Dryland Rice Insect Pests

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International Journal of Pest Management

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Comparison of insect pest complexes in different Philippine dryland rice environments: population densities, yield loss, and management
J. A. Litsinger; E. M. Libetario a; A. T. Barrion a; R. P. Apostol b a Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), Maligaya, Science City of Muoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines b International Rice Research Institute, Metro Manila, Philippines Online Publication Date: 01 April 2009
To cite this Article Litsinger, J. A., Libetario, E. M., Barrion, A. T. and Apostol, R. P.(2009)'Comparison of insect pest complexes in
different Philippine dryland rice environments: population densities, yield loss, and management',International Journal of Pest Management,55:2,129 149
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/09670870802604054 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09670870802604054
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International Journal of Pest Management Vol. 55, No. 2, AprilJune 2009, 129149
Comparison of insect pest complexes in dierent Philippine dryland rice environments: population densities, yield loss, and management
J.A. Litsingera*, E.M. Libetariob, A.T. Barrionb and R.P. Apostolc
1365 Jacobs Place, Dixon, CA 95620, USA; bPhilippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), Maligaya, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija, 3119, Philippines; cInternational Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines (Received 12 February 2008; nal version received 5 November 2008) In the Philippines most of the dryland rice pests are distinct from those of wetland culture. Partitioned-growthstage yield loss studies revealed the highest losses in dryland rice were due to sown-seed and seedling pests (ants, eld crickets, mole crickets, and termites) as well as root feeders (white grubs and root aphids) and early seedling pests (seedling maggot and ea beetle) more than the common foliar wetland pests. Losses (571%) were highest in the sites with the smallest rice area in which pests were concentrated and the poorest soils (which constrain yield compensation) along a continuum of dryland rice habitats. Crop management practices such as overseeding and fertility management can mitigate potential losses to a large degree. Therefore integrated crop management plays a central role in integrated pest management in dryland rice cultivation where the use of insecticides should be minimized for economic and environmental reasons. Keywords: rice insect pests; yield loss; slash and burn; upland rice; integrated crop management; pest management; crop compensation
a
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1.
Introduction
Dryland rice is a cultural type distinct from the more common wetland culture where direct rainfall is the only source of water and japonica-based varieties, rather than indica ones, are normally cultivated in non-bunded elds. Dryland rice, representing ca. 13% of rice area worldwide (Gupta and OToole 1986), is neither puddled nor ponded and the soils are aerobic (Morris 1986). The Philippines ranks fth among SE Asian countries in dryland rice area (Gupta and OToole 1986); it supports 15% of the Filipino population (Garrity et al. 1993). Arraudeau and Harahap (1986) conducted a worldwide survey among dryland rice scientists and produced a long list of constraints beginning with poor soil, frequent water stress, fungal diseases, nematodes, weeds, and lack of adaptive and management responsive varieties. They also listed a wide array of insect and vertebrate pests that contribute to low yields, but these were considered of lesser importance. Grist and Lever (1969) and Fujisaka et al. (1991) also mentioned birds, rodents, wild pigs, monkeys, squirrels and even elephants and rhinoceroses as dryland rice pests, particularly near forests which are habitats for most of these animals. The degree to which the aforementioned pest constraints are manifested is mainly linked to the type of dryland habitat; the latter can vary dramatically in terms of
slope, soil type, rainfall pattern, and surrounding crops and ora. Litsinger et al. (1987b) reviewed the world literature on dryland rice insect fauna and noted life-history strategies based on polyphagy, dormancy, and/or dispersal abilities, as dryland rice is dominantly a single rice crop system. Key insect pests of the wetlands, i.e. brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stal), green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens (Distant), and yellow stemborer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker), are specic to Oryza spp. and cannot sustain themselves in a dryland rice environment. Due to the short rice season, they must re-migrate each season from nearby wetland sites. Several soil insects common in the drylands have life-cycles of up to a year or more in duration. More dryland rice pests enter periods of dormancy than wetland pests. Armyworms, butteries, and locusts have greater dispersal powers than most wetland insect pests, with the exception of rice planthoppers and leaolders (Denno et al. 1991). In the Asian literature, there have been few trials in which yield losses were measured, but all researchers used the insecticide check method. Other yield loss studies have been conducted in Latin America and Africa where dryland rice is the most important rice culture (Litsinger et al. 1987b). In Thailand, Katanyukul and Chandartat (1981) recorded losses of only 5% (range 113%) from 1976 to 1979.
