GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS: function changeMargin 1 Abstract entity: (Saussure) linguistic elements like word-order and collocation which

are not concrete like words but do have value 2 Accent: the manner of pronouncing words that indicates the place of origin or social background of the speaker (a Southern accent); intonation, or a way of using intonation or inflection to convey the speakers mood or character (He answered with an accent of bitterness.); stress on syllable, or a greater emphasis in pronouncing a syllable within a word or a word within a phrase 3 Acoustic phonetics: phonetics which deals with sound as it is, without regard to how it is articulated or perceived 4 Acquisition: the learning or gaining of language

5 Addressee: the person spoken to, or indicated as the one to hear or read a message 6 Addresser: the person who is using language intending to communicate with an addressee 7 Affix: a word-part to be fixed before (prefix), inside (infix) or after (suffix) a word; in syntax it means a syntactic element that is to be fixed to the proper place on the surface structure 8 Affix-hopping: the process of putting syntactic affixes (-en, -ing, PAST, etc) to their right place in the process of transforming the underlying structure into surface structure 9 Affricate: sound produced by making friction at some place in the speech organ ( j, s, z, f, v, ...h) 10 Age-grading: the difference in language in terms of age groups

11 Agent: the role type that represents the doer of an action, and which is animate and does the action with volition 12 Aggramatism: the loss of the power to make correct grammatical structure (also called 'contiguity disorder' or 'combinational deficiency') 13 Airstream: the flow of air from the lungs

14 Allomorph: different forms of the same morpheme (eg: -s/ -es/ -en for plural) 15 16 Allophone: different forms of the same phoneme (k/ kh) Alphabet: a written symbol (spelling or phonetic signal)

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Alphabetic writing: writing by using traditional alphabet

18 Alveolar ridge: the hard edge above the gum of the front teeth, which the tip of the tongue meets when raised 19 Ambiguity: the situation where one linguistic element (word, sentence, etc) can be interpreted as having two or more distinctive meanings 20 21 Anaphora: a word that refers back Anchor: to point to a location, time or some kind of frame of understanding

22 Anomaly: use of an expression with a semantically odd combination (beautiful boy) 23 24 Antonym: word or expression that means the opposite of the other Aphasia: the loss of the power of language and communication

25 Applied linguistics: application of the theories and findings of linguistics for solving problems in other fields 26 27 28 Arbitrariness: no natural, physical, logical or any such relationship Articulation: the act of producing a sound Articulatory phonetics: phonetics that deals with how sounds are produced

29 Aspiration: leaving a small space for some air to escape while producing voiceless stop sounds 30 Associative relation: the relation among words from the category of which one is selected for a slot (Saussure) 31 Auditory phonetics: phonetics that deals with sounds from the viewpoint of the hearer 32 Back vowels: vowels produced by letting the back part of the tongue move up or down 33 34 35 36 37 Bilabial: consonant produced by making the two lips stop the passage Bilingualism: the situation where people use two languages Black English Vernacular: the English spoken by the Negro in the USA Borrowing: using words from other languages Bound morphemes: word-parts that cant stand alone (the affixes)

38 39

Case/ Role: a function of a Noun Phrase Cataphora: reference forward

40 Celtic: Indo-European language group; a group of languages that includes Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton 41 Choice: choice of words, structures, sounds, etc, for creating style (style is the totality of choice) 42 Closed class: words of the grammar class which are closed to addition

43 Coda: the part of a story after the resolution/ ending of it; the formulaic ending indicating what happened afterwards 44 Code: the signal or impression, especially in the mind

45 Cohesion: the presence of correlation between form and content (stylistics); the presence of internal unity of meaning in a text (discourse) 46 Cohesive ties: the links made by words that connect two ideas or sentences together 47 Coinage: the act of making a new word

48 Collocation: the act of putting two or more words together, especially in terms of their meaning 49 Commissive: the speech act that commits or binds the speaker to do what he says 50 Competence: the linguistic blueprint of language in the mind of the individual language user 51 Competence model/ Acquisition model: Noam Chomskys concept of the mechanism of language in the mind 52 53 54 Complement: a clause that works in the place of an NP Compound: two independent words combined into one (as in 'blackboard') Compounding: the act of joining two independent words into one

