; it varies over a small range. This means that not all atoms of an element have to be identical. They must have the same number of protons and electrons, but they can differ in the number of neutrons. All nuclei of the atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, but the nuclei may have different mass numbers. Atoms of an element that differ in neutron count are called isotopes. Isotopes are at oms of an ele me nt t hat have t he same numbe r of prot ons and t he s ame numbe r of ele ct rons but different numbe rs of neut rons . Different isotopes always have the same atomic number and different mass numbers.

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, but their physical properties are often slightly different. Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons. They have slightly different physical properties because they have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different masses. Most elements found in nature exist in isotopic forms, with the number of naturally occurring isotopes ranging from two to ten. For example, there are three isotopes of hydrogen, called hydrogen (or protium), deuterium, and tritium. Hydrogen has one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus, deuterium has one proton and one neutron, and tritium has one proton and two neutrons. Thus to represent the isotopes of hydrogen we write
1 1H

2 1H,

1H

Hydrogen

deuterium

tritium

Hydrogen-1 is by far the most abundant isotope (99.985%), hydrogen-2 has an abundance of 0.015% and hydrogen-3 occurs in minute amounts. Percent Abundance = number of atoms of a given isotope X 100%

Total number of atoms of all isotope of that element

Atomic mass
The existence of isotopes means that atoms of an element can have several different masses. For example, silicon atoms can have any one of three masses because there are three silicon isotopes. Which of these three silicon isotopic masses is used in situations in which the mass of the element silicon needs to be specified? The answer is none of them. Instead we use a weighted-average mass that takes into account the existence of isotopes and their relative abundances. The weighted-average mass of the isotopes of an element is known as the elements atomic mass. Long before scientists had the ability to measure the masses of individual atoms, they established a relative scale to compare the mass of an atom of one element with that of another. A mass of 1 was assigned to the lightest element, hydrogen, and the masses of all other elements were relative to it. Several different atomic mass scales have been used since early in 1800s, each based on assigning a mass to an atom of one isotope or element and comparing the masses of all other atoms with it.

Today, all s cie nti sts have agreed t o use a s i ngl e s cale, i n whi ch t he at omi c mass unit (amu) i s exactl y 1/12 t he mas s of a 12C at om. On the present atomic mass scale, the atom of carbon-12 isotope is chosen as the standard and is arbitrarily assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units and all other atoms are compared with this standard. One atomic mass unit (amu) is, therefore, a mass unit equals to exactly one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. On t hi s modern s cal e, t he atomi c mass of an element is t he average at omi c mas s for t he nat ural l y occurri ng el e me nt expres s ed i n at omi c mas s unit s . The atomic mass unit has been measured. 1 amu = 1.66054 X 10-27 kg For example, experiments have shown that a Hydrogen atom ( 1H) is only 8.3895 percent as massive as the carbon-12 atom. Thus if the mass of one Carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 amu, the atomic mass of hydrogen must be 0.083985 X 12 amu or 1.0078 amu. Similar calculations show that the atomic mass of fluorine-19 is 18.9984 amu and that of oxygen-16 is 15.9949 amu. Thus, although we cannot measure the mass of a single oxygen-16 atom, we know that it is approximately 16 times as massive as a hydrogen-1 atom. The choice of carbon for the standard is somewhat arbitrary, but notice that 12 amu is numerically equal to the mass number of 12 C. Thus, the masses of both the proton and the neutron are about 1 amu. When you look up the atomic mass of carbon in a table, you will find that its value is 12.01 amu, not 12.00 amu. The difference arises because most naturally occurring elements, including carbon, have more than one isotope. This means that when we measure the atomic mass of an element, we must generally settle for the average mass of the naturally occurring mixture of the isotopes. For example, the natural abundances of carbon-12 and carbon13 are 98.93% and 1.07% respectively. The atomic mass of carbon-13 has been determined to be 13.003355 amu. Thus the average atomic mass of natural carbon can be calculated as follows. (0.9893) (12.0000 0 amu) + (0.0107) (13.003 355 amu) = 12.01 amu In calculations involving percentages, we need to convert each percent abundance to a fractional abundance. For example, 98.93% becomes 98.93/100, or 0.09893. Because there are many more carbon-12 atoms than carbon-13 atoms in naturally occurring carbon, the average atomic

mass is much closer to the mass of carbon-12 than to that of carbon-13. When we say that the atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 amu, we are referring to the average value. If we could examine an individual atom of naturally occurring carbon, we would find either an atom of atomic mass of exactly 12 amu or one of 13.003355 amu, but never one of 12.01 amu.

Weakness in the Rutherford Model

Rutherfords model explained much of the experimental evidence, but it also brought up new questions. How are electrons arranged in atoms? How can differences in the chemical behavior of different elements be explained? For example, why does oxygen react easily with metals? Why is argon not very reactive? One clue came from the observation that elements gave off colored light when heated in a flame. Each element creates its own flame color. Some elements are used in fireworks to produce the brilliant colors of a display. Rutherfords model could not explain where this light comes from.

Bohr and the Hydrogen Atom

Considering that electrons are negative and that an atoms nucleus contains positively charged protons, why arent electrons pulled into the nucleus and held there? Scientists in the early 20 th century wondered the same thing. In 1913, Danish scientist Niels Bohr began to answer some of the questions about Rutherfords model. Bohr showed that Rutherfords idea that electrons could circle the nucleus at any distance was incorrect. Rutherford had proposed that electrons must have enough energy to keep them in constant motion around the nucleus. He compared the motion of electrons to the motion of planets orbiting the sun. Although the planets are attracted to the sun by gravitational force, they move with enough energy to remain in stable orbits around the sun. in the same way, electrons have energy of motion that enables them to overcome the attraction of the positive nucleus. This energy keeps the electrons moving around the nucleus. Bohrs view of the atom, which he proposed in 1913, was called the planetary model. Electrons could only move in circles with certain diameters, that is they occupied orbits of only certain amount of energy. Therefore , an electrons path around the nucleus had a definite radius. Bohr came to this conclusion by studying the hydrogen atom. He chose hydrogen because it is the simplest element, with only one electron. Bohr was interested in the light

given off by hydrogen gas when it is excited. Atoms become excited when they absorb energy by being heated in a flame or by electricity. The lowest allowable energy state of an atom is called its ground state. When an atom gains energy, it is said to be in an excited state. The red light is produced when neon is excited by electricity. Bohr wanted to know what was happening inside an atom to cause it to release energy in the form of colored light. Was there a connection between the light and structure of the atom?

The spectrum of Hydrogen

To understand the light given off by excited atoms, think about the rainbow of colors you see when ordinary light moves t hrough a prism. The colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet blend into each other in a continuous spectrum of colors. Recall that colors at the red end of the spectrum have longer wavelengths and lower energies. Colors at the violet end have shorter wavelengths and higher energies. Visible light is just a small section of all the possible wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. Ultraviolet rays have shorter wavelengths and higher energies than does visible light. Infrared rays have longer wavelengths and lower energies than does visible light. You cannot see ultraviolet rays or infrared rays. The electromagnetic spectrum is the whole range of electromagnetic waves with different energies and wavelengths. What does the electromagnetic spectrum have to do with electrons? Its all related energythe energy of motion of the electron and the energy of the light. How is the energy of electrons related to the electromagnetic spectrum? Scientists passed a high-voltage electric current through hydrogen, which absorbed energy in the form of light. The light given off by excited hydrogen atoms doesnt have a continuous spectrum of colors. Instead, hydrogen gives off light of specific colors. Passing that light through a prism revealed that the light consisted of just a few specific frequenciesnot a whole range of colors as with the white light. The spectrum of light released from excited atoms of an element is called the emission spectrum of that element. The narrow bands of re d, gree n, bl ue and viole t l i ght gi ven off by an e xcit ed hydrogen atom are cal led i ts spectral line s.

Spectral lines and Energy Levels

A spectral line is a single wavelength of light that can be seen when the light from an excited element is passed through a prism. Comparing the spectrum of hydrogen to that of ordinary light, you will notice that hydrogen has a red line and then a green line. Between those lines, all the colors you see in the spectrum of sunlight are missing. The same is true for the colors between hydrogens green line and its blue line. Each color is a different wavelength and energy. Bohr knew that if the electrons in an excited atom could have every possible energy, they would give off light just like the spectrum of sunlight. But hydrogen gives off only specific wavelengths of light. That means that an excited hydrogen atom releases only certain amounts of energy. Because electrons can only have certain amounts of energy, they can move around the nucleus only at distances that correspond to those amounts of energy. These regions of space in which electrons can move about the nucleus of an atom are called energy levels. Energy levels can be compared to the steps on a ladder, as you can stand on the ladder only at the level of each step, not between levels. Similarly, electrons can be only at certain energy levels, not between levels. If an electron absorbs energy from a flame or from an electric current, it can jump from a lower energy level to a higher energy level. When the electron falls back down from a higher energy level to a lower one, it releases energy.

Bohrs Atomic Model

Bohr proposed that what he had learned from studying the hydrogen atom applied to all atoms. Like Rutherfords model, Bohrs atomi c model cont ai ns a nucl eus . But t he el ect rons can move onl y i n ci rcl es wit h cert ai n di amet ers . Each of t hes e ci rcl es , call ed ene rgy le vels , has it s own energy. The energy l e vels are at set di st ances from t he nucleus and have s peci fi c ene rgi es . In Bohrs model of the atom, each energy level can hold a given number of electrons. The way that electrons are placed in energy levels is as shown: electrons fill the lowest energy level first. The lowest energy level is closest to the nucleus and can hold two electrons. When this first energy level is full, electrons begin to fill the second level. The second energy level can hold eight electrons. When the second energy level is filled, electrons go

to the next higher level. The last occupied energy level may or may not be completely filled. Building on Plancks and Einsteins concepts of quantified energy, Bohr proposed that the hydrogen atom has only certain allowable energy states. In order to complete his calculations, Bohr assigned a number n, called a quantum number, to each energy level (or orbit), He also calculated the radius of each orbit. The diagram showing energy levels in a hydrogen atom is used by scientists to interpret the emission spectrum. You can notice that all the lines in the visible portion of the spectrum (Balmer series) result from electrons losing energy as they fall from higher energy levels to the second energy level. The highest level represents the energy the electron has when it is completely removed from the atom. Further the drops of electrons to the lowest level emit ultraviolet frequencies (Lyman series), and shorter drops of electrons to the third energy level emit infrared frequencies (Paschen series).

Bohrs Model and Chemical Properties

Why do elements have different chemical properties? Bohrs model provided an answer. The clue to the chemical properties of an element is in the number of electrons in its outer energy level. Elements with the exact number of electrons to fill their outermost energy level are un-reactive. For example, helium and neon have filled outer energy levels. This means these elements do not combine with other atoms to form compounds, or new substances. As you might guess, elements with partially filled outer energy levels are likely to form compounds. For example, lithium and sodium have one electron in their outermost energy levels. Both are very reactive metals.

Limitations of Bohrs Atomic Model

Bohrs model explained hydrogens observed spectral lines. However, the model failed to explain the spectrum of any other element. He proposed that energy levels were like circular orbits. The idea seemed to work for the simple hydrogen atom, but it did not work for more complex elements. Moreover, Bohrs model did not fully account for the chemical behavior of atoms. In fact, although Bohrs idea of quantized energy levels lay the groundwork for atomic models to come, later experiments demonstrated that the Bohr model was fundamentally incorrect. The movements of electrons in atoms are not completely understood even now, however,

substantial evidence indicates that electrons do not move around the nucleus in circular orbits. If electrons dont travel in circular orbits, how do they move in the space around the nucleus?

Heisenberg uncertainty principle:

In the 1920s, Werner Heisenberg reached the conclusion t hat i t s i mposs i bl e to meas ure accurat el y bot h t he posit ion and energy of an elect ron at t he same t i me. In other words, the act of observing the electron produces a significant, unavoidable uncertainty in the position and motion of the electron. This principle, known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, states that it is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position of a particle at the same time. The Heis e nbe rg uncert ai nt y pri nci ple al so means t hat it is i mposs i bl e t o ass i gn fi xed pat hs for elect rons li ke t he ci rcul ar orbi t s i n Bohrs model. The only quantity that can be known is the probability for an electron to occupy a certain region around the nucleus and it led to the development of the electron cloud model to describe electrons in atoms. The electrons cloud model is based on the probability of finding an electron in a certain region of space at any given instant. Sometimes, the electron is close to the nucleus. Other times, its far away. Most of the time, its in a small region of space that looks like a cloud. This electron cloud doesnt have a sharp boundary; its edges are fuzzy. You can only say that the electron is probably somewhere in the cloud. But this cloud of electron probability can be useful. If you draw a line around the outer edge enclosing about 95 percent of the cloud, within the region enclosed by the sphere, you can expect to find the electron about 96 percent of the time. The space in which there is this high probability of finding the electron is called an orbital.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Scientists in the mid-1920s, by then convinced that the Bohr atomic model was incorrect, formulated new and innovative explanations of how electrons are arranged in atoms. In 1924, a French physicist named Louis de Broglie proposed an idea that eventually accounted for the fixed energy levels of Bohrs model. De Broglie thought that Bohrs quantized electron orbits had characteristics similar to those of waves and only odd numbers of wavelengths are allowed in a circular orbit of fixed radius. He also reflected

on the fact that lightat one time thought to be strictly a wave phenomenonhas both wave and particle characteristics. These thoughts led de Broglie to pose a new question: if waves can have particle behavior, could the opposite also be true? That is, can particles of matter, including electrons, behave like waves? De Broglie knew that if an electron has wavelike motion and is restricted to circular orbits of fixed radius, only certain wavelengths, frequencies, and energies are possible. Developing his idea, de Broglie derived the following equation, known as de Broglie equation: = h / m (Particle Electromagnetic-Wave Relationship) The wavele ngt h of a part i cle is t he rati o of Plancks cons tant, and t he product of part i cl es mass and it s fre quency. The de Broglie equation predicts that all moving particles have wave characterist ics. It also explains why it is impossible to notice the wavelength of a fast -moving car. An automobile moving at 25 m/s and having a mass of 910 kg has a wavelength of 2.9 X 10-38 m, a wavelength far too small to be seen or detected. By comparison, an electron moving at the same speed has the easily measured wavelength of 2.9 X 10 -5 m. Subsequent experiments have proven that electrons and other moving particles do indeed have wave characteristics.