*Corresponding author. Email: jlitsinger@thegrid.net

ISSN 0967-0874 print/ISSN 1366-5863 online 2009 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09670870802604054 http://www.informaworld.com
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J.A. Litsinger et al. 2.1.1. Siniloan This slash-and-burn site was established in Magsaysay village located mid-way between Siniloan and Real municipalities in the Sierra Madre mountains of the Laguna and Quezon provincial border in highly eroded, acidic soils (Gonzaga et al. 1986). Traditional rice is sown in holes made with a dibble stick in July among smouldering tree stumps. Rice elds are small (ca. 0.1 ha) due to the high labour demands, as perennial grasses quickly invade requiring tedious hand-weeding. Farmers do not use either inorganic or organic fertiliser. 2.1.2. Claveria Claveria in Misamis Oriental province, near Cagayan de Oro City, is located on an escarpment along the lower slopes of Mt Balatukan volcano. This highly eroded and acidic soil site is representative of a recently deforested stage; the forest has been replaced by perennial grasslands, leaving only scattered trees in a relatively steep terrain. The farmers priority is to rst plant maize in elds prepared by animal-drawn implements including the mouldboard plough. Rice is sown in rows in May or June made with a furrow opener which also serves for inter-row cultivation of weeds in the early growth stages. There is more uncultivated than cultivated land in the site. Farmers have their own tall, traditional japonica type varieties, which they cultivate with few purchased inputs. Further site description can be found in Litsinger et al. (2002). 2.1.3. Tupi
Earlier studies in the Philippines documented the insect pest fauna and measured losses by the insecticide check method in Batangas and Camarines Sur provinces (IRRI 1975, 1976a). Those studies were undertaken in habitats with favourable soils and more permanent agriculture based on thorough tillage. Losses incurred by traditional tall Dagge and Kinanda varieties were very high, averaging 31 + 17% (2.4 vs. 1.8 t/ha) over nine elds. Studies were also carried out in dryland elds on the border of the irrigated experimental farm of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the conclusion being that most insects found in the drylands were also present in the wetland area (Pathak and Dyck 1975). There is a continuum of dryland rice habitats that represents stages in settlement, economic development, and population growth in a locality (Litsinger 1993). It begins with pioneering farmers settling into recently logged rainforests; they then cultivate dryland rice by slash and burn or swidden agriculture (Morris 1986). As the area becomes more densely populated, animal power is used to pull tillage implements. Still further population increase brings nearby markets and crop diversity increases where cash crops are rotated with rice. In this report we argue that each of these successive stages in land use leads to dierent pest complexes and population intensities. We also expand on earlier trials in the Philippines. Multi-year crop loss assessments were undertaken in four farm communities, each representing a dierent environment along the continuum. These diered from previous studies as losses now were partitioned by rice growth stage. Also more attention was given to recording pest complexes, as researchers lived at the site as opposed to making periodic visits, and so sampling could be done more frequently. We also report on the results of trials which were also undertaken to develop practical crop production practices centred upon cultural controls as well as minimal usage of insecticides following an integrated crop management approach. 2. 2.1. Materials and methods Site descriptions
Tupi is a town in South Cotabato province, lying on favourable, young, and only slightly acidic volcanic soils. This third stage is more populated and on at terrain with few uncultivated areas (IRRI 1990). Farmers typically apply 30 kg/ha of N and P; uncharacteristically for dryland rice sites, farmers grow a mix of modern semi-dwarf varieties along with high value traditional types. 2.1.4. Tanauan
Two research sites (Claveria and Tupi) were established in Mindanao Island under the inuence of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone climate, and a further two were established in Luzon Island (Siniloan and Tanauan) with a monsoon climate. Together, all sites represented an environmental and crop cultural continuum from subsistence, low input, slash and burn systems on sloping, acidic, and eroded soils sown with traditional varieties, to high input, diversied agriculture on at volcanic soil sown with modern rice and cash crops.
The principal crops in Cale village, Tanauan town in Batangas province are maize and dryland rice as well as a wide array of vegetables for the nearby Manila market. The nearby Taal volcano erupts regularly to spread new ash over the landscape. This fourth stage represents a highly favourable soil in a populated area where farmers engage in the growing of high-input, diversied croppings where elds are intensively tilled (IRRI 1976b). The topography is gently sloping, and farmers prevent the slight erosion with living fencerows. Farmers are economically well o from