55 Connative function: the function of language when it is used to affect the addressee (Jakobson) 56 Consonant: sounds that are produced by making some kind of obstruction in the vocal organs 57 Consonant cluster: two or more consonants (like n+t+s in consonants)

58 Constraint on sound sequence: the limitation or lack of combination of certain sounds, especially consonants, in a language; for example, no word begins like lka in English 59 60 Contact: the process of influence of one language by another Context: the situation in which communication takes place

61 Contexture deficiency/contiguity disorder: the loss of the power to put words together into correct grammatical structures 62 Contradiction: the combination of words resulting in expressions like X is not X in semantics 63 Cooperative principle: the large-scale and implicit understanding between addresser and addressee that sustains communication 64 65 66 back Coordination: the act of combining two independent clauses Copula: be verb linking subject and its complement Co-reference: the act of referring back, as in the case of using the to refer

67 Creativity: the property of language that allows us to use its limited means for expressing unlimited ideas 68 Creole: contact language which develop especially in colonial situation

69 Deautomatization: the act of making familiar things appear unfamiliar with the help of literary devices (or, defamiliarization) 70 Decreolization: the development of a creole into a variety of the dominant language 71 Declaration: speech act which is made with the intention of affecting reality/ situation 72 Deep structure: the underlying structure or the syntactic/ semantic basis of sentence 73 Defamiliarization: the act of using language in such a way as to make us feel that something is not familiar; for example the use of metaphorical comparison makes something unfamiliar (also called 'deautomatization') 74 75 76 Deictic: a word that points to something Deixis: the process or act of referring to something Dental (Interdental): consonant sounds that are produced by making

obstruction by the tongue at the teeth 77 Derivation: the process of changing a word into another form

78 Derivative morpheme: a word-part that changes the word-class of the word to which it is attached 79 Descriptive approach: the modern approach to language which seeks to describe how people actually speak, in contrast to the tendency of prescribing by the traditional grammarian 80 Deviation/ deviance: the process of breaking/ violating the ordinary norms of language use, especially grammar and semantics 81 Diachronic: the approach of language that considers its change between two points of time; historical linguistics 82 83 texts 84 85 86 Dialect: a variety of language, a regional or social variety Diction: the type of words chosen by a text or a genre or variety of literary Diglossia: the situation when two (or more) languages exist side by side Diphthong: double vowels (ay, aw, oy) Direct speech act: the act of using a locution that means what it says

87 Directive: the speech act which seeks to elicit verbal, physical or some kind of response from its addressee 88 Discourse: the use of language; a particular kind of language use; a unit of language that we may call a text 89 Discourse analysis: the use of pragmatic concepts and the concepts of communication mechanism for analyzing texts 90 Discreteness: the property of language whereby every entity is distinct from every other in terms of sound or meaning 91 Distinctive sound/ phone: the basic unit of phonetics; a particular sound recognizable as a distinct bundle of articulatory features; any sound found in any language of human beings 92 Distinctive sound/ phoneme: the basic unit of phonology; a particular sound of a particular language; a sound that can distinguish meaning 93 'Do'-support: the process of adding a dummy auxiliary verb for making certain types of syntactic transformations

94 Double negative: the feature of using negation twice as in I dont know nothing; multiple negative is also used in some varieties of non-standard English 95 Duality: the nature of having two sides, like sound/ meaning, form/ content

96 Emotive function: the function of language used for expressing ones own feelings, like exclamations 97 Exophora: a word that points to things outside the text, to the context

98 Experiencer: the role of NP which is involved in some kind of mental action 99 Expressive: the kind of speech act which is used for expressing an attitude or feeling 100 Face saving act: the act of helping others to avoid embarrassment 101 Face threatening act: the act of saying something that embarrasses others 102 Fiction: a made-up story 103 Field: the subject 104 Force: the role of NP which happens to perform some physical action but has no will power of its own (like a tree which hits a man when it falls) 105 Foregrounding: the act of bringing to the fore, especially by using literary devices (a means of defamiliarization/ deautomatization) 106 Formalization: the act of putting something into a formal structure 107 For-to complement: the transformation of complement clauses, like For Ram to boast like that is 108 Free indirect style: the style of narration used for creating stream of consciousness 109 Free morpheme: a word-part which can stand alone, like noun, adjective, verb and adverb 110 Fricative: the kinds of sound that is produced by making some kind of friction during articulation (f, s, h, etc) 111 Front vowels: vowels during the articulation of which the front part of the tongue works 112 Genetic deficit theory: the white mans hypothesis that the Black speakers are naturally inferior in terms of handling grammar and correct language