The Schrodinger Wave Equation: The Electron Cloud

In 1926, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger furthered the waveparticle theory proposed by de Broglie. Schrodinger derived an equation that treated the hydrogen atoms electron as a wave. Schrodingers new model for the hydrogen atom seemed to apply equally well to atoms of other elementsan area in which Bohrs model failed. The atomic model in which electrons are treated as waves is called the wave mechanical model or, the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Like Bohrs model, the quantum mechanical model limits an electrons energy to certain values. However, unlike Bohrs model, the quantum mechanical model makes no attempt to describe the electrons path around the nucleus. The Schrodingers wave equation is too complex to understand. However, each solution to the equation is known as a wave function, which is related to the probability of finding the electron within a particular volume of space around the nucleus. The allowed energy states of atoms and molecules can be described by sets of numbers called quantum numbers.

The mathematical approach of quantum mechanics involves treating the electron in an atom as a standing wave. The wave function predicts a three dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital, which describes the electrons probable location. Today, scientists think of an electron in an atom as being in an electron cloud. An electron cloud is a region surrounding an atomic nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found. Electrons move rapidly from one place to another. They can be anywhere. But they are more likely to be closer to the nucleus than farther away because of the attraction of the negatively charged electrons for the positively charged nucleus. The electron cloud is much larger than the diameter of the nucleus.

Energy Levels and Sublevels

Light or electromagnetic radiation, can be described as waves having a range of frequencies and wavelengths. The higher the frequency of a wave and the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of radiation. The lower the frequency and the longer the wavelength, the lower the energy. These relationships are used to calculate the exact amount of energy released by the elements in atoms. In the emission spectrum of hydrogen you can see four different colors of visible light released by hydrogen as its electron moves from higher energy levels to a lower energy level. By absorbing a specific amount of energy, an electron can jump to a higher energy level. Then, when it falls back to the lower energy level, the electron releases the same amount of energy in the form of radiation with a definite frequency. Just as the emission spectrum of hydrogen has four characteristic lines that identify it, so the emission spectrum for each element has a characteristic set of spectral lines. This means that the energy levels within the atom must also be characteristic of each element. But when scientists investigated multi-electron atoms, they found that their spectra were far more complex than would be anticipated by the simple set of energy le vels predicted for hydrogen. In these cases, the spectra have many more lines than the spectrum of hydrogen. Some lines are grouped close together, and there are big gaps between these groups of lines. The big gaps correspond to the energy released when an electron jumps from one energy level to another. The interpretation of the closely spaced lines is that they represent the movement of electrons from levels that are not very different in energy.

Thi s s ugge sts t hat subleve lsdi vi s i ons wit hi n a l evel e xi st wit hi n a gi ven ene rgy l evel . If electrons are distributed over one or more sublevels within an energy level, then these electrons would have only slightly different energies. The energy sublevels are designated as s, p, d, and f. Each energy level consists of sublevels that are close in energy. Each energy level has a specific number of sublevels, which is the same as the number of the energy level. For example, the first energy level has one sublevel. Its called the 1s sublevel. The second energy level has two sublevels, the 2s and 2p sublevels. The third energy level has three sublevels: the 3s, 3p, and 3p sublevels; and the fourth energy level has four sublevels: the 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f sublevels. Within a given energy level, the energies of the sublevels, from lowest to highest, are s, p, d, and f. Figure shows the diagram of the first three energy levels and an inside view of the sublevels within them. Notice how the sublevels within an energy level are close together. This explains the groups of fine lines in an elements emission spectrum. For example, you might expect three spectral lines with slightly different frequencies because electrons fall from the 3s, 3p, and 3d sublevels to the 2s sublevel. Because each of these electrons initially has slightly different energy within the third energy level, each emits slightly different radiation. Orbitals are regions of space located around the nucleus of an atom, each having the energy of the sublevel of which it is a part. Orbitals can have different sizes and shapes. There are four types of orbitals that accommodate the electrons for all the atoms of the known elements. Two simple rules apply to these four orbitals. First, an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. Second, an orbital has the same name as its sublevel. There is only s orbital with, at most, 2 electrons. A p sublevel has, at most, 6 electrons, and, thus, there are three p orbitals, each with 2 electrons. Figure shows the shapes of s and p orbitals. Orbitals have characteristic shapes that depend on the number of electrons in the energy sublevels. An s orbital is spherically symmetrical about the nucleus; a p orbital has a dumbbell shape. Three p orbitals are aligned along the x, y, or z axis at each energy level.

The Distribution of Electrons in Energy Levels

How are electrons arranged in energy levels? Each energy level can hold a limited number of electrons. The lowest energy level is the smallest

and the closest to the nucleus. This first energy level holds a maximum of two electrons. The second energy level is larger because it is farther away from the nucleus. It holds a maximum of eight electrons. The third energy level is larger still and holds a maximum of 18 electrons and the fourth one 32 electrons. The ele ct rons i n t he out ermos t energy l e vel are call ed valence electro ns. As you can see, hydrogen has one valence electron and oxygen has six valence electrons. You can also use the periodic table as a tool to predict the number of valence electrons in any atom in Groups 1, 2, and 13 to 18. It is important to learn about the electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom because it is these electrons that interact when atoms come near each other. Therefore, many of the chemical and physical properties of an element are directly related to the number and arrangement of valence electrons. A specific number of electrons can go into each sublevel. An s sublevel can have a maximum of two electrons, a p sublevel can have six electrons, a d sublevel can have ten electrons, and an f sublevel can have 14 electrons. Table shows how electrons are distributed in the sublevels of the first four energy levels. Notice that the first energy level has one sublevel, the 1s. The maximum number of electrons in an s sublevel is two, so the first energy level is filled when it reaches two electrons. The second energy level has two sublevels, the 2s and 2p. The maximum number of electrons in a p sublevel is six, so the second energy level is filled when it reaches eight electronstwo in the 2s sublevel and six in the 2p sublevel. Look at the third and fourth energy levels and you can see that the third energy level can hold ten more electrons than the second because there is a d sublevel. The fourth can hold 14 more electrons than the third because there is an f sublevel. Energy Level 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 Sublevel 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f Electrons in Sublevel 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 Electrons in Level 2 8 18 Energy Level (x y z w represent electrons) 1 xx (2) 2 xx yyyyyy (2+6) 3 xx yyyyyy zzzzzzzzzz (2+6+10) 4 xx yyyyyy zzzzzzzzzz wwwwwwwwwwwwww (2+6+10+14)

32

Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital

In their quantum mechanical calculations, Schrodinger and others found that a set of three integers, called quantum numbersthe principal quantum number (n), angular momentum (or azimuthal) quantum number (), and magnetic quantum number (ml),--are needed to describe the three dimensional coordinates of an electrons motion in the atomic orbitals in a hydrogen atom. The need for a fourth quantum number, electron spin quantum number (ms), was identified in subsequent work by others. Thus, a set of four quantum numbersn, , m, and msis used to denote the energy and shape of the electron cloud for each electron. We can apply quantum numbers to electrons in any atom, not just hydrogen. 1. Principal Quantum Number, n (Principal Energy Levels) The first quantum number, n, the principal quantum number, is the most important one in determining the energy of an electron. This quant um number i s t he one on whi ch t he energy of an e lect ron i n an at om pri nci pall y depends . The quantum number n has only integer values starting with 1: n = 1, 2, 3, 4 . The value of n corresponds to a principal energy level so that an electron is in the first principal energy level when n=1, in the second principal energy level when n=2 and so on. As n increases, the energy of the electron increases as well, and the electron, on average, is farther away from the nucleus and is less tightly bound to it. The size of an orbital also depends on n. The larger the value of n is, the larger the orbital. Orbitals of the same quantum state n are said to belong to the same shell. Shells are sometimes designated by the letters K, L, M, and Ncorresponding to n=1, 2, 3, and 4 2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number, (Atomic Orbital Shapes) Thi s quant um numbe r di s ti nguis hes orbi tals of gi ven n havi ng differe nt s hapes . Each principal energy level is also known as an electron shell, a collection of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number value, n. when n=1, there is only one kind of atomic orbital possible. When n=2, two kinds of atomic orbials are possible; likewise, three kinds are possible when n=3, four when n=4, and so on. Within each principal energy level (shell) are subshells. The n=1 principal energy level has only one subshell; all other energy

levels (n>1) have more than one subshell. The subshells are designated by the second quantum number angular momentum quantum number, . the shape of the electron cloud corresponding to an atomic orbital is determined the value of . A subshell is one or more atomic orbitals with the same n and quantum numbers. Thus, the value of is associated with an n value. The value of is an integer that ranges from zero to a maximum of n-1: = o, 1, 2, 3 . . . (n-1) According to this relationship, when n=1, then must be zero. This indicates that in the first principal energy level (n=1) there is only one subshell, with an value of 0. The second principal energy level (n=2) has two subshellsone with an value of 0 and a second with an value of 1. Continuing in this manner, n = 3; = 0, 1, or 2 (three subshells) n =4; = 0, 1, 2 or 3 (four subshells) As mentioned earlier, a boundary surface for an atomic orbital can be drawn within which there is a 90% probability that an electron can be found. As n increases, two things happen: (1) orbitals become larger and (2) there is an increase in the number and types of atomic orbitals within a given level. The number of atomic orbital types within a principal energy level equals n. Thus, in the n=3 level, there are three different types of subshellsthat is s, p, and d orbitals. Atomic orbitals with the same n and values are in the same subshell. Rather than using values, subshells are more commonly designated by letters: s, p, d, or f. the first four subshells are known as the s subshell, p subshell, d subshell, and f subshell. value 0 1 2 3 subshell s p d f a number (the n value) and a letter (s, p, d, or f) are used to designate a specific subshell. For the first four principal energy levels, these designations are as follows: n 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 Level 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f For atoms with two or more electrons, atomic orbitals in different subshells but with the same value of n value have different energies.

The energies of subshells within a given principal energy level always increase in the order as ns < np < nd < nf. Consequently, a 3p subshell has a higher energy than a 3s subshell but less energy than a 3d subshell, which would have the highest energy in the n=3 level. 3. Magnetic Quantum Number, m (Orientation of Atomic Orbitals) Thi s quant um numbe r di st i nguis hes orbit als of gi ve n n and --t hat is , of gi ven energy and s hape but havi ng a diffe rent orient ati on i n s pace. The magnetic quantum number, m, can have any integer value between and -including zero. Thus, m = .+1, 0, -1, .- For a s subshell, which has an value of zero, m has only one value zero. Therefore, an s subshell, regardless of its n value1s, 2s, and so oncontains only one orbital, whose mvalue is zero. For a p subshell, equals 1, and so m can be +1, 0, or -1. This means that within each p subshell there are three different atomic orbitals: one with m =+1, another with m=0, and a third with m=-1. In general, for a subshell of quantum number , there is a total of 2+1 atomic orbitals within that subshell. Atomic orbitals within the same subshell have essentially the same energy. The total number of atomic orbitals in a shell equals n2. For example, an n=3 shell has a total of nine atomic orbitals: one 3s + three 3p + five 3d. In summary, the relation between an atomic orbital and its first three quantum numbers is: n relates to the atomic orbitals size. relates to the atomic orbitals shape. m relates to the atomic orbitals orientation. The m value in conjunction with the value is related to the shape and orientation of an atomic orbital in space. The s atomic orbitals are spherical; their size enlarges as n increases. Beginning with the second principal energy level (n=2) and at each higher n level, each energy level has three p atomic orbitals. The three p atomic orbitals are dumbbell shaped and oriented at right angles to each other, with maximum electron density directed along the x-, y-, or z- axis. They are sometimes designated as px , py , and pz atomic orbitals.

Rel ati ons hi p among n, , and m for t he fi rs t four pri nci pal energy l e vel s n Subshell Number of Total Number of m values value value Designation Atomic Atomic Orbitals Orbitals in in Shell, n2 Subshell (2l +1) 1 0 1s 0 1 1 2 0 2s 0 1 4 2 1 2p 1, 0, -1 3 3 0 3s 0 1 9 3 1 3p 1, 0, -1 3 3 2 3d 2,1,0, -1, -2 5 4 0 4s 0 1 16 4 1 4p 1, 0, -1 3 4 2 4d 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 5 4 3 4f 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, 7 -2, -3 4. Electron Spin Quantum Number, ms (Electron Spin) Thi s quant um numbe r refe rs t o t he t wo poss i ble ori e nt at ions of t he s pi n axis of an el e ct ron. Whereas three quantum numbers are sufficient to describe an atomic orbital, an additional quantum number becomes necessary to describe an electron that occupies the orbital. A close study of the emission spectra of hydrogen and sodium atoms revealed that what were originally thought to be single lines were actually very closely spaced pairs of lines. The line splitting could be explained by assuming that each electron in an atom can exist in one of two possible spin states. To visualize these states, consider an electron as a charged sphere rotating about an axis through its center. Such a spinning charge generates a magnetic field, so that each electron acts like a tiny bar magnet with north and south magnetic poles. Only two directions of spin are possible in relation to the direction of an external magnetic fieldclockwise or counterclockwise. Spins in opposite directions produce oppositely directed magnetic fields which results in two slightly different energies. This slight difference in energy splits the spectral lines into closely spaced pairs.

Thus, to describe an electron in an atom completely, a fourth quantum number, ms, called the spin quantum number, is needed in conjunction with the other three quantum numbers. The spin quantum number can have just one of two values: + or + Electrons are said to have parallel spins if they have the same ms quantum number (both+ or -). Electrons are said to be paired when they are in the same orbital and have opposite spins one has an ms of +and the other has a - value.

Placing Electrons in Orbitals: Electrons in Energy Levels

Three rules, or principlesthe aufbau principle, the Pauli Exclusion Principle, and Hunds rule define how electrons can be arranged in an atoms orbitals.

The aufbau principle: The aufbau pr in c ip le s t at es t hat each el ect ron

occupi e s t he l owest energy orbi tal avai lable. Therefore, your first step in determining an elements ground state electron configuration is learning the sequence of atomic orbitals from lowest energy to highest energy. This sequence, known as an aufbau diagram is shown in the table.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each electron has an associated spin,

similar to the way a top spins on its point. Like the top, the electron is able to spin on only one of two directions. An arrow pointing up represents the electron spinning in one direction, and an arrow pointing down represents the electron spinning in the opposite direction. The Pauli Exc lus ion Princ ip le s t ates t hat a maxi mum of t wo el e ct rons can occupy a si ngle at omi c orbi tal , but onl y i f t he ele ct ron have oppos ite s pi ns . Because each orbital can contain, at most, two electrons, the maximum number of electrons related to each principal energy level equals 2n 2.

Hunds Rule
The fact that negatively charged electrons repel each other has an important impact on the distribution of electrons in equal energy orbitals. Hunds rule states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals. For example, in the case of 2p orbitals, one electron enters each of the three 2p orbitals (2px , 2py , and 2pz) before a second electron enters any of the orbitals.