International Journal of Pest Management the sale of vegetables, and can aord an average of 110 kg N/ha on rice where lodging can occur during ripening stage during typhoons. Due to its preferred taste and grain type, farmers prefer to grow a traditional variety rather than to purchase rice in the market. 2.2. Rice crop management UPLRi5 dryland rice variety bred by the University of the Philippines was used in all sites except Siniloan. This semi-dwarf is a cross between indica and japonica types, and is high tillering and of medium maturity (130140 d). The traditional rice Benernal in Siniloan was grown at a seeding rate of 50 kg/ha whereas in other sites the rate was 100 kg/ha. Siniloan farmers placed three to four seeds per dibble hole 2025 cm apart. Each hole was covered with soil and stepped on. All trials were superimposed on farmers elds under their own agronomic management. In addition to yield loss treatments, the trials included some improved agronomic practices in the experimental design. In all but the slash and burn site, land was tilled with animal-drawn ploughs. Furrows were made with a wooden implement (lithao), and seed was broadcast and raked into the furrows with a spike-toothed, box-harrow and covered by a nal levelling. In Tanauan 90 kg N/ha was applied in two equal splits as a side dressing during hilling up and at panicle initiation. Prior to seeding in Claveria and Tupi, P was placed in the open rows at 25 kg/ha and covered. A side dressing of 25 kg N/ha occurred at 14 d after crop emergence (DE) before the rst interrow cultivation followed up by a second top dressing of 25 kg N/ha before panicle initiation. Farmers hand-weeded as needed. In Tanauan and Tupi farmers undertook dry season ploughing for weed control, in the latter site a number of times. No cooperating farmer applied any pesticide to dryland rice crops. Grain yield was taken from ve samples of 5 m2 cuts taken in a stratied grid within the 100-m2 plots. The grain was dried to 14% moisture. 2.3. 2.3.1. Treatment descriptions Partitioned-growth-stage yield loss trials
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The insecticide check, partitioned yield loss method was conducted following Litsinger et al. (1980). There were eight treatments in Claveria (seven seasons) and Tupi (four seasons) to quantify losses in six growth stages. The rst treatment was termed the complete control where the objective of a regimen of insecticide applications was to suppress all groups of insect pests. Sown seeds were protected with a systemic insecticide (6 g a.i. carbosulfan STD/kg seed) from ants, eld crickets, and mole crickets as well as seedling maggot and ea beetles that attack young seedlings. Carbosulfan was added to cassava our then mixed into a
paste. Seeds were then added to be coated with the mixture, and nally they were dusted with cassava our for easier handling after drying overnight. Next, a soil insecticide (1 kg a.i. Lindane (gBHC) granules/ ha) was placed in the seed furrows directed against root-feeding white grubs and termites, and a second application was side-dressed at hilling up. Litsinger et al. (1983) showed that this insecticide had high ecacy against white grubs. Reproductive stage soil protection was 0.75 kg a.i. carbofuran granules/ha placed in shallow furrows 40 and 70 DE for rootfeeding aphids and mealybugs. The reproductive stage was also protected by an additional treatment of weekly foliar sprays (0.4 kg a.i. monocrotophos/ha) for stemborers, plant- and leafhoppers, and leaolders. Ripening stage protection against rice seed bugs was 10 g a.i. deltamethrin EC/ha sprayed twice weekly from panicle emergence to hard dough. The second treatment was an untreated check. Foliar insecticides were applied in 19 l, lever-operated, knapsack sprayers tted with cone nozzles. Spray volume increased from 300 to 500 l/ha as the crop grew. Each of a succession of treatments eliminated one of the complete control treatments in order to partition the loss among growth stages. Rice growth stages were described by Yoshida (1981). The third treatment eliminated the seed treatment, the fourth eliminated the soil applications of gBHC granular insecticide, the fth eliminated the reproductive stage carbofuran granules, the sixth eliminated the reproductive stage sprays, and the seventh treatment eliminated ripening stage sprays. In Tanauan, yield loss was calculated in the tall traditional Dagge rice over ve seasons in separate experiments and from the improved UPLRi5 rice in experiments over three seasons. The partitioned yield loss treatments consisted of a complete control which protected ve growth stages. The rst stage was the sown-seed where 4 g a.i. bendiocarb/kg seed made as a water slurry without the cassava our. A soil treatment consisted of diazinon granules at 1 kg ai/ha applied in the seed furrows. A third was vegetative foliar protection with 1 kg a.i. monocrotophos/ha sprays at 10-day intervals (25, 35, 45 DE) and the follow on to protect the reproductive stage (55, 65, 75 DE), and then by 1 kg a.i. gBHC EC/ha at milk, soft, and hard dough stages. The complete control treatment in Siniloan (two seasons) included increasing the dosage of the seed treatment to 0.4 kg a.i. carbosulfan/ha. This was followed by weekly sprays of foliar insecticides: 0.75 kg a.i. monocrotophos/ha during the vegetative and ripening stages and the mixture of 0.75 kg a.i. chlorpyrifos BPMC/ha from panicle initiation to heading. Only the total yield loss was determined in Siniloan where the complete control was compared to the untreated check, as no growth stage partitioning was carried out to keep the trials small.