113 Genre: a type of language use, like conversation, letter, story 114 Given information: a piece of information which the listener/ reader has already been mentioned and shared 115 Glide: the consonants during the articulation of which the vocal organs move from or into vowel-like position 116 Glottis: the space between the two vocal chords 117 Goal: role of NP which indicates the place where something goes or aims to 118 Grammar: description of language 119 Grammar of a text: a linguistic/ stylistic description of a text 120 Hierarchy: something broken into smaller units from higher one 121 Homonymy: the case of one expression that has two meanings 122 Hopi: the language of the Pueblo Red Indian tribes of Arizona in the US 123 Identity: Saussures concept of meaning; a term has identity if it has meaning within some language 124 Idiolect: the language of a particular individual, especially his uniqueness from all other people 125 Idiom: a phrase or expression whose meaning is not the totality of the words which it is made of; a typical expression 126 Ill-formed: a grammatically wrong construction/ sentence 127 Imperative: the form of sentence that is used to make commands 128 Indirect speech act: speech act where a sentence that seems to say one thing means another 129 Infix: a word-part that is fixed within a word (fan-damn-tastic) 130 Inflectional morpheme: the morpheme that comes at the very end of a verb or noun 131 Innate: inborn; natural 132 Input: the material which the language learner has understood 133 Instrument: the role of NP which indicates that it has been used for accomplishing some action

134 Interdental: consonants produced by putting the tongue in between the teeth 135 International Phonetic Alphabet: the set of sound signals that can be used as scientific tools for describing sounds 136 Isogloss: the line that connects places with similar sounds or other features of language 137 It-extraposition/ It-cleft sentence: a sentence structure which emphasizes the first half by using it as the subject 138 Jespersens idea of Morphology: the study of form 139 Jespersens idea of Syntax: the study of meaning 140 L1: first language, mother tongue 141 L2: second language, a language learnt later on 142 Labio-dental: consonants produced by making friction between the lower lip and upper teeth 143 Language universal: the shared patterns of sound or meaning in languages 144 Larynx: the box inside which the vocal chords are situated 145 Lexical cohesion: the presence of correspondence between word-choice and theme of a text 146 Lexical foregrounding: the act of using trick for making words stand out, especially in poetic expression 147 Lexical item/ lexeme: a unit that can stand independently (it includes words, compounds and idioms) 148 Lexicon: the complete system of words and such other units of a language 149 Linguistics: the study of knowledge 150 Liquid: consonants which are articulated by making the air stream flow from the side or roof of the mouth 151 Location: role of NP that indicates place for an action or state 152 Message: the form or design of the text (in Jakobsons idea of poetic function) 153 Metalanguage: language about language

154 Metalingual function: the aspect of communication which is used to signal or clarify the code/ language itself 155 Metaphor: a comparison between two concrete images 156 Metaphoric pole: the aspect of language that is related to the choice of the right term 157 Meter: standard and conventional pattern of rhythm in the poetic tradition of a language 158 Metonymic pole: the aspect of language that is related to the combination of terms 159 Metonymy: a poetic trope in which a part of something is used to refer to or represent the whole thing 160 Minimal pair: a pair of words with minimum difference, especially sound 161 Mode: the subject 162 Model of grammar: a description of the system/ mechanism of language 163 Morpheme: a word-part 164 Morphology: the study of morphemes (and word formation) 165 Narrative clause: a clause that contains an action verb in its predicate so that it is able to forward the plot 166 Narrative genre/ discourse: the mode or discourse of story telling 167 Nasal: sounds that are produced by letting air escape from the nose 168 New information: a piece of information that is being mentioned for the first time in the discourse 169 New system/ systematic grammar: Otto Jespersens idea of approaching language from two sides, the form and content 170 Non-restrictive: the type of adjective clause which does not add new information to the NP it qualifies 171 Non-verbal: without using words 172 Notion: a concept 173 Noun phrase: a syntactic unit which has at least a noun and optionally other words to qualify it