In summary, The principal energy level (shell) has a quantum number n=1, 2, 3 Within each principal energy level there are subshells equal in number to n and designated as s, p, d, and f subshells. The number of atomic orbitals in each subshell is 2l+1: one s atomic orbital (l=0), three p atomic orbitals (l=1), five d atomic orbitals (l=2), and seven f atomic orbitals (l-3). Within a principal energy level n, there are n 2 atomic orbitals. Within a principal energy level n, there is a maximum of 2n 2 electrons.

Organizing the Elements: The search for a Periodic Table

By 1860, scientists had already discovered 60 elements and determined their atomic masses. They noticed that some elements had similar properties. They gave each group of similar elements a name. Copper, silver, and gold were called the coinage metals; lithium, sodium, and potassium were known as the alkali metals; chlorine, bromine, and iodine were called the halogens. Chemists also saw differences among the groups of elements and between individual elements. They wanted to organize the elements into a system that would show similarities while acknowledging differences. It was logical to use atomic mass as the basis for these early attempts. The Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev found that when the elements are arranged in order of atomic mass, he could place them in horizontal rows, one row under the other, so that the elements in each vertical column have similar properties. In 1869, Mendeleev published a table of the elements organized by increasing atomic mass. He listed the elements in a vertical column starting with the lightest. When he reached an element that had properties similar to another element already in the column, he began a second column. In this way, elements with similar properties were placed in horizontal rows. He put a question mark at atomic mass 180 and positioned it next to zirconium (Zr = 90 on Mendeleevs table). This zircon crystal contains zirconium and hafnium, Mendeleevs unknown element (? =180). The chemical and physical properties of zirconium and hafnium are so similar that the two elements always occur together in nature and are difficult to separate.

Mendeleev later developed an improved version of his table with the elements arranged in horizontal rows. This arrangement was the forerunner of todays periodic table. Patterns of changing properties repeated for the elements across horizontal rows. Elements in vertical columns showed similar properties. Mendeleev noticed that when the elements were ordered by increasing atomic mass, the properties of the elements repeat in an orderly way from row to row of the table. This repeated pattern is an example of periodicity in the properties of the elements. Periodicity is the tendency to recur at regular intervalslike the appearance of Halleys Comet every 76 years. One of the tests of scientific theory is the ability to use it to make successful predictions. Mendeleev correctly predicted the properties of several undiscovered elements. In order to group elements with similar properties in the same columns, Mendeleev had to leave some blank spaces in his table, where he thought the undiscovered elements should go. By knowing the trends in the properties of known elements, he was able to predict the properties of the yet-to-be discovered elements scandium, gallium, and germanium. Mendeleev was so confidant of the periodicity of the elements that he placed some elements in groups with others of similar properties even though arranging them strictly by atomic mass would have resulted in a different arrangement. An example is tellurium. The accepted atomic mass of tellurium (Te) was 128, so it should have been placed after Iodine (I), which had an accepted atomic mass of 127. But the properties of tellurium logically placed it in the group with oxygen and sulfur, ahead of iodine, and the properties of iodine matched those of chlorine and bromine. Mendeleev placed tellurium with oxygen and sulfur and assumed that the atomic mass of 128 was incorrect. Mendeleevs placement of tellurium turned out to be correct even though his assumption about its atomic mass was not.

The Modern Periodic Table

At present, elements up to atomic number 112 have been discovered or synthesized. Many of the elements now known as transition elements, lanthanides, actinides, and noble gases were unknown in 1869 but today occupy the center of the table. There are several places in the modern periodic table where an element of higher atomic mass comes before one of lower atomic mass. This is because the basis for ordering the elements in the table is atomic number, not atomic mass. The atomic number of an

element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Atomic number increases by one as you move from element to element across a row. Each row (except the first) begins with a metal and ends with a noble gas. In between, the properties of the elements change in an orderly progression from left to right. The pattern in properties repeats after column 18. This regular cycle illustrates periodicity in the properties of the elements. The s tatement t hat t he phys i cal and chemi cal properti es of t he elements repe at i n a re gul ar patt ern when t he y are arrange d i n orde r of i ncreasi ng at omi c numbe r i s known as t he period ic law. A t abul ar arrange me nt of rows and col umns , hi ghli ghti ng t he re gular repe t iti on of prope rti es of t he ele me nts , is cal le d a period ic tab le. A period consists of the elements in any one horizontal row of the periodic table. A group consists of the elements in any one vertical column of the periodic table. Each element has a name such as silicon, copper, or oxygen. The periodic table organizes the elements in a way that provides a wealth of chemical information. It shows the chemical symbols for the elements and other details such as atomic mass, atomic number, and state of matter. In t he peri odi c table , el ements are arrange d i n t he i ncre asi ng order of at omi c numbe r. These are the numbers above the symbols for the elements in the periodic table. The symbols of the elements are part of the language of the chemistry. The chemical symbols are universal shorthand that is used to make chemistry communication understandable around the world. For example, the symbol Al for aluminum is taken directly from the elements name, but some elements have symbols that dont correspond to their English names. Their symbols usually correspond to their names in Latin. Some examples are shown in the table given below. Element Antimony Copper Gold Iron Lead Potassium Silver Sodium Tin Tungsten Symbol Sb Cu Au Fe Pb K Ag Na Sn W Origin stibium cuprum aurum ferrum plumbum kallum argentum natrium stannum wolfram Language Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin German

Relationship of the Periodic Table to Atomic Structure:

In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged according to atomic number. The atomic number of an atom tells the number of electrons it has. If elements are ordered in the periodic table by atomic number, then they are also ordered according to the number of electrons they have. The lineup starts with hydrogen, which has one electron. Helium comes next in the first horizontal row because helium has two electrons. Notice in the periodic table that lithium starts a new period, or horizontal row in the table. Why does this happen? Why does the first period have only two elements? This is because the electrons in atoms occupy discrete energy levels. Only two electrons can occupy the first energy level in an atom. The third electron must be at a higher energy level. Lithium starts a new period at the far left in the table and becomes the first element in a group. A group, sometimes called a family, consists of the elements in a vertical column. Groups are numbere d from l eft t o ri ght . Lithium is the first element in group I and in period 2. Elements with atomic numbers 4 through 10 follow lithium and fill the second period. Each has one more electron than the element that preceded it. Neon, with atomic number 10, is at the end of the period. Eight electrons are added in period 2 from lithium to neon, so eight electrons must be the number that can occupy the second energy level. The next element, sodium atomic number 11, begins period 3. Sodiums 11 th electron is in the third energy level. The third period repeats the pattern of the second period. Each element has one more electron than its neighbor to the left, and these electrons are in the third energy level.

Atomic Structure of Elements within a Period

The first period is complete with two electrons, hydrogen and helium. Hydrogen has one electron in its outermost energy level, so it has one valence electron. Can you see that helium must have two valence electrons? Every period after the first starts with a Group I element. These elements have one electron at a higher energy level than the noble gas of the preceding period. Therefore, Group I elements have one valence electron. As you move from one element to the next across periods 2 and 3, the number of valence electrons increases by one. Group 18 elements have the

maximum number of eight valence electrons in their outermost energy level. Group 18 elements are called the noble gases. The noble gases, with a full complement of valence electrons, are generally un-reactive. The peri od numbe r of an ele me nt is t he s ame as t he numbe r of it s outermos t e nergy l evel , so the valence electrons of an element in the second period, for example, are in the second energy level. A period 3 element such as aluminum has its valence electrons in the third energy level.

Atomic Structure of Elements within a Group

The number of valence electrons changes from one to eight as you move from left to right across a period; when you reach Group 18, the pattern repeats. For t he mai n group ele ments , t he group number is related t o t he numbe r of val ence el ect rons. The main group elements are those in Groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. For el ement s i n Groups 1 and 2, t he group numbe r e qual s t he numbe r of valence e lect rons . For el e me nts i n Groups 13 t o 18, t he s econd di git i n t he group number i s e qual to t he numbe r of val ence el ect rons. The number of valence electrons is the same for all members of a group. Because elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons, they have similar properties . Sodium is in Group 1 because it has one valence electron. Because the other elements in Group 1 also have one valence electron, they have similar chemical properties. Chlorine is in Group 17 and has seven valence electrons. All the other elements in Group 17 also have seven valence electrons and, as a result, they have similar chemical properties. Throughout the periodic table, elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of valence electrons. Four groups have commonly used names: the alkali metals in Group 1, the alkaline earth metals in Group 2, the halogens in Group 17, and the noble gases in Group 18. The word halogen is from the Greek words for salt former so named because the compounds that halogens form with metals are salt-like. The elements in Group 18 are called noble gases because they are much less reactive than most of the other elements. Because the periodic table relates group and period numbers to valence electrons, its useful in predicting atomic structure and, therefore, chemical properties. For example, oxygen, in Group 16 and Period 2, has six valence electrons (the same as the second digit in the group number), and these electrons are in the second energy level (because oxygen is in the second

period). Oxygen has the same number of valence electrons as all the other elements in Group 16 and, therefore, similar chemical properties.

Physical States and Classification of the Elements

Other practical information can be obtained from the periodic table. The arrangement of the table helps you determine the physical state of an element: whether the element is synthetic or natural; and whether the element is a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid. The periodic table shows the states of the elements at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. Most of the elements are solid. Only two elements are liquids, and the gaseous elements, except for hydrogen, are located in the upper-right corner of the table. Some elements are not found in nature but are produced artificially in particle accelerators. These are known as synthetic elements. Some of the synthetic elements are made by means of nuclear reactions. They include technetium, element 43, and all the elements after uranium, element 92. Although small amounts of neptunium and plutonium, elements 93 and 94, have been found in uranium ores, it is likely that they are the products of nuclear bombardment by radiation from uranium atoms. The color coding in the periodic table identifies which elements are metals (blue), nonmetals (yellow), and metalloids (green). The elements of the periodic table are divided by a heavy staircase line into metals on the left and nonmetals on the right. The majority of the elements are metals. They occupy the entire left side and center of the periodic table. Nonmetals occupy the upper-right hand corner. Metalloids are located along the boundary between metals and nonmetals. Each of these classes has characteristic chemical and physical properties, so by knowing whether an element is a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid, you can make prediction about its behavior. El ements are cl ass ified as met als , metall oi ds, or nonme tals on t he basi s of t hei r phys i cal and chemi cal propert i es . The property due to which certain elements can be beaten into sheets is called malleability and the elements are called malleable. Similarly the property due to which certain elements can be drawn into wires is called ductility and such elements are called ductile. Also certain elements exhibit some type of ringing sound when beaten, known as sonorous.

Metals
A metal is a substance or mixture that has a characteristic luster, or shine, and is generally a good conductor of heat and electricity. Elements which are generally in solid state, hard, lustrous, heavier than water, malleable, ductile, have high melting and boiling points, good conductors of heat and electricity and sonorous are called metals. With the exception of tin, lead, and bismuth, metals have one, two, or three valence electrons. All metals except for mercury are solids at room temperature; in fact, most have extremely high melting points. The periodic table shows that most of the metals are not main group elements. A large number are located in Groups 3 through 12. Notice the elements in fourth period beginning with scandium (Sc), atomic number 21, and ending with zinc (Zn), atomic number 30. These ten elements mark the first appearance of elements in Groups 3 through 12. From the fourth period to the bottom of the table, each period has elements in these groups. The elements in Groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table are called the transition elements. All transition elements are metals. Many are common place including chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Some are less common metals but still important, such as titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), and platinum (Pt). Some period 7 transition elements are synthetic and radioactive. While the chemistry of main group elements is highly predictable, that of the transition elements is less so. The unpredictability in the behavior and properties of the transition elements is due to the more complicated atomic structure of these elements. In t he peri odi c tabl e, t wo s e ri es of ele ments , atomi c numbers 58 t o 71 and 90 t o 103, are pl aced below t he mai n body of t he t abl e. Thes e ele ments are s e parated from t he mai n table becaus e putti ng t hem i n t hei r proper posi ti on woul d make t he t abl e very wi de , known as l ong form of t he pe ri odi c t abl e. The elements in these two series are known as the inner transition elements. Many of these elements were unknown in Mendeleevs time, but he did know of some of them and suspected that more would be discovered. The fi rs t s eri es of i nne r t rans iti on el ements is cal le d lanthan ides because t hey fol low t he e lement number 57, l ant hanum. The lanthanides consist of the 14 elements from number 58 (cerium, Ce) to number 71, (lutetium, Lu). Because their natural abundance on Earth is less than 0.01

percent, the lanthanides are sometimes called the rare earth elements. All of the lanthanides have similar properties. The second seri es of i nne r t rans iti on el ements , actin ides, have atomic numbers ranging from 90 (thorium, Th) to 103 (lawrencium, Lr). All of the actinides are radioactive, and none beyond uranium (92) occur in nature. Like the transition elements, the chemistry of lanthanides and actinides is unpredictable because of their complex atomic structures.

Non Metals
Elements which are generally brittle solids or liquids or gases, not hard, non- lustrous, lighter than water, non-malleable, non-ductile, nontensile, low melting and boiling points, bad conductors of heat and electricity and non-sonorous are called nonmetals. A nonmetal is an element that does not exhibit the characteristics of a metal. Most of the nonmetals are gases (for example, chlorine and oxygen) or solids (for example, phosphorous and sulfur). The solid nonmetals are usually hard, brittle substances. Bromine is the only liquid nonmetal. Although the majority of the elements in the periodic table are metals, many nonmetals are abundant in nature. The nonmetals oxygen and nitrogen make up 99 percent of the Earths atmosphere. Carbon, another nonmetal, is found in more compounds than all the other elements combined. The many compounds of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are important in a wide variety of applications.

Metalloids
Most of the elements bordering the staircase line in the periodic table are metalloids, or semimetals. These elements have some chemical and physical properties of metals and other properties of non metals. A metalloid, or semimetal, is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic properties. In the periodic table, the metalloids lie along the border between metals and nonmetals. Silicon (Si) is probably the most well known metalloid. Boron, Germanium, Arsenic and Antimony are the other common metalloids. A semiconductor is an element that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal, but does conduct slightly better than a nonmetal. These elements, such as silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), are usually good semiconductors. The ability of a semiconductor to conduct an electrical current can be increased by adding a small amount of certain other elements.