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J.A. Litsinger et al. In Tanauan a crop management trial was conducted in 1976 with 12 treatments replicated in six farmers elds. Four of the treatments involved incremental increases in the seeding rate from 50 to 125 kg/ha. Four other treatments were conducted at 50 kg seed/ha that tested two seed and two soil treatments. The seed treatments tested two chemicals carbofuran ST and dieldrin WP both at 0.5 kg ai/ha dosages. The two soil treatments were carbofuran G at 0.5 and 2 kg ai/ha dosages. Two other treatments tested the seed treatments at a higher seeding rate of 100 kg/ha while the last two treatments tested the soil insecticide dosages, again at the 100 kg seed/ha. Data taken were plant stand (ten 3-m row samples) and yield (two 10 m2 cuts). A follow-up trial was conducted in four farmers elds over 3 years (19781980) with UPLRi5 sown at 100 kg/ha where a seed (0.30 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ ha) and a soil (0.75 kg a.i. diazinon G/ha) treatment were compared to an untreated check. Crop management treatments were analyzed economically to determine marginal returns and benet:cost ratio (B:C) following the method of Smith et al. (1988) using 1986 prices for agricultural inputs and including a 12% interest per annum for inputs and labour priced at $0.10h, the wage in rural Philippines at the time. Unmilled rice was valued at $0.128/kg. A B:C ratio of 42 is considered a favourable return on investment. 2.4. Experimental design Field trials were conformed to a randomised complete block design with farmers as replicates. New farmer cooperators were selected each season, as the results would become recommendations for the farm community as a whole. Farmer cooperators were selected on a staggered basis evenly along each seasons planting curve. Plot sizes were 100 m2 with the exception of the slash and burn site, where they were 10 m2, the largest obtainable size of uniform eld conditions free of tree stumps. 2.5. Arthropod and crop sampling
Total yield loss was calculated as the dierence between the complete control treatment and the untreated check. To calculate percentage, total loss was divided by the full protection yield and multiplied by 100. Yield losses from each of the partitionedgrowth-stage treatments where insecticide was omitted were calculated in the same way and then added. As the two totals were seldom mathematically equal, losses for each pest group or crop stage were apportioned based on the total loss from the complete control. 2.3.2. Crop management treatments Plots of integrated crop management practices were randomised among the yield loss plots in the on-farm trials. Their purpose was to generate recommendations for farmers, and their inclusion each season allowed an iterative process of technology development for each site. These treatments included variations in seeding rate, inorganic and organic fertiliser, and insecticide protection either as soil and/or seed treatments. Six potential recommended practices were compared in Siniloan: (1) was a high input practice to determine the yield potential that involved organic fertiliser plus lime mixed into the soil in each dibble hole to raise soil pH thus making applied P more available in the highly acidic soils. Insect control was an insecticide seed treatment (0.25 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/kg seed). The seeds were slightly moistened to allow the seed treatment (ST) formulation to stick to the seed coat. Foliar insecticide protection was 0.75 kg a.i. monocrotophos EC/ha weekly during the vegetative stage to owering, and 0.75 kg a.i. Brodan EC (BPMC chlorpyrifos)/ha during milk, soft dough, and hard dough. (2) The same as (1) except it lacked the seed protection. (3) This included only the insecticide seed treatment plus ash placed in the seed holes plus 23 kg N/ha from urea applied on the soil surface 14 DE. (4) This consisted only of the ash and 23 kg N/ha. (5) This received the seed treatment plus the ash. (6) This consisted only the seed treatment. (7) The untreated check (i.e. control). In Tupi and Claveria similar treatments were compared which involved two seeding rates (50 and 90 kg/ha) and a soil insecticide treatment 0.25 kg a.i. Lindane G/ha and an insecticide seed treatment (0.3 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha). Two fertiliser treatments also were compared: the rst lacked inorganic fertiliser; the second was 50-25-0 with the N application split at 14-25 DE during inter-row cultivation and before panicle initiation, and P was applied basally during land preparation. The inclusion of these treatments varied from season to season to enable us to nd the best performing treatment.
Identication of arthropods was undertaken by one of us (ATB). Voucher specimens were deposited in the IRRI Entomological Museum. On each sampling date a team of at least two sta participated in data collection. The stratied grid method was used to sample plants or arthropods from each quadrant of all plots. Data collection sites were randomly selected within each quadrant. One person recorded the data on a clipboard while others did the counting with mechanical tally counters. Plant stand was recorded weekly from the rst through the fourth weeks by counting the number of plants along the row measured in 14-m sections. Insect damage was also
International Journal of Pest Management assessed at the same time. Seedling maggot was censused by damaged tillers (deadhearts) and mole cricket by damaged plants. Root pests such as termites, root aphids, and mealybugs were recorded in 50 plant samples with each plant being uprooted and the root system inspected. Stemborer deadhearts and whiteheads as well as leaolder damaged leaves were censused 50, 70, 90, and 110 DE from 10 samples of 5-m rows. In these cases the number of tillers and leaves was counted in each 5-m row. Plantand leafhoppers were sampled in the crop in Tanauan using a motorized D-VAC1 suction machine that was swung side to side a distance of 1 m and walked a measured 25 m to give a sample size of 25 m2. Sampling was done weekly in four elds from early vegetative stage to 2 weeks before harvest. Rice seed bugs were sampled by taking 25 pendulum sweeps with a 38-cm diameter insect net at milk, soft, and hard dough stages. Damaged grains were determined via the acid fuchsin staining technique (Litsinger et al. 1981). 