174 Nucleus: the syllable which gets the last stress of the tone unit 175 Number: the phenomenon of differentiating speaker, the person being spoken to, and the person being spoken about 176 Obligatory transformation: syntactic change that "must be" done for expressing the desired meaning (eg: negative transformation) 177 Open class: the types of words to which new words can be added (noun, adjective, verb, adverb) 178 Optional transformation: syntactic change that may or may not be done, for the basic meaning will be the same even after the transformation 179 Output: the product transforming the underlying structure 180 Palate/ hard palate: the cavy roof of the mouth 181 Paradigmatic axis: the dimension of language in which there are classes and groups of words from which we select one at a time (Jakobson) 182 Passive: the structure in which the agent is back-grounded or omitted 183 Path: the role of NP which indicates the place from which something passes 184 Patient: the role of NP which receives the action of the verb done by the agent or force, the NP possessed by the possessor, or the NP experienced by the experiencer 185 Performance: the aspect of use of language in actual context; the real act of speaking or writing 186 Pharynx: the hollow part along which sound travels up between the vocal chords and the uvula 187 Phatic function: the use of language for social interaction 188 Philology: the study of the history and development of language 189 Phone: any distinctive sound of any human language (unit of phonetics) 190 Phoneme: any distinctive sound of a particular language (capable of making difference in meaning); unit of phonology 191 Phonetics: the study of human speech sounds in general 192 Phonographic writing: writing by using the phonetic signals 193 Phonological cohesion: the presence of sound-meaning correlationship

194 Phonology: the study of the sound system of a particular language 195 Phrase structure rule: the syntactic/ grammatical string into which we insert words to make sentences 196 Pidgin: contact language that develops in trade situation or among slaves 197 Pitch: the tone of speech; frequency of voice 198 Poetic function: the function of language which gives artistic form or design to the text and makes a verbal message a work of art (poetry) 199 Poetics: stylistics (Jakobson) 200 Point of departure: the piece of information in a sentence from which we look at the rest of the things in it 201 Point of view: the standpoint from which a narrator looks at things 202 Polyglossia: the situation where there are two or more languages 203 Polysemy: the presence of multiple meanings, or connotations in a text 204 Possessive: the role of NP which owns another NP 205 Poss-ing complement: a form of noun clause which begins with the possessive and has its verb in the ing form 206 Pragmatics: the study of language as it is used in actual contexts 207 Predicate: the second half of the sentence including the verb 208 Predication: the process of semantic interaction among the parts of a sentence 209 Prefix: a word-part attached before a word 210 Prepositional phrase: a phrase consisting of a preposition and a noun phrase 211 Prescriptive approach: the traditional approach to language in which linguists used to prescribe how to speak correctly 212 Presupposition: the property of expressions whereby some part of the information is taken for granted 213 Psycholinguistics: the application of linguistic knowledge in the field of psychology 214 Rapid speech: the act of speaking fast or spontaneously

215 Reality: a linguistic fact (Saussure) 216 Referential function: the function of language that refers to reality 217 Regional variety: a variety of a language which is based on similar features among people of the same region 218 Register: the types of words used for a discourse (diction is used as its synonym in the criticism of poetry) 219 Representative: the speech act which is used for simply saying something 220 Restrictive clause: the kind of adjective clause which adds new information while also modifying the NP which it qualifies 221 Rhythm: the presence of regularity of beat in a piece of poem, song or music 222 Role relation: the relation of words in terms of what role they play in the sentence 223 Role structure analysis: the analysis of a text in terms of the distribution and dynamics of NP roles 224 Role/ Case: a function of a Noun Phrase 225 Schema(ta): the frame of understanding, frame of reference 226 Selectional restriction: the limitation on word choice on the basis of semantic values of words (eg. Drink stone is restricted) 227 Semantic primitives/ features: the notional component of meaning that make up words (man = ANIMATE, HUMAN, ADULT, MALE) 228 Semantic structure: the thread of meaning relationship that makes up a sentence 229 Semantics: the study of sentence meaning 230 Semiotics: the study of meaning in general (even beyond 'language' proper) 231 Semi-vowel: consonant which is almost like a vowel 232 Shared domain: the area of ideas that have been mutually understood 233 Sign: the combination of signal and concept 234 Signified: the concept 235 Signifier: the signal