Atomic Structure of Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

The differences in the properties of the three classes of elements occur because of the different ways the electrons are arranged in the atoms. The numbe r and arrange me nt of valence el e ct rons and t he t i ght ness wit h whi ch t he valence el e ct rons are hel d i n an atom are i mport ant fact ors i n dete rmi ni ng t he behavi or of an ele me nt. In general, the valence electrons in a metal are loosely bound to the positive nucleus. They are free to move in the solid metal and are easily lost. This freedom of motion accounts for the ability of metals to conduct electricity. On the other hand, the valence electrons in atoms of nonmetals and metalloids are tightly held and are not easily lost. When undergoing chemical reactions, metals tend to lose valence electrons, whereas nonmetals tend to share electrons or gain electrons from other atoms . Most properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are determined by their valence electron configurations. The number of valence electrons that a metal has varies with its position in the periodic table. Valence electrons in metal atoms tend to be loosely held. Nonmetals have four or more tightly held electrons, and metalloids have three to seven valence electrons.

Patterns of Atomic Structure: Orbitals and the Periodic Table

Electron Configurations
The arrange me nt of elect rons i n an at om is call e d t he atoms electron conf ig urat ion. Because low-energy systems are more stable than highenergy systems, electrons in an atom tend to assume the arrangement that gives the atom the lowest possible energy possible. In any atom, el e ct rons are dist ri but e d i nto s ubleve ls and orbi tals i n t he way t hat creates t he most s table arrangeme nt ; t hat is , t he one wit h t he l owest ene rgy. This most stable, lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in sublevels and orbitals is called the elements ground-state electron configuration. Electrons fill orbitals and sublevels in an orderly fashion beginning with the innermost sublevels and continuing to the outermost. At any sublevel, electrons fill the s orbital first, then the p. For example, the first energy level holds two electrons. These electrons pair up in the 1s orbital. The second energy level has four orbitals and can hold eight electrons. The first two electrons pair up in the 2s orbital, and the remaining six pair up in the three

2p orbitals. The overlap of the 2s and 2p orbitals results in a roughly spherical cloud. Thats why the electrons in an atom can be represented as a series of fuzzy, concentric spheres. The periodic table can be used to predict the electron configurations of the atoms. Electrons occupy energy levels by filling the lowest level first and continuing to higher energy levels in numerical order. Val e nce ele ct rons of t he mai n group ele me nts occupy t he s and p orbi tals of t he out e rmost ene rgy l evel . The position of any element in the periodic table shows which orbitalss, p, d, and fthe valence electrons occupy. The s hape of t he modern pe ri odi c t abl e i s a di rect res ul t of t he order i n whi ch ele ct rons fill ene rgy l evel s and orbi t als . The periodic table is divided into blocks that show the sublevels and orbitals occupied by the electrons of the atoms. Notice that Groups 1 and 2 (the active metals) have valence electrons in s orbitals, and Groups 13 to 18 (metals, metalloids and nonmetals) have valence electrons in both s and p orbitals. There fore, all t he mai n group el ement s have t hei r valence el e ct rons i n s and p orbi tals . Groups 1 and 2 are designated as the s region of the periodic table, and Groups 13 to 18 are designated as the p region. Note that Groups 3 to 12 are designated as the d region and that each row of this region, except for that in period 17, has ten elements. The block beneath the table is the f region, and each row in this region contains 14 elements. Therefore, t he s , p, d, and f-bl ocks de termi ne t he s hape of t he pe ri odi c t abl e. As you proceed down through the periods, the principal energy level increases, as does the number of orbitals containing electrons. Note that the period 1 contains only s-block elements, periods 2 and 3 contain both s- and P-block elements, periods 4 and 5 contain s-, p-, and d-block elements, and periods 6 and 7 contain s-, p-, d-, and f-block elements.

Lewis Dot Diagrams

Because valence electrons are so important to the behavior of an atom, it is useful to represent them with symbols. A Lewis dot diagram illustrates valence electrons as dots around the chemical symbol of an element. Each dot represents one valence electron. In the dot diagram, the elements symbol represents the core of the atomthe nucleus plus all the inner electrons.

Building Electron Configurations

Chemical properties repeat when elements are arranged by atomic number because electron configurations repeat in a certain pattern. As you move through the table, youll notice how an elements position is related to its electron configuration. Hydrogen has a single electron in the first energy level. Its electron configuration is 1s1. This is standard notation for electron configuration. The number 1 refers to the energy level, the letter s refers to the sublevel, and the superscript refers to the number of electrons in the sublevel. Helium has two electrons in the 1s orbital. Its electron configuration is 1s 2. Helium has completely filled first energy level. When the first energy level is filled, additional electrons must go into the second energy level. Electrons enter the sublevel that will give the atom the most stable configuration, that with the lowest energy. Lithium begins the second period. Its first two electrons fill the first energy level, so the third electron occupies the second level. Lithi ums electron configuration is 1s22s 1. Beryllium has two electrons in the 2s orbital, so its electron configuration is 1s22s 2. As you continue to move across the second period, electrons begin to enter the p orbitals. Each successive element has one more electron in the 2p orbitals. Carbon, for example, has four electrons in the second energy level. Two of these are in the 2s orbital and two are in the 2p orbitals. The electron configuration for carbon is 1s 22s 22p2. At element number 10, neon, the p sublevel is filled with six electrons. The electron configuration for neon is 1s 22s 22p6. Neon has eight valence electrons; two are in an s orbital and six are in p orbitals. Sodium, atomic number 11, begins the third period and has a single 3s electron beyond the configuration of neon. Sodiums electron configuration is 1s 22s 22p63s 1. If you compare this with the electron configuration of lithium, 1s 22s 1, its easy to see why sodium and lithium have similar chemical properties. Each has a single electron in the valence level. Notice that neons configuration has an inner core of electrons that is identical to the electron configuration in helium (1s 2). This insight simplifies the way electron configurations are written.

Neons electron configuration can be abbreviated [He]2s 22p6. In the abbreviated form, neons electron configuration is represented by an inner core of electrons from the noble gas in the preceding row (He), followed by the orbitals filled in the current period. The abbreviated electron configuration for sodium is [Ne]3s1, where the neon core represents sodiums ten inner electrons. Its similarity to the [He]2s 1 configuration of lithium shows clearly that these Group 1 elements have the same number of valence electrons in the same type of orbital. The table given below shows electron configurations of all the elements in the second and third periods. Notice that elements in the same group have similar configurations. This is important because it shows that the periodic trends in properties, observed in the periodic table, are really the result of repeating patterns of electron configuration.

Electron Configurations of Second and Third Period Elements Second Period Configuration Third Period Configuration Elements Elements 1 Lithium [He] 2s Sodium [Ne] 3s 1 Beryllium [He] 2s 2 Magnesium [Ne] 3s 2 Boron [He] 2s 22p1 Aluminum [Ne] 3s 23p1 Carbon [He] 2s 22p2 Silicon [Ne] 3s 23p2 2 3 Nitrogen [He] 2s 2p Phosphorous [Ne] 3s 23p3 Oxygen [He] 2s 22p4 Sulfur [Ne] 3s 23p4 Fluorine [He] 2s 22p5 Chlorine [Ne] 3s 23p5 Neon [He] 2s 22p6 Argon [Ne] 3s 23p6

The Stable Configurations of the Noble Gases

Each period ends with a noble gas, so all the noble gases have filled energy levels and, therefore, stable electron configurations. The electron configurations for all the noble gases are shown in the table given below. All except helium have eight valence electrons. However, heliums two electrons fill its outermost energy level and are a stable configuration. These stable electron configurations explain the lack of reactivity of the noble gases. Noble gases dont need to form chemical bonds to acquire stability.

The Electron Configurations of the Noble Gases Noble Gas Electron Configuration Helium 1S2 Neon [He] 2s 22p6 Argon [Ne] 3s 23p6 Krypton [Ar] 4s 23d104p6 Xenon [Kr] 5s 24d105p6 Radon [Xe] 6s 24f145d106p6

What happens in the fourth period?

You might expect that after the 3p orbitals are filled in argon, the next electron would occupy a 3d orbital, but this is not the case. Potassium follows argon and begins the fourth period. Its configuration is [Ar]4s 1. Compare potassiums configuration to the configurations of lithium and sodium in the table, and recall that potassium is chemically similar to the Group 1 elements. Experimental evidence indicates that the 4s and 3d sublevels are close in energy, with the 4s sublevel having a slightly lower energy. Thus, the 4s sublevel fills first because that order produces an atom with lower energy. The next element after potassium is calcium. Calcium completes the filling of the 4s orbital. It has the electron configuration [Ar]4s 2.

Transition Elements
Notice in the periodic table that calcium is followed by a group of ten elements beginning with scandium (21) and ending with zinc (30). These are transition elements. Now the 3d sublevel begins to fill, producing atoms with the lowest possible energy. Ten elements are added across the row and fill the 3d sublevel. Just as the s block at each energy level adds two electrons and fills one s orbital, and the p block at each energy level adds six electrons and fills three p orbitals, so the d block adds ten electrons. These are five d orbitals. The f block adds 14 electrons, and they are accommodated in seven orbitals. The electron configuration of scandium, the first transition element, is [Ar]4s 23d1. Zinc, the last of the series, has the configuration [Ar]4s 23d10. The table shows the configurations of the 3d transition elements. The six elements following the 3d elements, gallium to krypton, fill the 4p orbitals and complete the fourth period.

Like most metals, the transition elements lose electrons to attain a more stable configuration. Most have multiple oxidation numbers because s and d orbitals are so close in energy that electrons can be lost from both orbitals. For example, cobalt (27) forms two fluoridesone with the formula CoF2 and another with the formula CoF3. In the first case, cobalt gives up two electrons to fluorine. In the second case, cobalt gives up three electrons. The rusting of the transition element iron shows that iron can have more than one oxidation number. In the process of rusting, iron first forms the compound FeO. This compound continues to react with oxygen and water to form the familiar orange-brown compound called rust, Fe 2O3. Because oxygen requires two electrons to achieve a noble-gas configuration, it takes the two 4s electrons from iron to form the FeO compound. The more complex Fe 2O3 forms when two iron atoms give up a total of six electrons to three oxygen atoms. Each iron atom must surrender its two 4s electrons and one of its 3d electrons.

Inner Transition Elements

The two rows beneath the main body of the periodic table are the lanthanides (atomic numbers 58 to 71) and the actinides (atomic numbers 90 to 103). These two series are called inner transition elements because their last electron occupies inner-level 4f orbitals in the sixth period and the 5f orbitals in the seventh period. As with the d-level transition elements, the energies of sublevels in the inner transition elements are so close that electrons can move back and forth between them. This results in variable oxidation numbers, but the most common oxidation number for all of these elements is 3+.

The Size of Orbitals

Hydrogen and the Group 1 elements each have a single valence electron in an s orbital. Hydrogens configuration is 1s 1; the valence electron configuration of lithium is 2s 1. For sodium, its 3s 1; for potassium, 4s1. Continuing down the column, rubidium, cesium, and francium have valence configurations of 5s 1, 6s 1, and 7s 1, respectively. How do these s orbitals differ from one another? As you move down the column, the energy of the

outermost sublevel increases. The higher the energy, the farther the outermost electrons are from the nucleus. The s orbitals, occupied by the valence electrons of hydrogen and the Group 1 elements, are described as spheres around the nucleus. As the valence electron gets farther from the nucleus, the s orbital it occupies gets larger and larger. Thus as the number of the outermost energy level increases, the size and energy of the orbital increase.

How Elements (Atoms) Form Compounds

Think about all the different kinds of materials you see and use every day. The world is made up of far more substances than the approximately 100 known elements. This wide variety of materials exists because atoms of different elements combine to form compounds. Its time to return to the submicroscopic world of atoms in order to explain how and why atoms combine to form such a variety of compounds. A compound i s a pure s ubst ance t hat cont ai ns t wo or more el eme nt s. In the 19th century, before electrons were discovered, chemists tried to visualize the way atoms combine to form compounds.

When Atoms Collide

When elements react, atoms of the elements must collide. It is what happens during that collision that determines what kind of a compound forms. When atoms collide with each other, what really comes into contact? The nucleus is tiny compared to the size of the atoms electron cloud. Also, the nucleus of an atom is buried deep in the center of the electron cloud. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that atomic nuclei would ever collide during a chemical reaction. In fact, reactions between atoms involve only their electron clouds. In the periodic table, the properties of elements repeat because the pattern of the outermost (valence) electrons repeats in each period. It is this arrangement of valence electrons of an atom that is primarily responsible for the atoms chemical properties. Also it is the valence electrons of colliding atoms that interact. But what kinds of interactions between valence electrons are possible? For some additional clues to what happens when atoms combine to form compounds, look at a group of elements with unusual propertiesthe noble gases.

Noble Chemical Stability

Of all the elements, the elements of Group 18 are a curious bunch. They are notorious for their almost complete lack of chemical reactivity. In fact, they have some practical uses just because they are not reactive. Despite the fact that all of these elements occur naturally in the environment, not a single compound of any of these elements has ever been found naturally in the environment. This group of unreactive elements used to be called the inert gases because chemists thought these elements could never react to form compounds. However, in the 1960s, chemists were able to react fluorine, under conditions of high temperature and pressure, with krypton and with xenon to form compounds. Since that time, a few additional compounds of xenon and krypton have been produced. Still, no one has been successful at synthesizing compounds of helium, neon, and argon. Now that chemists know that these elements arent completely inert, they are called noble gases.

The Octet Rule

The lack of reactivity of noble gases indicates that atoms of these elements must be stable. Noble gases are unlike any other group of elements on the periodic table because of their extreme stability. As you know, the elements of a vertical group on the periodic table have similar arrangement of valence electrons. Each noble gas has eight valence electrons, except for helium, which has two. Because electron arrangement determines chemical properties, the electron arrangements of the noble gases must be the cause of their lack of reactivity with other elements. What does the electron arrangement of noble gases have to do with the way other elements react? Compare the electron arrangement of noble gases. Atoms combine because they become more stable by doing so. The modern model of how atoms react to form compounds is based on the fact that the stability of a noble gas results from the arrangement of its valence electrons. This model of chemical stability is called the octet rule. The octet rule says that atoms can become stable by having eight electrons in their outer energy level (or two electrons in the case of some the smallest atoms). In other words, elements become stable by achieving the same configuration of valence electrons as one of the noble gases, a noble gas configuration.

Ways to Achieve a Stable Outer Energy Level

If atoms collide with enough energy, their outer electrons may rearrange to achieve a stable octet of valence electrons a noble gas configurationand the atoms will form a compound. Remember that electrons are particles of matter, so the total number of electrons cannot change during chemical reactions. Next, think about how valence electrons might rearrange among colliding atoms so that each atom has a stable octet. There are only two possibilities to consider. The first is a transfer of valence electrons between atoms. The second possibility is a sharing of valence electrons between atoms.