2.6. Light trap collections Pairs of kerosene metal light traps were used, made by Laguna shermen with the lamps enclosed in a glass housing (Litsinger et al. 1979). Farmers were trained to manage the light traps by depositing each nights catch in vials of 70% alcohol. Trained sta did the identication and counting with the aid of a stereomicroscope. Light traps were placed two per village in rice elds out of sight from one another and unobstructed by trees within a radius of 100 m. Enough kerosene was used to enable the lamps to burn throughout the night. The height of the ame was standardized across sites by wick length. Collections in the four dryland rice sites were compared to three rainfed wetland and three irrigated sites where similar research teams worked. Two irrigated sites were separated into areas that represented the standard synchronized double-rice cropping and a more intensive cropping (2.5 crops in 5 years) planted asynchronously (Loevinsohn et al. 1988). Counts were summed over six months that represented the mean period of a seasonal rice crop. This was done so that rainfed single crop areas could be compared to irrigated double crop sites on a per crop basis. In irrigated sites data were summarized for each wet and dry season crop based on the planting pattern each year. Data presented are averages of all of the crops during the specied years for each species. 2.7. Statistical analysis
133
variables or the Least Signicant Dierence (LSD) test for more than two variables. Means are shown with standard errors of the mean (SEM) using a pooled estimate of error variance. 3. Results 3.1. Insect pests 3.1.1. Siniloan The most injurious group of insects in the slash and burn site were sown-seed and seedling pests which reduced plant stand 91% in 1984 and 27% in 1985. The rst group included ants, dominated by the ubiquitous Solenopsis geminata (F.), that removed seeds, while eld crickets fed on the germinating seeds. Foliar pests attacking young seedlings were seedling maggot Atherigona oryzae Malloch and a ea beetle Chaetocnema basalis (Baly). The rice seedling maggot caused 42% deadhearts in 1984 but rose to 440% deadhearts in 1985 (Table 1). The 2-mm ea beetle adults caused shot hole leaf damage to 46% of young seedlings leading to death of many in 35 days. Its normal hosts are grasses (Barrion and Litsinger 1986a). As rice was planted in such small areas of burnedo forest there were fewer species in this pest complex compared to other sites. This was due to both the small size of elds and lack of alternative hosts. Absent were sown-seed and root pests, such as root aphids, mole crickets, white grubs, mealybugs, and termites. Foliar pests such as plant- and leafhoppers, stemborers, and defoliators were also missing. The crop suered periods of moisture stress manifested by leaf rolling. These conditions encouraged a leaf-feeding thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis (Bagnall) to multiply causing stippling by removing photosynthetic area, but their numbers were soon suppressed by heavy rains (Barrion and Litsinger 1986b). Two leaolder species were encountered with Marasmia exigua (Butler) being more prevalent than Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) as the former has a wider host range (Barrion et al. 1991). Light trap collections recorded leaolders year-round and they peaked during rice harvest in the lowlands 1520 km away, showing their high migratory capability. Damage was non-economic, however. Rice seed bugs Leptocorisa oratorius (F.) and L. acuta (Thunberg) were recorded at relatively high densities (4.1/ m2). The latter is less associated with rice areas and has a wider plant host range. This was the highest density recorded among 11 research sites representing dryland, rainfed, and irrigated wetland ecosystems (Litsinger 2008). Kerosene light trap collections showed low to moderate densities of brown planthopper and green leafhoppers along with one of their major predators Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Reuter (Table 2). Yellow stemborers were also caught in low levels. Despite
All statistical analyses were performed by SAS with P 0.05 as the criterion for signicance. Results were subjected to one-way ANOVA. Treatment means were separated using the paired t-test for two
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Table 1. Eect of increasing input levels of nutrients, soil amendments, and insecticide on yield of Benernal dryland rice grown in slash and burn culture, Siniloan, Laguna province, Philippines, 1985.a Plant standd (no. plants/ 30 hills) 14 DE Leaf beetle (% damaged leaves) 14 DEe 8.3 + 4.9 a 7.8 + 5.1 a 12.4 + 8.6 a 38.9 + 13.2 b 13.5 + 9.9 a 11.2 + 7.2 a 45.7 + 20.3 b 500001 4.84 10 206 + 24 ab 142 + 15 c 221 + 26 a 162 + 11 c 0.25 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha 0.25 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha 149 + 19 c 500001 5.32 10 162 + 16 c 204 + 27 ab 17.4 + 4.5 a 42.4 + 23.2 c 28.8 + 11.3 ab 30.6 + 16.3 b 18.9 + 9.0 a 15.7 + 5.4 a 37.0 + 15.2 b 500001 5.92 10 Seedling maggot (% deadhearts) 28 DEe
J.A. Litsinger et al.
Treatment inputs (dosage per hectare) Soil amendments 0.4 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha weekly foliar spraysc Weekly foliar spraysc 0.25 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha Insecticide treatment
Treatment
Nutrients (kg/ha)
Yield (t/ha)f 0.48 + 0.25 a 0.47 + 0.26 a 0.42 + 0.24 a 0.45 + 0.21 a 0.20 + 0.08 b 0.21 + 0.07 b 0.06 + 0.05 c 500001 4.98 10
1. High input, full protection
46 N, 28 P, 14 K
2. High input, foliar protection only
46 N, 28 P, 14 K
23 N Ashb Ashb
500 kg lime 3t chicken manure/ha 500 kg lime 3t chicken manure/ha Ashb
3. Low input, seed treatment only 4. Low input, no protection 5. Low input, seed treatment only 6. Low input, seed treatment only 7. Untreated P F df
23 N
Average of four replications. In a column, means (+SEM) followed by a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (P 0.05) by LSD analysis. DE days after crop emergence. cup per dibble hole derived from forest trees. c 0.75 kg ai monocrotophos EC/ha weekly during the vegetative stage to panicle initation and during ripening, 0.75 kg ai BPMC chlorpyrifos (Brodan EC)/ha from panicle initiation to owering. EC emulsiable concentrate (liquid) formulation. ST seed treatment. d 30 dibble holes sampled per replication. e 50 hills sampled per replication. f 2 5-m2 samples per replication
Table 2. Abundance of insects and variables of rice cropping intensity by rice culture as determined from kerosene light traps set up in 12 locations in the Philippines, 19791992.