236 Similarity disorder/ selectional disorder: the loss of the power of selecting the right word 237 Social variety: a variety of a language in terms of socio-economic class 238 Sociolinguistics: the study of language in terms of social factors and social differences 239 Source: the role of NP from which something comes 240 Spatial frame of reference: the understanding of place and space 241 Specialization: the phenomenon of having developed words and meaning historically 242 Speech act: an action performed by using language 243 Speech Act Theory: the theory which claims that language is action in context 244 Speech community: a community that shares the same language 245 Speech event: an occasion in which several types of speech acts or even genres may be involved 246 Speech genre: a particular type language use, like conversation and poetry 247 Standard English: the most widely accepted variety of English 248 Stem: a root word attached with one or more affixes 249 Stop/ plosive: consonants articulated by making a blocked obstruction of the oral tract somewhere 250 Stress: the loudness or prominence of voice in the utterance of a syllable 251 Stylistics: the science which applies linguistics in the study of literary texts 252 Subordination: linking a new clause as a part of an existing clause 253 Suffix: a word-part attached at the end of another 254 Surface structure: the structure of the sentence as it is ready to be spoken or is actually spoken 255 Syllable: one mouth opening (o-pe-ning =3 syllable) 256 Synchronic: the approach of language at a given time 257 Synonym: the relationship of similarity between words or expressions

258 Syntactic structure: the structure of sentence in grammatical terms (phrase structure) 259 Syntagmatic relation: the relation among words as they exist in a sentential structure 260 Syntax: the study of sentence structure and how to generate sentences 261 System: a whole made of parts which have definite functions and relations so that it is possible to generalize (or derive rules) about their behavior and relations 262 Tag question: a shortened question attached to the end of assertive and imperative sentences 263 Tautology: the use of an expression that is semantically like X is X 264 Temporal frame of reference: the frame of understanding time 265 Tenor: the aspect of style 266 Tense: the expression of the aspect of time (by the auxiliary or verb element) 267 Text: a group of sentences that make up a meaningful whole (has cohesion) 268 Texture: the presence of unity due to connections of meaning 269 Theme: the piece of information which is the most important in a sentence 270 Tie: connections of meaning in a text 271 Traditional grammar: the not so scientific study of language 272 Transformational rules: syntactic rules that specify how to generate utterances from underlying structures 273 Tree diagram: the representation of the hierarchical structure in the shape of a tree branched out 274 Turn taking/ floor passing: the act of talking in turns as in conversation 275 Typography: the visual representation of spelling, letters or figures as typed on the page 276 Underlying structure: the basic or skeletal syntactic structures of sentence

277 Universal grammar: the theoretical generalization about the essentially shared patterns and behavior of human languages in general 278 Uvula: the band of muscles hanging at the back of the mouth; it closes and opens the oral and nasal tracts 279 Vagueness: the property of not making anything clear in an utterance or message 280 Value: meaning (Saussure) 281 Variability of the lexicon: the change in the size of the vocabulary of a language 282 Variation (of metera): change of rhythm and meter 283 Velum/ soft palate: the soft back roof of the mouth 284 Verb: a word denoting action or state; an essential component of the sentence 285 Verb phrase: the second half of a clause/ sentence which includes the verb and everything after it 286 Verdictive: a speech act which indicates the passing of judgment 287 Vocabulary: totality of words 288 Vocal cords: the two vibrators in the throat that produce sound 289 Vocal tract: the passage across which sound comes up to the mouth 290 Voice box/ larynx: the part in which the vocal chords are located 291 Voiced: sounds that are produced by making much vibration 292 Voiceless: sounds that are produced by making little vibration 293 Vowel: sounds that are not obstructed anywhere but are produced by making different shapes of the oral tract, especially with the help of the tongue 294 Well-formed: grammatically correct 295 Whorfian Hypothesis: the theory which claims that our thought is influenced by the kind of language we use 296 Zero morpheme: the gap which we understand as a morpheme (eg: "Three sheep_are grazing").