Electrons Can Be Transferred

You know that when sodium and chlorine are mixed, a reaction occurs and a compound, sodium chloride, forms. Locate these atoms on the periodic table. Sodium is in Group 1, so it has one valence electron. Chlorine is in Group 17 and has seven valence electrons. What can be happening at the atomic level? How can the valence electrons of atoms rearrange to give each atom a stable configuration of valence electrons? If the one valence electron of sodium is transferred to the chlorine atom, chlorine becomes stable with an octet of electrons. Because the chlorine atom now has an extra electron, it has a negative charge. Also, because sodium lost an electron, it now has an unbalanced proton in the nucleus and therefore has a positive charge. Its easy to see how chlorine has achieved a stable octet of electrons, but how does sodium become stable by losing an electron? Look at the position of sodium on the periodic table. By losing its lone valence electron, sodium will have the outer electron arrangement of neon. Sodiums stable octet consists of the eight electrons in the energy level below the level of the lost electron. Now that each atom has an octet of outer-level electrons, they are no longer neutral atoms; they are charged particles called ions. An ion is an atom or group of combined atoms that has a charge because of the loss or gain of electrons. Ions al ways form when val ence el ect rons rearrange by elect ron t rans fer bet we en at oms. A compound that is composed of ions is called an ionic compound. An ionic compound with only two different ions is called a binary ionic compound. The charges of the ions in a compound

always balance. When the charges are balanced the overall charge of the compound is zero and the compound is neutral. The transfer of a single electron changed a reactive metal, sodium, and a poisonous gas, chlorine, into the stable and safe compound, sodium chloride. It is clear that nothing about the atoms nucleus has changed.

Ions Attract Each Other

Remember that objects with opposite charges attract each other. Once they have formed, the positive sodium ion and negative chloride ion are strongly attracted to each other. The strong attractive force between ions of opposite charges is called an ionic bond. The force of the ionic bond holds ions together in an ionic compound. Even the smallest visible grain of salt contains several quintillion sodium and chloride ions. Every positively charged sodium ion attracts all nearby negatively charged ions and vice versa. Therefore, these ions do not arrange themselves into isolated sodium/chloride ion pairs. Instead, the ions organize themselves into a definite cube-shaped arrangement. This well organized structure is a crystal. Solid substances are composed of crystals. A crystal is a regular, repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules.

Electrons Can Be Shared

The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen forms water. What happens when hydrogen and oxygen atoms collide? Hydrogen has only one valence electron. Oxygen, a Group 16 element, has six valence electrons. Could these atoms achieve the stable electron configuration of a noble gas by transfer of electrons? If the oxygen atom could pick up two more valence electrons, it would have a stable octetthe noble gas configuration of neon. What about hydrogen? Could hydrogen lose its single valence electron? Your first inclination must be to treat hydrogen just like sodium, but be careful. If hydrogen loses an electron, it is left with no electrons, and that isnt the electron structure of a noble gas. Maybe hydrogen could gain an electron so that its electron arrangement is like that of helium. But, both atoms cannot gain electrons. Colliding atoms transfer electrons only when one atom has a stronger attraction for valence electrons than has the other atom. In the case of sodium and chloride, chlorine attracts sodiums valence electron strongly, whereas sodium holds its electrons weakly. Therefore, the electron moves

from sodium to chlorine, forming positive and negative ions in the process. In the case of hydrogen and oxygen, neither atom attracts electrons strongly enough to take electrons from the other atom. When atoms collide with enough energy to react, but neither attracts electrons strongly enough to take electrons from the other atom, the atoms combine by sharing valence electrons. To understand how water forms, start by looking at the electron dot structures of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen requires one more electron to have the same electron arrangement as helium, while oxygen requires two more electrons to have neons arrangement. Hydrogen and oxygen can share one electron from each atom. This sharing is shown by placing two dots representing electrons between atoms, in the Lewis dot diagram. This arrangement makes hydrogen stable by giving it two valence electrons, but it leaves oxygen with only seven valence electrons. Oxygens octet can be completed by sharing an electron with another hydrogen atom. (This explains why water has the formula H 2O). Just as in the case of the formation of sodium chloride by ionic bonding, all the parts present before the reaction are still there after the reaction. What has changed in the combining of hydrogen and oxygen atoms? The valence electrons no longer reside in the same position. This is what always happens in a chemical reaction; electrons rearrange. The stability of the atoms in a water molecule results from a cooperative arrangement in which the eight valence electrons (six from oxygen and one each from two hydrogens) are distributed among the three atoms. By sharing an electron pair with the oxygen, each hydrogen claims two electrons in its outer level. The oxygen, by sharing two electrons with two hydrogens, claims a stable octet in its outer level. By this method, each atom achieves a stable noble gas configuration.

Electron Sharing Produces Molecules

The attraction of two atoms for a shared pair of electros is called a covalent bond. Notice that in a covalent bond, atoms share electrons and neither atom has an ionic charge. A compound whose atoms are held together by covalent bonds is a covalent compound. Water is a covalent compound. Although water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, these have combined into water molecules, each having two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom. A molecule is an uncharged group of two or

more atoms held together by covalent bonds. Sometimes chemists refer to covalent compounds as molecular compounds. The terms mean the same thing. Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a typical covalent compound.

More Than Two Electrons Can Be Shared

When charcoal burns, carbon atoms collide with oxygen to form CO 2. Carbon is in Group 14 and has four valence electrons. Oxygen is in Group 16 and has six valence electrons. Carbon and oxygen are like hydrogen and oxygen when it comes to the question of sharing or transferring electrons. Neither atom is able to attract electrons away from the other atom. In fact, two nonmetallic elements usually achieve stability by sharing electrons to form a covalent compound. On the other hand, if the reacting elements are a metal and a nonmetal, they are much more likely to transfer electrons and form an ionic compound. Consider the reaction of carbon and oxygen to form CO 2. Look at the electron dot structures for the participating atoms in the Lewis diagram. Can you arrange the 16 valence electrons from these three atoms to produce a molecule in which all three atoms have a stable configuration? You know that at least one bond must exist between the carbon and each oxygen, to start there. Heres an approach to the puzzle. Have each oxygen share an electron with carbon as shown in the dot structures. This arrangement gives carbon six electrons and each oxygen seven, but still no atom has an octet. What else can be done? Theres no law in chemistry that says atoms must bond by sharing only one pair of electrons. What happens if they share two pairs? You now have double covalent bonds, as shown in the dot structure. Now count all the electrons around each atom, including the ones that are shared. Youll see that each atom has a stable octet. Study the result of this electron sharing: when one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms react, the carbon atom shares two pairs of electrons with each oxygen and this arrangement gives all atoms a stable octet. By sharing electrons, the three atoms achieve a more stable arrangement than they had as three separate atoms. A molecule of carbon dioxide is more stable than one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. As with water, the molecule of carbon dioxide is different from the sum of its parts. The macroscopic properties of carbon dioxide are a result of the unique properties of carbon dioxide molecules, not the properties of carbon or oxygen atoms.

How do ionic and covalent compounds compare?

When elements combine, they form either ions or molecules. No other possibilities exist. The particles change dramatically, whether they change from sodium atoms to sodium ions or hydrogen and oxygen atoms to water molecules. This change explains why compounds have different properties from the elements that make them up.

Explaining the Properties of Ionic Compounds

The physical properties of ionic compounds are directly related to the fact that ionic compounds are composed of well-organized, tightly bound ions. These ions form a strong, three dimensional crystal structure. This model of the submicroscopic structure explains the general observation that ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. Just like NaCl, these solids are generally hard, rough, and brittle. Ionic compounds usually have to be heated to high temperatures in order to melt them because the attractions between ions of opposite charge are strong. It takes a lot of energy to break the well-organized network of bound ions. Another physical property of ionic compounds is their tendency to dissolve in water. When they dissolve in water, the solution conducts electricity. Ionic compounds also conduct electricity in the liquid (melted) state. Any compound that conducts electricity when melted or dissolved in water is ane electrolyte. Therefore, ionic compounds are electrolytes. In order to conduct electricity, ions must be free to move because they must take on or give up electrons. Ionic compounds in the solid state dont conduct electricity because the ions are locked into position. Ionic compounds become good conductors when they melt. This is evidence that the ions are less bound and free to move in the liquid state.

Explaining the Properties of Covalent Compounds

As with ionic compounds, the submicroscopic model of the formation of covalent compounds explains many of the properties of these compounds. In particular, you can use this model to explain why typical covalent compounds such as H2O and CO 2 have properties so different from ionic compounds. In order to explain these differences, consider the submicroscopic organization of covalent compounds. Covalent compounds are composed of molecules. The atoms that compose molecules are held

together by strong forcescovalent bondsthat make the molecule a stable unit. The molecules themselves have no ionic charge, so the attractive forces between molecules are usually weak. The forces between particles that make up a substance are called inter-particle forces. It is the great difference in the strength of inter-particle forces in covalent compounds compared to those of ionic compounds that explains many of the differences in their physical properties. Whereas all ionic compounds are solids at room temperature, many covalent compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature. Note, however, that many covalent compoundssugar, for examplewill form crystals if there is enough attractive force between molecules. Many of the covalent compounds that are solids at room temperature will melt at low temperatures. Examples are sugar and the compounds that make up candle wax and fat. Molecular (covalent) compounds do not conduct elect ricity in the pure state. Many covalent compounds, such as those in gasoline and vegetable oil, do not dissolve in water, although others such as sugar will dissolve. The solubility of covalent compounds in water varies, but in general, covalent compounds are usually less soluble in water than ionic compounds. What accounts for these differences?

Inter-particle Forces Make the Difference

Inter-particle forces are the key to determining the state of matter of a substance at room temperature. You already know that ions are held rigidly in the solid state by the strong forces between them. Because there are much lower inter-particle forces in covalent compounds, their molecules are less tightly held to one another. Therefore, they are more likely be gases or liquids at room temperature. Because there are no ions in covalent compounds, you do not expect them to be electrical conductors. Ionic compounds tend to be soluble in water while molecular compounds do not. This difference is also explained by inter-particle forces. Ions are attracted by water molecules, but many covalent molecules are not and, therefore, do not dissolve. Solubility in water and the nature of water solutions is a major topic in chemistry.

Chemical Formulas: Ionic and Molecular Substances

Gold is an element, so it contains only gold atoms. Water and sugar are compounds. How can you tell what elements make up a compound? An

ingredient list would help. Such a list would name all the elements contained in a compound. It also would tell how much of each element is present. An ingredient list for a compound is called its chemical formula. The chemical formula for a substance shows its chemical composition as elements present and the ratio in which the atoms of the elements occur. The chemical formula of a substance is a notation that uses atomic symbols with numerical subscripts to convey the relative proportions of atoms of the different elements in the substance. A chemica l formu la cont ai ns at omi c s ymbol s and s ubs cri pts t o s how t he el e me nt s and t he number of atoms of each el ement t hat combi ne t o form a compound. Consider the formula of aluminum oxide, Al 2O3. This means that the compound is composed of aluminum atoms and oxygen atoms in the ratio 2:3. Consider the formula for sodium chloride, NaCl. When no subscript is written for a symbol, it is assumed to be 1. Therefore, the formula NaCl means that the compound is composed of sodium atoms and chlorine atoms in the ratio 1:1. The formula of the compound sucrose is C12H22O11, which, in a compact way, tells that the smallest unit of sucrose molecule contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio 12:22:11. Formulas provide a shorthand way of describing a submicroscopic view of a compound. Additional information may be conveyed by different kinds of chemical formulas. To understand this, we need to look briefly at two main types of substances: ionic and molecular.

Ionic Substances
An atom consists of a very small, very dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by a diffuse distribution of negatively charged particles called electrons. The number of positive charges in the nucleus defines the identity of the element to which the atom corresponds. Electrically neutral atoms contain the same number of electrons outside the nucleus as positive charges (protons) within the nucleus. The number of positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom remains the same during ordinary chemical reactions, but the negatively charged electrons may be lost or gained resulting in the formation of ions. Although many substances are molecular, others are composed of ions. It i s t he el ect rons of at oms of i nte ract i ng eleme nts t hat are i nvol ved i n compound format ions . Ions are formed when neutral atoms lose or gain electrons. An ion i s an e lect ri cal l y charged part i cl e obtai ned from an at om or che mi cal l y bonded group of

at oms by addi ng or removi ng el e ct rons . In other words, an ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. The best known ionic compound is common table salt, or sodium chloride, is made up of ions. Although isolated atoms are normally electrically neutral and therefore contain equal number of positive and negative charges, during the formation of certain compounds atoms can become ions. Metal atoms tend to lose electrons, whereas nonmetals tend to gain electrons. When a metal atom such as sodium and a nonmetal atom such as chlorine approach one another, an electron can transfer from the metal atom to the nonmetal atom to produce ions. A binary compound is a compound composed of only two elements. Binary compounds composed of a metal and a nonmetal are usually ionic and are named as ionic compounds. An atom that picks up an extra electron becomes a negatively charged ion, called anion. An atom that loses an electron becomes a positively charged ion, called a cation. A sodium atom, for example, can lose an electron to form a sodium cation (denoted by Na +). A chlorine atom can gain an electron to form a chloride anion (denoted by Cl -). A calcium atom can lose two electrons to form a calcium cation, denoted by Ca 2+. Note that the positive two charges on the ion is indicated by a superscript 2+. Some ions consist of two or more atoms chemically bonded but having an excess or deficiency of electrons so that the unit has an electric charge. An example is the sulfate ion, SO 42-. The superscript 2- indicates an excess of two electrons on the group of atoms. An ionic compound is composed of cations and anions. Sodium chloride consists of equal number of sodium ions, Na + , and chloride ions, Cl-. The strong attraction between positive and negative charges holds the ions together in a regular arrangement in space. It consists of an extended array of Na + and Cl - ions, each Na + ion is surrounded at equal distances by six Cl - ions, and each Cl - ion is surrounded by six Na + ions. The result is a crystal, which is a kind of solid having a regular three dimensional arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions. The number of ions in an individual sodium chloride crystal determines the size of the crys tal. A binary compound is a compound that contains only two elements. Similarly binary ionic compounds can contain more than one ion of each element, as in CaF2, but they are not composed of three or more different elements, as are more complex compounds. To name a bi nary ioni c compound, fi rs t we wri t e t he name of t he pos iti ve l y charge d i on, us ual l y a met al , and t hen he name of t he nonmetal or negat i vel y charged i on, whose

name has been modified to end i n i de . The compound formed from potassium and chlorine is called potassium chloride. Magnesium combines with oxygen to form a compound called magnesium oxide. The formul a of an i oni c compound i s wri tt e n by gi vi ng t he s mall est poss i bl e i nt eger numbe r of di ffere nt i ons i n t he s ubstance, except t hat t he charges on t he i ons are omi tt ed so t hat t he formul as merel y i ndi cat e t he at oms i nvol ve d. For example, sodium chloride contains sodium ions that have a 1+ charge and chloride ions that have a 1- charge. You have learned that compounds are electrically neutral. This means that the sum of the charges in an ionic compound must always equal zero. Thus one Na+ balances one Cl - in sodium chloride. Thus sodium chloride must have equal number of Na + and Cl - ions. The smallest subscript to both the ions that results in a total charge of zero is 1. However, no subscript needs to be written because it is understood that only one ion or atom of an element is present if there is no subscript. The formula is written as NaCl (not Na +Cl - or Na1Cl 1) and it indicates that sodium chloride contains sodium and chloride ions, that there is one sodium ion present for every chloride ion in the compound, and that the compound has no overall charge. If more than one ion of a given element is present in a compound, the subscript indicates how many ions are present. The mineral known as fluorite is calcium fluoride, which has the formula CaF 2. This formula indicates that there is one calcium ion for every two fluoride ions in the compound. Although ionic substances do not contain molecules, we can speak of the smallest unit of such a substance. The formula unit of a substance is the group of atoms or ions explicitly symbolized in the formula. In an ionic compound, a formula represents the smallest ratio of atoms or ions in the compound. In a covalent compound, the smallest unit of the compound is a molecule, so a formula represents a single molecule of a compound. However, ionic compounds dont form molecules. Their structures are repeating patterns of molecules. Should the formula of calcium fluoride be written as CaF2, Ca2F4, or even Ca 3F6? A properly written formula has the simplest possible ratio of the ions present. This simplest ratio of ions in a compound is called a formula unit. Each formula unit of calcium chloride consists of one calcium ion and two fluoride ions. Each of the three ions has a stable octet configuration of electrons, and the formula unit has no overall charge. Although the sum of the ionic charges in both

CaF2 and Ca 2F4 is zero, only CaF2 is a correct formula. One formula unit of calcium fluoride has the formula CaF2.