Seasonal total per light trap per locationc
Rice culture
Town
Province
No. crops/yr C. lividipennis mired predator 425 + 158b 190 + 73 c 1,802 + 161 b 720 + 294 c 312 + 103 ab 458 + 185 a 37 + 19 b 80 + 22 b 1,780 + 272 b 595 + 269 b
Area in rice (%)b Brown planthopper N. lugens Whitebacked planthopper S. furcifera Green leafhoppers Nephotettix spp. Zigzag leafhopper R. dorsalis White leafhopper C. spectra
Scirpophaga spp. Stemborersd
Other stemborerse
Dryland
178 + 98 c 315 + 87b c
Rainfed wetland
Irrigated (synchronous) 2.0 549 + 152 b 855 + 169 c 80 154 + 14 d 361 + 77 c
Laguna/Quezon Misamis Oriental South Cotabato Batangas Cagayan Pangasinam Lloilo Laguna + + + + + + + + 130 498 1,700 1,527 321 1,012 1,366 + + + + + + + 305 + 79 c 1,016 + 612 bc 195 + 95 c 37 b 115 b 367 b 527 b 81 b 215 b 896 b + + + + + + + +
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.9
3 9 14 20 60 85 85 90
185 262 2,908 130 491 289 1,824 214
78 d 75 d 864 c 78 d 217 d 94 d 528 cd 79 d
451 75 1,449 860 3,218 2,179 2,440 629
144c 29 c 398 c 452 c 2,320 b 538 c 770 c 426 c
455 + 314 b 410 + 168 b
41 45 170 50 437 475 997 413
+ + + + + + + +
7c 11 c 43 c 23 c 133 c 66 c 108 b 88 c 305 + 17 c
131 + 36 c 0c 38 + 30 c 35 + 35 c 0c
Nueva Ecija
93 + 17 b
706 + 252 b
Irrigated (asynchronous) 4,043 + 1,117 a 50.0001 6.76 40 776 b 953 b 957 b 4,043 a 0.04 6.15 8 709 b 2,612 ab 650 b 6,183 a 0.02 6.30 11
Siniloan Claveria Tupi Tanauan Solano Manaoag Oton/Tigbauan Victoria/ Sta Maria Cabanatuan/ Zaragoza Koronadal Jaen Koronadal 2.0 2.0 2.4 2,961 + 389 a 50.0001 24.02 40 904 b 661 b 551 b 2,961 a 0.02 12.09 7 70 80 70 1,677 + 345 cd 15,224 + 238 a 11,168 + 1,849 b 50.0001 37.01 49 871 b 868 b 682 b 13,196 a 50.0001 40.95 11 2,279 + 617 c 9,207 + 2,561 a 3,158 + 501 b 50.0001 5.54 49 145 + 21 ab 50.0001 3.12 32 59 385 93 145 0.12 ns 7.33 5
South Cotabato Nueva Ecija South Cotabato
P F df
7,169 + 720 a 50.0001 17.46 36 1,103 b 525 b 558 b 7,169 a 0.007 37.03 6
662 + 83 bc 137 + 59 c 2,519 + 430 a 50.0001 19.91 49 77 b 636 ab 460 ab 1,328 a 0.04 3.04 11
405 + 46 b 0c 751 + 123 a 50.0001 17.92 45 247 56 147 376 0.07 ns 0.76 9
Rice Culture Average Dryland Rainfed wetland Irrigated (synchronous) Irrigated (asynchronous) P F df
Synchrony refers to farmers planting dates and synchrony occurs when farmers plant within a period of one month, the average generational period of most insect pests (Loevinsohn et al. 1988). Circumference of 1 km2 centered around each light trap. c Daily counts from kerosene light traps. No data indicates that the insect in question was not measured. In a column, means (+SEM). followed by a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (P 4 0.05) by LSD analysis. d S. innotata. S. incertulas. e Chilo suppressalis, Sesamia inferens, Maliarpha sp.