Predicting Charge on Ions

Examine the periodic table to see if there is a way to predict the charge that different elements will have when they become ions. Which elements will lose electrons and which will gain electrons? The noble gases each have eight electrons in their outer energy levels. Metals have few outer-level electrons so they tend to lose them and become positive ions. Sodium must lose just one electron, becoming an Na + ion. Calcium must lose two electrons, becoming a Ca2+ ion. Most nonmetals, on the other hand, have outer-energy levels that contain four to seven electrons, so they tend to gain electrons and become negative ions. The compound commonly called lime is calcium oxide. It is used to make steel and cement and is added to acidic lakes and soil to neutralize the effects of acidity. Calcium is a metal that loses two electrons to become a Ca 2+ ion; oxygen is a nonmetal that must gain two electrons to achieve the stable octet of the noble gas neon, so it becomes an O 2- ion. Because a formula unit must be neutral, one Ca 2+ ion can combine with only one O2- ion. The formula for calcium oxide is CaO. Do you recognize a periodic trend in ionic charges? For the elements in the main group of the periodic tableGroups 1, 2, and 13 through 18 group numbers can be used to predict these charges. Because all elements in a given group have the same number of electrons in their outer energy level, they must lose or gain the same number of electrons to achieve a noble-gas configuration. Metals always lose electrons and nonmetals always gain electrons when they form ions. The charge on the ion is known as the oxidation number of the atom. The oxidation numbers for many elements in the main groups are arranged by group number in the table. Oxidation numbers for elements in Groups 3 through 12, the transition elements, cannot be predicted by group number. Alumina is the common name for aluminum oxide. It is used to produce aluminum metal, to make sand paper and other abrasives, and to separate mixtures of chemicals by a technique called chromatography. Aluminum is in Group 13, so it loses its three outer electrons to become an Al 3+ ion; oxygen is in Group 16 and has six valence electrons, so it gains two

to become an O 2- ion. Notice that one aluminums three electrons has not been taken by the oxygen atom. Because all the electrons must be accounted for, more than one oxygen atom must be involved in the reaction. But, oxygen cannot gain only one electron, so a second aluminum atom must be present to contribute a second electron to oxygen. In all, two Al 3+ ions must combine with three O 2- ions to form Al 2O3. Remember that the charges in the formula for aluminum oxide must add up to zero. Ionic Charges of Representative Group Number Oxidation Number Metals 1 1+ 2 2+ 13 3+ Nonmetals 15 316 217 1Elements Examples Li +, Na+, K+ Mg2+, Ca2B3+, Al 3+ N3-, P3O2-, S2F-, Cl -, Br-, I-

Writing a Simple Formula

Write the formula for an ionic compound containing sodium and sulfur. Sodium is in Group 1, so it has an oxidation number of 1+. Sufur is in Group 16 and has an oxidation number 2-. Write the symbols for sodium and sulfur ions in formula form, placing the positive ion first. Na+S2The formula as written has one positive charge and two negative charges. To maintain neutrality, one more positive charge is needed to balance the 2- charge. This is accomplished by adding a second sodium ion and is indicated by placing the subscript 2 after the symbol for sodium in the formula. The correct formula is then written as Na 2S. Check to be sure that you have not changed the charges of the ions and that the overall charge of the formula is zero. 2(1+) + (2-) = 0 i.e., the formula as written is correct.

Compounds containing Polyatomic Ions

The ions you have studied thus far have contained only one element. The simplest ions are monatomic. A monatomic ion is an ion formed from a

single atom. However, some ions contain more than one element. A polyatomic ion is an ion consisting of two or more atoms chemically bonded together and carrying a net electric charge. An ion that has two or more different elements is called a polyatomic ion. In a pol yat omi c i on, a group of at oms i s covalentl y bonde d toget he r when t he at oms s hare el ect rons . Although the individual atoms have no charge, the group as a whole has an overall charge. The formulas and names of some common polyatomic ions are shown in the table. Although the charge is shown to the right of the formula, it is the whole ion, rather than just the last atom listed, that is charged. Polyatomic ions, such as hydroxide, sulfate and oxalate are composed of more than one atom. El ect rons are s hare d bet ween t he at oms wi t hi n t he i on, formi ng coval ent bonds , but t he ion as a whol e has a charge. Thus , pol yat omi c i ons form i oni c bonds wit h ot her i ons t o produce ioni c compounds .

Common Polyatomic Ions Name of Ion Formula Charge ammonium NH4+ 1+ + Hdronium H3O 1+ Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1Hydrogen sulfate HSO4 1Acetate C2H3O21Nitrite NO2 1Nitrate NO3 1cyanide CN 1Hydroxide OH 1Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO41permanganate MnO412Carbonate CO3 22Sulfate SO4 2Sulfite SO3222Oxalate C2O4 23Monohydrogen phosphate PO4 32Dichromate Cr2O7 23phosphate PO4 3-

Ionic compounds may contain positive metal ions bonded to negative polyatomic ions, such as in NaOH; negative nonmetal ions bonded to positive polyatomic ions, such as in NH 4NO3. To write the formula for an ionic compound containing one or more polyatomic ions, simply treat the polyatomic ion as if it were a single-element ion by keeping it together as a unit. Remember that the sum of the positive and negative charges must equal zero. Multiple polyatomic ion in a formula can be indicated by placing the entire polyatomic ion, without the charge, in parenthesis. Write a subscript outside the parenthesis to show the number of polyatomic ions in the compound. Never change the subscripts within the polyatomic ion. To do so would change the composition of the ion. The formula for the compound that contains one magnesium ion and two nitrate ions is Mg(NO 3)2. To name a compound containing a polyatomic ion, follow the same rules as used in naming binary compounds. Name the positive ion first, followed by the negative ion. However, do not change the ending of the negative polyatomic ion name. The name of the compound composed of calcium and the carbonate ion is calcium carbonate. Acids in groundwater can dissolve rocks made of calcium carbonate, such as limestone. Large, underground caverns are formed when the limestone is dissolved away slowly. Stalactites hanging from the ceiling and stalagmites rising from the ground are made when calcium carbonate precipitates from a water solution dripping through cracks in the cavern ceiling. What is the formula for calcium carbonate? Calcium is in Group2, so its ion has a 2+ charge. The carbonate ion has a 2- charge, as shown in the table. To form a neutral compound, one Ca 2+ ion must combine with one CO32- ion to give the formula CaCO 3.

Writing a Formula containing a polyatomic ion

Write the formula for the compound that contains lithium and carbonate ions. Lithium is in Group 1, so its ion has a 1+ charge. According to the table, the carbonate ion has a 2- charge, and its structure is CO 32-. Write the symbols for lithium carbonate in formula form. Li +CO32Determine the correct ratio of lithium ions to carbonate ions by examining their charges. In this case, the sum of the positive and

negative charges does not equal zero. Two lithium ions are needed to balance the carbonate ion. Because you cannot change the charges of the ions, you must add a subscript of 2 to Li +. The correct formula for lithium carbonate is Li 2CO3. Check to be sure that the overall charge of the formula is zero. i.e., 2 (1+) + (2-) = 0 ; the formula as written is correct.

Writing a more complex formula

Write the formula for the compound that contains aluminum and sulfate ions. Aluminum is in Group 13 and has an oxidation number of 3+. According to the table, the sulfate ion has a 2- charge. Write the symbols for aluminum sulfate in formula form. Al 3+SO42Determine the correct ratio of aluminum ions to sulfate ions by examining their charges. In this case, the sum of the positive and negative charges does not equal zero. To achieve neutrality, you must find the least common multiple of 3 and 2. The least common multiple is 6. How many Al 3+ ions will be needed to make a charge of 6+, and how many SO 42- ions will be needed to make a charge of 6-. It will be necessary to have two Al 3+ ions in the compound to balance three SO42- ions. You should add a subscript of 2 to the aluminum ion and subscript of 3 to the sulfate ion. The entire polyatomic ion must be placed in parenthesis to indicate that three sulfate ions are present. Thus the correct formula for aluminum sulfate is Al 2(SO4)3. Check to be sure that the overall charge of the formula is zero. i.e., 2 (3+) + 3 (2-) = 0 ; the formula as written is correct.

Compounds of Transition Elements

the elements known as transition elements are located in Groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table. The transition elements form positive ions just as other metals do, but most transition elements can form more than one type positive ion. In other words, transition elements can have more than one oxidation number. For example, copper can form both Cu + and Cu2+ ions, and iron can form both Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ions. Chemists must have a way to distinguish the names of compounds formed from the different ions of a transition element. They do this by using

a Roman numeral to indicate the oxidation number of a transition element ion. This Roman numeral is placed in parenthesis after the name of the element. No additional naming system is needed for zinc and silver compounds because their formulas are not ambiguous. The table given below shows the naming of the two different ionic compounds formed when chloride ions combine with each of the two copper ions. Compounds of Copper and Chlorine Copper Ion Chloride Ion(s) Formula Name + Cu Cl CuCl Copper(I) chloride 2+ Cu 2Cl CuCl 2 Copper(II) chloride Two compounds of Iron and Sulfate: iron forms both Fe2+ and Fe 3+ ions, each of which can combine with the sulfate ion. (some people use the older spelling, sufphate). Iron(II) sulfate, FeSO 4, is a blue-green crystalline substance that is used in fertilizer and as a food supplement. Iron(III) sulfate, Fe 2(SO4)3 is a yellow crystalline substance that is used as a coagulant in water-purification and sewage-treatment plants. After the sewage is coagulated, it is filtered out. Iron(III) sulfate is a compound consisting of iron(III) ions, Fe 3+, and sulfate ions, SO 42- , in the ratio 2:3. The formula is written Fe2(SO4)3, in which parenthesis enclose the formula of an ion composed of more than one atom (again, omitting ion charges); parenthesis are used only when there are two or more such ions. For example, the formula unit of water, H 2O, is the H2O molecule. The formula unit of iron(III) sulfate, Fe 2(SO4)3, consists of two Fe 3+ ions and three SO 42- ions. The formula unit is the smallest unit of such substances. All substances, including ionic compounds, are electrically neutral, i.e., any compound, whether ionic or molecular, is electrically neutral, that is, it has no net charge. This fact can be used to obtain the formula of an ionic compound, given the formulas of the ions. The table given below shows the chemical names of some transition element ions. When you practice problems, you will become familiar with these names. The different ions of a transition element often form compounds of different colors. For example, CrO is black, Cr2O3 is green, and CrO 3 is red. Determine the oxidation number for chromium in each of these compounds.

Names of Common Ions of Selected Transition Elements Element Ion Chemical Name 2+ Chromium Cr Chromium(II) 3+ Cr Chromium(III) 6+ Cr Chromium(IV) Cobalt Co2+ Cobalt(II) 3+ Co Cobalt(III) + Copper Cu Copper(I) 2+ Cu Copper(II) + Gold Au Gold(I) Au3+ Gold(III) 2+ Iron Fe Iron(II) 3+ Fe Iron(III) 2+ Manganese Mn Manganese(II) Mn3+ Manganese(III) 7+ Mn Manganese(VII) + Mercury Hg Mercury(I) 2+ Hg Mercury(II) 2+ Nickel Ni Nickel(II) Ni 3+ Nickel(III) 4+ Ni Nickel(IV) Suppose you wanted to write the formula for a compound containing a transition element. How would you write the formula if iron (II) were combined with sulfur? Iron (II) has an oxidation number of 2+, and its ion can be written as Fe 2+. You know that the sulfide ion has a charge of 2- and can be written as S2-. The charges balance in this case, and the formula for iron (II) sulfide is written as FeS. You can write the formula for iron (III) sulfide in the same way. The correct formula for iron (III) sulfide is Fe 2S3. Note that the Roman numeral refers to the oxidation number of the iron and not to how many ions are in the formula. How can you name a compound of a transition element if you are given the formula? Determining the charge of the transition element ion gives the clue needed to name the compound. In the formula Cr(NO 3)3, you must determine the charge of the chromium ion in order to name the compound. Look first at the negative ion. Knowing that the nitrate ion has a charge of 1- and that there are three nitrate ions with a total charge of 3-, you can see that the chromium ion must have a charge of 3+ to maintain neutrality. Thus, the compound is named chromium (III) nitrate.

Hydrates
Many ionic compounds are prepared by crystallization from a water solution, and water molecules become a part of the cryst al. A hydrate is a compound that contains water molecules weakly bound in its crystals . A compound i n whi ch t he re is a s peci fi c rati o of water t o ioni c compound is cal le d a hydrate. In a hydrate, the water molecules are chemically bonded to the ionic compound. Does your chemistry instructor often remind students to make sure that the lids on jars of chemicals are tightly closed? There is a good reason for sealing the jars tightly; some ionic compounds can easily become hydrates by absorbing water molecules from water vapor in the air. These compounds are called hygroscopic substances, and one example is sodium carbonate (Na 2CO3). Substances that are so hygroscopic that they take up enough water from the air to dissolve completely and form a liquid solution are called deliquescent. Many of these compounds become hydrates by absorbing water from the air. The compounds that form hydrates often are used as drying agents or desiccants, because they absorb so much water from the air when they become hydrated. Boxes of electronic equipment such as cameras and CD players usually contain small packets of a desiccant. The desiccant absorbs water vapor from the air, protecting the delicate metal parts against corrosion and preventing condensation of water vapor in the wiring of the equipment. Even a tiny quantity of water on a circuit board can create a short circuit. Desiccants are especially useful for packaging electronic equipment that is to be shipped overseas because ocean air in the holds of ships contains so much moisture. These substances are often obtained by evaporating an aqueous solution of the compound. When an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate is evaporated, blue crystals form in which each formula unit of copper(II) sulfate, CuSO 4, is associated with five molecules of water. The formula of the hydrate is written CuSO 4.5H2O, where a centered dot separates CuSO 4 and 5H2O. To write the formula for a hydrate, write the formula for the compound and then place a dot followed by the number of water molecules per formula unit of compound. The dot in the formula represents a ratio of compound

formula units to water molecules. For example, CaSO 4*2H2O is the formula for a hydrate of calcium sulfate that contains two molecules of water for each formula unit of calcium sulfate. This hydrate is used to make Portland cement and plaster of paris. Hydrates are named from the anhydrous compound, followed by the word hydrate with a prefix to indicate the number of water molecules per formula unit of the compound. To name hydrates, follow the regular name for the compound with the word hydrate, to which a prefix has been added to indicate the number of water molecules present. Use the table given below to find the correct prefix to use. The name of the compound with the formula CaSO 4*2H2O is calcium dehydrate. For example, CuSO 4.5H2O is known as copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.

Prefixes to Use in Naming Hydrates Molecules of Water Prefix 1 Mono2 Di3 Tri4 Tetra5 Penta6 Hexa7 Hepta8 Octa9 Nona10 DecaHeating hydrates can drive off the water. This results in the formation of an anhydrous compoundone in which all of the water has been removed. When the blue crystals of the hydrate are heated, the water is driven off, leaving behind white crystals of copper(II) sulfate without associated water, a substance called anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. In some cases, an anhydrous compound may have a different color from that of its hydrate. Acids are an important class of compounds. An acid is a molecular compound that yields hydrogen ions, H +, and an anion for each acid molecule when the acid dissolves in water. An example is nitric acid, HNO 3.

The HNO 3 molecule yields one H+ ion and one nitrate ion, NO 3-, in aqueous (water) solution. Nitric acid, HNO 3, is an oxoacid, or oxyacid. An oxoacid is an acid containing hydrogen, oxygen and another element (often called the central atom). In water the oxoacid molecule yields one or more hydrogen ions, H+, and an oxoanion. The names of the oxoacids are related to the names of the corresponding oxoanions.

Interpreting Formulas
You have learned how to write a formula to represent a formula unit of an ionic compound. Sometimes, it may be necessary to represent more than one formula unit of a compound. To do this, place a coefficient before the formula. Two formula units of NaCl are represented by 2NaCl, three formula units by 3NaCl, and so on. A formula summarizes how many atoms of each element are present. Each formula unit of sodium chloride contains one sodium ion and one chloride ion. How many oxygen atoms are present in 3HNO 3? Each formula unit contains three oxygen atoms. Because there are three formula units, a total of nine atoms of oxygen are present. As another example, consider how many atoms of hydrogen are in one formula unit of ammonium sulfate. The formula for ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2SO4. Each ammonium ion contains four atoms of hydrogen. Because two ammonium ions are present, there are eight atoms of hydrogen in a formula unit of ammonium sulfate. How many hydrogen atoms are in 3(NH4)2SO4? To find out, simply multiply the eight hydrogen atoms in one formula unit by three formula units; 24 hydrogen atoms are present.

Molecular Substances
How many compounds can you name that are liquids or gases at normal room temperature? Water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia are just a few examples. Because most ionic compounds are solids at room temperature, the odds are pretty good that any compounds you thought of are members of the other major class of compoundsthe covalent compounds. However, not all of them are liquids or gases. Some covalent compounds are solids at room temperature, for example sugar, mothballs, silica (sand), and the fats that make up butter and margarine. Most of the

time, it is difficult to tell whether a solid compound is ionic or covalent by visual examination alone. For example, compare crystals of sugar and salt. A molecular substance is a substance that is composed all of which are alike. The molecules in such a substance are even extremely minute samples contain tremendous numbers billionth (10-9) of a drop of water, for example, contains about 1012) water molecules. of molecules, so small that of them. One 2 trillion (2 X

A mol ecular formul a gi ves t he exact numbe r of di ffere nt at oms of an element i n a mol e cule . The hydrogen peroxide molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms chemically bonded. Therefore, its molecular formula is H2O2. Other simple molecular substances are water, H2O; ammonia, NH3; carbon dioxide, CO 2; and ethanol (ethyl alcohol), C2H6O.

Properties of Molecular Substances

You know that ionic compounds share many properties. The properties of a molecular substancea substance that has atoms held together by covalent rather than ionic bondsare more variable than the properties of ionic compounds. Some molecular substances, such as polyethylene plastic and the fats in butter, are soft; rubber is elastic; and diamond and quartz are hard. Although molecular substances have varied properties, some generalities can be made to distinguish them from ionic compounds. Molecular substances usually have lower melting points, and most are not as hard as ionic compounds. In addition, most molecular substances are less soluble in water than ionic compounds and are not electrolytes. The properties of most ionic and molecular substances are different enough that their differences can be used to classify and separate them from one another. The separation of water from salt by distillation is one example that makes use of these property differences. Distillation is the method of separating substances in a mixture by evaporation of a liquid and subsequent condensation of its vapor. How does the submicroscopic structure of molecular substances contribute to their macroscopic properties? Because there are no ions, strong networks held together by the attractions of opposite charges do not form. The inter-particle forces between molecules are often weak and easy

to break. The weak forces explain the softness and low melting points of most molecular substances. Most molecular substances are not electrolytes because they do not easily form ions.

Molecular Elements
A molecule is a definite group of atoms that are chemically bonded togetherthat is, tightly connected by attractive forces. A molec u le i s a neut ral part i cle t hat forms as a res ult of el ect ron s hari ng. Molecules vary greatly in size. They can contain from just two to thousands or millions of atoms. Most elements usually occur naturally in a combined from with another element; that is, they occur as compounds. However, in some cases, two or more atoms of the same element can bond together to form a molecule. A molecule that forms when atoms of the same element bond together is called a molecular element. Note that molecular elements are not compoundsthey contain atoms of only one element. Why do atoms of these elements bond so readily to identical atoms? When they bond together, each atom achieves the stability of a noble-gas electron configuration.

Diatomic Elements
Seven nonmetal elements are found naturally as molecular elements of two identical atoms. The elements whose natural state is diatomic are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Their formulas can be written as H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 respectively. These molecules are referred to as diatomic molecules. All except bromine and iodine are gases at room temperature; Br2 is a liquid, and I 2 is a solid. What can you learn by examining the structures of the diatomic elements? Electron dot diagrams offer clues. As an example, the chlorine atom has seven valence electrons and needs one more to achieve the configuration of the noble gas argon. If two chlorine atoms combine, they share a single pair of electrons, and each atom attains a stable oct et configuration. Hydrogen, fluorine, bromine, and iodine molecules also are formed by the sharing of a single pair of electrons. Two oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons to form O 2, and two nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons to form N2.

Some elements are molecular substances and are represented by molecular formulas. Chlorine, for example, is a molecular substance and has the formula Cl2, each molecule being composed of two chlorine atoms bonded together. F2 indicates a molecule containing two fluorine atoms and P4 a molecule containing four phosphorous atoms. Sulfur consists of molecules composed of eight atoms; its molecular formula is S8. The formula for a single atom is the same as the symbol for the element. Thus Na can represent a single sodium atom. It is quite unusual to find such isolated atoms in nature, with the exception of noble gases Helium and Neon, which are composed of isolated atoms; their formulas are He and Ne respectively. Other elements such as carbon (in the form of graphite or diamond), dont have a simple molecular structure but consists of very large, indefinite number of atoms bonded together. These elements are represented by their atomic symbols. (An exception is a form of carbon called buckminsterfullerene, which was discovered in 1985 and has the molecular formula C60.) The atoms in a molecule are not simply piled together randomly. Rather, the atoms are chemically bonded in a definite way. The chemical formula does not express the order in which the atoms in the molecule are bonded together. A structural formula shows the order in which atoms are connected. A structura l for mu la i s a chemi cal formul a t hat s hows how t he at oms are bonde d t o one anot he r i n a molecul e. For example, it is known that each of the hydrogen atoms in the water molecule is bonded to the oxygen atom. Thus the structural formula of water is HOH. The lines connecting atomic symbols in such a formula represent chemical bonds connecting between the atoms. Structural formulas are sometimes condensed in writing. For example, the structural formula of ethanol may be written CH3CH2OH or C2H5OH, depending on the detail you want to convey. The atoms in a molecule are not only connected in definite ways but exhibit definite spatial arrangements as well. The bonds are actually forces that tend to hold atoms at certain distances and angles from one another. Structural formulas are drawn flat and two-dimensional and do not usually indicate any specific three-dimensional information about the molecule. Chemists often construct molecular models as an aid in visualizing the shapes and sizes of molecules. Ball-and-stick molecular models and space-filling molecular models help us to see the shapes and relative sizes of molecules. While the ball and stick type of model shows the bonds

and bond angles clearly, the space filling types gives a more realistic feeling of the space occupied by atoms. Some elements exist in more than one form. Familiar examples include (1) Oxygen, found as O 2 molecules, and Ozone, found as O 3 molecules, and (2) two crystalline forms of carbondiamond and graphite. Different forms of the same element in the same physical state are called allotropic modifications or allotropes. The properties of allotropes are usually different even though they contain the same element. This is because structure can be more important than composition in determining properties of molecules. Oxygen and ozone are allotropes. The oxygen we breathe is O 2; it is found in the atmosphere. Ozone also occurs naturally and is formed from diatomic oxygen by lightning or ultraviolet light. Although ozone formed near the surface of Earth is an undesirable component of smog, ozone also has many uses, such as that in purifying water. The layer of ozone found high in Earths atmosphere is helpful because it shields living things from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Phosphorous has three common allotropes: white, red, and black. All are formed from P 4 molecules that are joined in different ways giving each allotrope a unique structure and properties. Carbon has several important allotropes with different properties. Diamond is a crystal in which the atoms of carbon are held rigidly in place in a three dimensional network. In graphite, the carbon atoms are held together closely in flat layers that can slide over each other. This property makes graphite soft and greasy-feeling and useful as a dry lubricant in locks. Another set of carbon allotropes, the fullerenes, consist of carbon atom clusters. These molecules are unusually stable and are an exciting area of research for chemists because of their potential use as superconductors.

Formulas and Names of Molecular Compounds

Molecular compounds make up a large group; millions of molecular compounds are already known, and scientists are likely to discover or create may others. How can you possibly begin to study so many compounds? Before you can study their structures and properties and learn how these properties determine their usefulness, you should be able to name the

compounds and write their formulas. Fortunately, chemists have devised a naming system for molecular compounds that is based on a much smaller number of rules than there are compounds.

Naming Binary Inorganic Compounds

Substances are either organic or inorganic. Compounds that contain carbon, with a few exceptions, are classified as organic compounds. Compounds that do not contain carbon are called inorganic compounds. How are inorganic compounds held together? If inorganic compounds contain only two nonmetal elements, they are bonded covalently and are referred to as molecular binary compound. To name these compounds, write out the name of the first nonmetal and follow it by the name of the second nonmetal with its ending changed to ide. How do you know which element to write first. You write first the element that is farther to the left in the periodic table, with the exceptions of a few compounds that contain hydrogen. If both elements are in the same group, name first the element that is closer to the bottom of the periodic table. For example, sulfur dioxide is a compound containing sulfur and oxygen. The sulfur is named first because it is closer to the bottom of the periodic table than oxygen is. When naming a binary ionic compound, this is the last step. However, because nonmetal atoms can share different numbers of electron pairs, several different compounds can be formed from the same two nonmetal elements. Thus, an additional step is necessary to give an unambiguous name to a molecule. To name the compound correctly, add a prefix to the name of each element to indicate how many atoms of each element are present in the compound. The same prefixes that were used to indicate the number of water molecules in hydrates are used here. For example, CS2 is named carbon disulfide. A few other rules are helpful when naming molecular compounds. If only one atom of the first element is listed, the prefix mono is usually omitted. Also, if the vowel combinations o-o or a-o appear next to each other in the name, the first of the pair is omitted to simplify pronunciation. Thus mononitrogen monoxide, NO, becomes nitrogen monoxide. Now you are ready to practice naming molecular compounds. Several different molecules can be formed when different numbers of nitrogen and

oxygen atoms combine. Look at their formulas in the first column of the table given below, and try to name them without looking at the names listed in the second column. Formulas and Names of Some Molecular Compounds Formula Name NO Nitrogen monoxide NO2 Nitrogen dioxide N 2O Dinitrogen monoxide N 2O 5 Dinitrogen pentoxide Consider the two compounds that contain carbon and oxygen. The carbon contained in wood is converted to carbon dioxide when wood burns completely. The formula for this product is CO 2. If the carbon in wood burns incompletely, the highly toxic gas carbon monoxide is formed. What is the formula for carbon monoxide? To write the formula of a molecular compound for which you are given the name, first write the symbols of each element in the order given in the name. Then add the appropriate subscript after each element that has two or more atoms present. Remember that the prefixes in the name tell how many atoms of each element are present. For example, the compound sulfur hexafluoride contains the elements sulfur and fluorine. Because the word sulfur has no prefix, it is understood that there is only one sulfur atom; thus, the symbol S does not require a subscript. The prefix hexa tells you that six fluorine atoms are in the compound, so the subscript 6 must be added to the F. The formula for sulfur hexafluoride is SF 6. Follow the rules for writing a formula for a molecular compound as you examine the formula N2O3. The formula for dinitrogen trioxide is written N2O3.. Analyze the name of this compound to determine how its formula is written.