135
136

White grubs (no./10-m row) at harvestf 8.4 + 2.8 7.2 + 5.6 0.5 + 0.2 0.7 + 0.3 Claveria Tupi 7 4 198490 198687 198990 11.0 + 2.3 8.4 + 3.9 9.3 + 1.6 8.5 + 3.8 14.3 + 1.9 13.6 + 2.8 5.8 + 1.1 8.3 + 2.0 7.3 + 2.9 9.9 + 5.4 88 + 30 172 + 33 1.0 + 0.6 0 0.6 + 0.3 0.5 + 0.3 1.2 + 0.3 6.5 + 2.8 1.0 + 2.1 1.0 + 0.9
3.1.2. Claveria Stand loss averaged 14% in the vegetative stage, more from sown-seed and root pests (Table 3), mainly ants again dominated by S. geminata. Germinating seed pests were mole cricket Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister and eld crickets, while root pests were white grubs, termites, root aphids, and mealybugs. The subterranean termite Macrotermes gilvus (Hagen) prefers wheat to rice as a 100-m2 trial plot (var. Trigo) sown within a rice eld was totally denuded in the seedling stage. Densities in rice reached 7 termites/ 50 plants with minimal damage to rice. The seedling maggot averaged a modest 6% deadhearts. After tillering their numbers declined, as the larvae can only attack developing tillers. Defoliation from general defoliators including C. basalis ea beetle was subeconomic. The most common defoliators were leaolders that averaged only 1% damaged leaves, the most common being M. patnalis Bradley followed by M. exigua and C. medinalis. Also noted was the armyworm Mythimna separata (Walker) which did negligible damage. Three species of root aphids built up in numbers with crop growth reaching 1.8/plant. Tetraneura nigriabdominalis (Sasaki) was most common followed by Geoica lucifuga (Zehntner) and Rhopalosiphum ruabdominalis (Sasaki) in elds where numbers were high, plants turned yellow and became stunted. The common root mealybugs were Trionymus sp. and Pseudococcus sp. where only token numbers occurred (1/50 plants). Stemborer damage as deadhearts or whiteheads was 51% where species composition determined by tiller dissection showed striped stemborer Chilo suppressalis (Walker) to be the most dominant (72% of collections) followed by yellow stemborer (11%), white stemborer S. innotata (Walker) (10%) and nally pink stemborer Sesamia inferens (Walker) (6%). Larvae were reared to distinguish between the Scirpophaga species. Rice seed bugs were a mixture of L. oratorius and L. acuta averaging 1/m2. White grubs also fed on roots having the greatest detrimental eect on seedlings averaging 8/10-m row after harvest. The two most common species Leucopholis irrorata (Chevrolat) and Holotrichia mindanaoana Brenske had synchronized 2-year life-cycles which on odd-numbered years resulted in the last instar larvae being in the eld at the time of crop planting (Litsinger et al. 2002). Females oviposit during land preparation predominantly in even numbered years when only the less damaging young
Table 3. Insect pest densities on farmers dryland rice elds sown to UPLRi5 in Claveria, Misamis Oriental and Tupi, South Cotabato, Mindanao, Philippines 19841990.a
Whiteheads
Leaolder (% damaged ag leaves)b
Ricebug (no./m2)e
these catches that were equivalent to a number of wetland sites where moderate damage levels occur on almost each crop, such densities did not translate into signicant infestations in the slash and burn area, as deadhearts or whiteheads were rarely encountered.
Each year 48 elds (replications) were monitored from insecticide untreated 100 m2 plots. DE days after crop emergence. Data are means + SEM. 0-m row sample. c Sampled from the untreated check. d Plants dug up to 10 cm depth and roots insepected. e Data are means from sampling 25 m2 during milk, soft, and hard dough stages. f Plants dug up and soil inspected to 20 cm depth.
b a
Stemborer (%)b No. per 50 plants 40 DEd Plant stand reduction (%) 21 DEb
Site
Crops (no.)
Years
Sown seed pests
Root pests
Combined
Seeding maggot (% deadhearts) 21 DEb
Termites
Root aphids
Root mealy bugs
Deadhearts 5070 DE
International Journal of Pest Management larvae aect the crop. Three other species were also found feeding on rice but in much lower densities: H. achi Brenske, Adoretus luridus Blanchard, and Anomala humeralis Burmeister. Claveria had the lowest light trap collections of any of the sites (Table 2), as it was the most isolated from wetland areas. Plant-/leafhoppers were rarely encountered on the crop. As with Siniloan, stemborer species balance favoured genera other than Scirpophaga. 3.1.3. Tupi
137
An average stand reduction of 14% resulted from both sown-seed and root pests in this favourable dryland site (Table 3). The main seed pest was S. geminata, along with mole and eld crickets. Seedling maggot damage averaged 8% deadhearts but otherwise the seedling stage was not signicantly infested by insect pests, as ea beetle damage was barely noticed. Root pests were white grubs and termites. White grubs continued to gnaw away on roots throughout the crop season; the same ve species as found in Claveria were recorded. They averaged 7 per 10-m row at harvest. Termites averaged only 1 per ve plants. Other root feeding pests were root aphids which averaged 43 per plant and thus were one of the most important pest guilds. Root mealybugs, however, were not recorded. Stemborers were mainly Scirpophaga dominated by white stemborer although there was a species shift in the province prior to the study due to El Nino climate change (Litsinger et al. 2006a). Damage levels, however, were extremely low with deadhearts and whiteheads 51%. Leaolders averaged 7% damaged leaves dominated by M. patnalis (55% of eld collections) and C. medinalis (45%). Rice seed bugs were low in number (1/m2). Light trap densities of the major rice pests were greatest in Tupi among the dryland rice sites and even greater than many other wetland rice sites (Table 2). The exception was whitebacked planthopper Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) which was more abundant in Tanauan due to its close proximity to Laguna wetland areas. Densities of brown planthopper, zigzag leafhopper Recilia dorsalis (Motschulsky), and Cyrtorhinus mirid were highest in Tupi except for one or two of the asynchronously planted irrigated rice sites. Green leafhopper numbers were high in the dryland sites but lower than the irrigated wetland sites. Stemborer densities were also highest among the dryland sites but much less than at the wetland sites. The ratio of Scirpophaga to nonScirpophaga stemborers favoured the latter, equal to the other dryland sites. The most abundant was Maliarpha sp. with 63% of the catch followed by S. innotata (26%), C. suppressalis (9%), and S. inferens (2%).