Common Names
A few inorganic molecular compounds have common names that all scientists use in place of formal names. Two of these compounds are water and ammonia. The chemical name for water is dihydroen monoxide because each molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Although the formal names of both ionic and molecular compounds are simple to write once your learn the rules for the language of chemistry, they are good reasons for sometimes using common names.

The common acids are other examples of inorganic compounds that are known by common rather than formal names. Some names of common acids and bases that you will Names of Common Acids and Bases use frequently in chemistry Formula Name laboratory experiments are Acids listed in the table given here. HCl Hydrochloric acid Although they often do not H2SO4 Sulfuric acid follow the rules you have H3PO4 Phosphoric acid been learning, they will soon HNO3 Nitric acid HC2H3O2 Acetic acid (an organic compound) become so familiar that their Bases formulas and names will be NaOH Sodium hydroxide easy to remember. KOH Potassium hydroxide NH3 ammonia

Naming Organic Compounds

Many compounds exist as molecules. Many of the molecules found i n nature are organic compounds. Organic compounds contain C-C or C-H bonds or both, often in combination with nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and other elements. All of the other compounds that dont contain C-H bonds are inorganic compounds. Organic compounds make up the largest class of molecular compounds known. This is because carbon is able to bond to other carbon atoms in rings and chains of many sizes. The name of even the most complex organic compound is based on the name of a hydrocarbon, and organic compound that contains only the elements hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons occur naturally in fossil fuels such as natural gas and petroleum and are used mainly as fuels and the raw materials for making other organic compounds. A carbon atom can form four covalent bonds. In the simplest hydrocarbon, methane, a single carbon is bonded to four hydrogen atoms. Methane is the main component of the natural gas that you burn when you light a Bunsen burner. The next simplest hydrocarbon, ethane, is formed when two carbon atoms bond to each other as well as to three hydrogen atoms apiece. The formulas and names of the first ten hydrocarbon chains

are given in the table. Note that the names of hydrocarbons are derived from the number of carbon atoms in the molecules. Hydrocarbons Formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 C8H18 C9H20 C10H22 Name Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane Nonane Decane

Formulas represent the known composition of real substances, but just because a formula can be written dont mean the compound actually exists. For example, you could easily write HeP 2, but no such compound has ever been isolated. An important class of molecular substances is the polymers. Polymers are very large molecules that are made up of a number of smaller molecules repeatedly linked together. Monomers are the small molecules that are linked together to form the polymer. Polymers are both natural and synthetic. Hard plastic soda bottles are made from chemically linking two different monomers in an alternating pattern. Wool and silk are natural polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Nylon for fabrics, Kevlar for bulletproof vests, and Nomex for flame-retardant clothing all contain CONH linkage. Plastic and rubbers are also polymers that are made from carbon and hydrogen containing monomers. Even the Teflon coating on cookware is a polymer that is the result of linking CF 2CF2 monomers. From these examples, it is obvious that polymers are very important molecular materials that we use every day in a wide variety of applications.

Chemical Reactions: writing chemical equations

A chemica l equat ion i s t he s ymbol i c represe ntati on of a che mi cal react i on i n te rms of che mi cal formul as . For example, the burning of sodium in chlorine to produce sodium chloride is written:

2 Na + Cl 2 ----- 2 NaCl The formulas on the left side of an equation (before the arrow) represent the reactants; a reactant is a starting substance in a chemical reaction. The arrow means react to form or yield. The formulas on the right side represent the products; a product is a substance that results from a reaction. Note the coefficient 2 in front of the formula NaCl. Coefficients in front of the formula give the relative number of molecules or formula units involved in the reaction. When no coefficients are written, it is understood to be 1. In many cases, it is useful to indicate the states or phases of the substances in an equation, by placing appropriate labels indicating the phases within parenthesis following the formulas of the substances, like: (g) = gas, (l) = liquid, (s) = solid, (aq) = aqueous (water) solution With the use of the labels, the above equation becomes, 2 Na (s) + Cl 2 (g) --- 2 NaCl (s) It is also possible to indicate in an equation the conditions under which a reaction takes place. If the reactants are heated to make the reaction go, it can be indicated by putting the symbol (capital Greek delta) over the arrow. For example, the equation 2 NaNO 3(s)
--------------->

2 NaNO 2(s) + O2(g)

Indicates that solid sodium nitrate, NaNO3, decomposes when heated to give solid sodium nitrate, NaNO2, and oxygen gas, O 2. When the coefficients in a chemical equation are correctly given, the numbers of atoms of each element are equal on both sides of the arrow. The equation is then said to be balanced. That a chemical equation should be balanced follows from atomic theory. A chemical reaction involves simply a recombination of atoms; none are destroyed and none are created. Before you write a balanced chemical equation for a reaction, you must determine by experiment those substances that are reactants and those that are products. You must also determine the formulas of each substance. Once you know these things, you can write the balanced chemical equation. To balance the equation, you select coefficients that will make the numbers of atoms of each element equal on both sides of the equation.

Energy and Chemical Equations

Noticeable amounts of energy are often released or absorbed during a chemical reaction. Some reactions absorb energy. If energy is absorbed, the reaction is known as endothermic reaction. For a reaction that absorbs energy, the word energy is sometimes written along with the reactants in the chemical equation. All reactions that occur in a Bunsen burner or gas grill or those used to power an automobile release energy. Reactions that release energy are called exothermic reactions. When writing a chemical equation for a reaction that produces energy, the word energy is sometimes written along with the products.

Major Classes of Reactions

There are many types of chemical reactions. Five types are common. They are: 1. Synthesis reactions: in this type of reactions, two substanceseither elements or compoundscombine to form a compound. Whenever two or more substances combine to form a single product, the reaction is called a synthesis reaction. 2. Decomposition reactions: in this type of reaction, a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances. The compound may break down into individual elements or simpler compounds. 3. Single displacement reactions: in this type of reactions, one element takes the place of another in a compound. The element can replace the first part of a compound, or it can replace the last part of a compound. 4. Double displacement reactions: in this type of reactions, the positive portions of two ionic compounds are interchanged. For a double displacement reaction to take place, at least one of the products must be a precipitate or water. 5. Combustion reactions: in this type of reactions, a substance rapidly combines with oxygen to form one or more oxides. Although there are exceptions, many thousands of specific reactions fit into these five classes. The relationship between the quantities of chemical reactants and products is called stoichiometry.

Types of Reaction
Among the several million known substances, many millions of chemical reactions are possible. Most of the reactions we will study belong to one of the three types: 1. Precipitation reactions: in these reactions, you mix solutions of two ionic substances, and a solid ionic substance (a precipitate) forms. 2. Acid-base reactions: an acid substance reacts with a substance called a base. Such reactions involve the transfer of a proton between reactants. 3. Oxidation-reduction reactions: these involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.

Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

Consider pure water. Water consists of molecules, each of which is essentially neutral. Since each molecule carries no net electric charge, it carries no overall electric charge when it moves. Thus, pure water is a nonconductor of electricity. Although water is itself nonconducting, it has the ability to dissolve various substances, some of which go into solution as freely moving ions. An aqueous solution of ions is electrically conducting. We can divide the substances that dissolve in water into two broad classes, electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to give an electrically conducting solution. Sodium chloride, table salt, is an example of an electrolyte. When most ionic substances dissolve in water, ions that were in fixed sites in the crystalline solid go into the surrounding aqueous solution, where they are free to move about. The resulting solution is conducting because the movement of ions forms an electric current. A nonelectrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to give a nonconducting or very poorly conducting solution. A common example is sucrose which is ordinary table sugar. The solution process occurs because molecules of the substance mix with the molecules of water. Molecules are electrically neutral and cannot carry an electric current, so the solution is electrically nonconducting.

Molecular Mass and Formula Mass

The concept of atomic mass can be extended to calculate molecular masses. The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is, therefore, the average mass of a molecule of that substance, expressed in atomic mass units (amu or u). For example, the molecular mass of water, H 2O is 18.0 amu (2 x 1.0 amu from two H atoms plus 16.0 amu from one O atom). If the molecular formula for the substance is not known, you can determine the molecular mass experimentally by means of a mass spectrometer. The formula mass (FM) of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of the compound, whether molecular or not. Formula unit mass is calculated in the same as we calculate molecular mass. The only difference is that we use the word formula unit for those substances whose constituent particles are ions. For example, sodium chloride, with the formula unit NaCl, has a formula mass of 58.33 amu (22.99 amu from Na plus 35.45 amu from Cl). NaCl is ionic, s o strictly speaking the expression molecular mass of NaCl has no meaning. On the other hand, the molecular mass and the formula mass calculated from the molecular formula of a substance are identical.

The Mole Concept

Even the smallest bit of matter that can be handled reliably contains an enormous number of atoms. So we must deal with large numbers of atoms in any real situation, and some unit for conveniently describing a large number of atoms is desirable. The idea of using a unit to describe a particular number (amount) of objects has been around for a long time, like a dozen (12 items) and the gross (144 items).

Counting by weighing
Consider a candy store selling jelly beans each with a mass of 5 g. if a customer asks for 1000 jelly beans, what mass of jelly beans would be required? Each bean has a mass of 5 g, so you would need 1000 beans X 5 g/bean, or 5000 g (or 5 kg). It would be much easier to weigh out 5 kg of jelly beans than to count 1000 of them. Even if the individual jelly beans may not be exactly identical to one another, their average mass is very close to 5 g. Therefore, to count out 1000 beans, we need to weigh out 5000 g of

beans. This sample of beans, in which the beans have an average mass of 5.0 g. can be treated exactly like a sample where all of the beans are identical. Objects do not need to have identical masses to be counted by weighing. We simply need to know the average mass of the objects. For purposes of counting, the objects behave as though they were all identical, as though they each actually had the average mass. We count atoms in exactly the same way. Because atoms are so small, we deal with samples of matter that contain huge numbers of atoms. Even if we could see the atoms it would not be possible to count them directly. Thus we determine the number of atoms in a given sample by finding its mass. However, just as with jelly beans, to relate the mass to a number of atoms, we must know the average atomic mass of the atoms. Because samples of matter typically contain so many atoms, a unit of measure called the mole has been established for use in counting atoms.

Mole
For our purposes, it is most convenient to define the mole (abbreviated mol.) as the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C. The SI unit for amount is the mole, abbreviated mol. It is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg of pure carbon-12. Using spectrometry techniques, which count atoms very precisely, this number is determined as

602,213,670,000,000,000,000,000 (6.02214179 X 1023 part i cles ).

Thi s numbe r, ofte n rounded t o 6.022 X 1023 i s cal led t he Avogadros numbe r. According to its definition, the mole unit refers to a fixed number of items, the identities of which must be specified. A mole of a substance contains Avogadros number of molecules or formula units; a mole of ethanol equals 6.022 X 1023 ethanol molecules. In using the term mole for ionic substances, we mean the number of formula units of the substance. For example, a mole of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 , is a quantity containing 6.022 X 1023 units. But each formula unit contains two Na + ions and one CO 32- ion. Therefore, a mole of Na2CO3 also contains 2 X 6.022 X 1023 Na+ ions and 1 X 6.022 X 1023 CO32- ions. When

using the term mole, it is important to specify the formula of the unit to avoid any misunderstanding. For example, a mole of oxygen atoms (with the formula O) contains 6.022 X 1023 O atoms. A mole of oxygen molecules (formula O 2) contains 6.022 X 1023 O2 moleculesthat is, 2 X 6.022 X 1023 atoms.

The Mass of a Mole

One mole of quantities of two different substances has different masses for the reasonthe substances have different compositions. For example, if you put one mole of carbon and one mole of copper on separate balances, you would see a difference in mass. This occurs because carbon atoms differ from copper atoms. Thus, the mass of 6.02X10 23 carbon atoms does not equal the mass of 6.02X1023 copper atoms. You are already aware that each atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12 amu. The atomic masses of all other elements are established relative to carbon-12. For example, an atom of hydrogen-1 has a mass of approximately 1 amu, one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. The mass of an atom of helium-3 is approximately 4 amu, one-third the mass of one atom of carbon-12. You might have noticed, however, that the atomic-mass values given on the periodic table are not exact integers. For example, you will find 12.011 amu for carbon, 1.008 amu for hydrogen, and 4.003 amu for helium. These noninteger values occur because the values are weighted averages of all the naturally occurring isotopes of each element.

Molar Mass
How does the mass of one atom relate to the mass of one mole of that atom? Recall t hat t he mol e is defi ned as t he number of carbon-12 at oms i n exact l y 12 g of pure carbon-12. Thus, the mass of one mole of carbon-12 atoms is 12 g. whether you are considering a single atom or Avogadros number of atoms (a mole), the masses of all atoms are established relative to the mass of carbon-12. The mass i n grams of one mole of any pure s ubst ance is call e d it s mol ar mass . The mol ar mass of any e lement is numeri call y equal t o i ts atomi c mass and has t he units g/mol . As given in the periodic table, an atom of iron has an atomic mass of 55.845 amu. Thus, the molar mass of iron is 54.845

g/mol, and 1 mol (or 6.02X10 atoms of iron) has a mass of 54.845 g. Note that by measuring 54.845 g of iron, you indirectly count out 6.02X10 atoms of ion. The molar of a substance is the mass of one mole of the substance. Carbon-12 has a molar mass of exactly 12 g/mol, by definition. For all s ubst ances , t he mol ar mass i n grams per mol e i s nume ri cal l y equal t o t he formul a mass i n at omi c mas s unit s. For example, ethanol whose molecular formula is C2H6O, has a molecular mass of 46.1 amu and a molar mass of 46.1 g/mol.

Moles to Mass
Now suppose that while working in a chemistry lab, you need 3.00 mol of copper (Cu) for a chemical reaction. How would you measure that amount? The number of moles of copper can be converted to an equivalent mass and measured on a balance. To calculate the mass of a given number of moles, simply multiply the number of moles by the molar mass. Number of moles X mass in grams/1 mole = mass If you check the periodic table, you will find that copper, element 29, has an atomic mass of 63.546 amu. You know that the molar mass of an element (in g/mol) is equal to its atomic mass (given in amu). Thus, copper has a molar mass of 63.546 g/mol. By using the molar mass, you can convert 3.00 mol of copper to grams of copper. 3.00 mol Cu X 63.546 g Cu / 1 mol cu = 191 g Cu So, as shown you can measure the 3.00 mol of copper needed for the reaction by using a balance to measure out 191 g of copper. The reverse conversionfrom mass to molesinvolves the molar mass as a conversion factor, but it is the inverse of the molar mass that is used. A balanced chemical equation shows the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction. It also tells us the correct mole rations of reactants and products. One mole of reaction is said to have occurred when the reaction has taken place according to the number of moles given by the coefficients in the equation.