3.1.4. Tanauan Insect pest species richness and their densities in Tanauan were only higher than in Siniloan. Sownseed and root pests (white grubs and termites) each reduced stand 911 and 1110%, respectively, when measured individually and for each varietal type (Table 4). When both contributions are combined, stand reduction ranged from 14 to 16% for Dagge and UPLRi5, respectively. S. geminata was probably responsible for most of the loss of seed followed by mole and eld crickets. Only one species of white grub L. irrorata was encountered and is a major pest of sugarcane in nearby elds. Farmers cite termites dominated by M. gilvus along with Coptotermes spp. as major dryland rice pests. Termites are permanent residents of the uplands as their nests extend below the plough pan and feed mainly on maize stalks and rice straw. Farmers, however, overestimate the importance of termites but do not suciently value the other pests. Seedling maggot was also present but at very low numbers during the vegetative stage. Several defoliating Lepidoptera were recorded, based on periodic eld collections during the 1976 1980 seasons mainly in the reproductive stage. From the total collection of 635 larvae and pupae, the most abundant was greenhorned caterpillar Melanitis leda ismene Cramer (46% of the total) followed by armyworms M. separata (17%) and Spodoptera mauritia acronyctoides Guenee (16%) plus rice skipper Pelopidas mathias (F.) (13%) and brown semi-looper Mocis frugalis (F.) (9%). However, the amount of defoliation from these species never reached economic levels. The light trap catches showed that among the four dryland sites Tanauan had supported high levels of plant- and leafhoppers, second only to Tupi (Table 2). The highest light trap densities were of whitebacked planthopper followed by green and zigzag leafhoppers which were mirrored in eld sampling (Figure 1). Densities peaked in the late reproductive stage and declined toward crop senescence with the abundance of Cyrtorhinus predator trailing that of its prey. Abundance of yellow stemborer from light trap catches was equivalent to that at other dryland sites except Tupi. Cyrtorhinus numbers were also moderate despite its major prey (planthoppers) being abundant on the crop. Plant- and leafhoppers were more abundant on Dagge than on UPLRi5 (Table 4). Numbers were higher on the traditional variety than on the modern variety, and at times small patches of hopperburn were noticed in some elds. Of the green leafhoppers, most individuals (83%) were N. virescens, as the remainder being N. nigropictus (Stal) indicating that the site was still within the dispersal range of rice insect pests moving from wetland areas. Cyrtorhinus predators were also prevalent, their numbers building
138

White grubs Damaged (no./10-m row) at harvestf grains (%)
a Each year 48 eld (replications) were monitored from insecticide untreated 100 m2 plots for each variety. DE days after crop emergence. Data are means + SEM. b 10-m row sample. c Sampled from the untreated check. d Sampled by D-VAC1 suction machine. e Data are means from sampling during milk, soft, and hard dough stages. Damaged grains were determined by the acid fuchsin staining technique of the feeding sheaths (Litsinger et al. 1981). f Plants dug up and soil inspected to 20 cm depth.
Table 4. Insect pest densities on farmers dryland rice elds sown to traditional and modern rice varieties in Tanauan, Batangas 19761980.a
No. per 25 m2 40 DEd
158 + 141 27 + 17
R. dorsalis
up over the season and peaking after the planthoppers (Figure 1). Spider densities were at 12/m2 throughout the crop season. The most common spiders were Argiope catenulata (Doleschall) (Araneidae), Clubiona japonicola Boesenberg et Strand (Clubionidae), Pardosa pseudoannulata (Boesenberg et Strand) (Lycosidae), Tetragnatha javana (Thorell), T. mandibulata Walckenaer, and T. nitens (Audouin) (Tetragnathidae). Three species of rice stemborer were recovered by periodic stem dissections (n 703 larvae) with S. incertulas the most abundant (74%) followed by S. inferens (19%) and dark headed stemborer C. polychrysus (Meyrick) (7%). The combined damage as deadhearts was minimal 52%, with whiteheads only slightly 43% (Table 4). Damage was higher on Dagge probably because as it was the taller variety it elongated more, making it more susceptible (Bandong and Litsinger 2005). These levels were also subeconomic. S. innotata does not occur on Luzon. The high nitrogen usage encouraged three leaffolders, M. patnalis being the most commonly encountered while M. exigua colonized rst followed by C. medinalis. Damage was greatest at the ag leaf stage, averaging 17 and 10% damaged leaves on traditional and modern varieties, respectively. Few living larvae were found upon opening up folded leaves indicating high rates of predation. Rice seed bug numbers were moderate averaging 1/m2 over the ripening stage which damaged 57% of rice grains. 3.1.5. Comparison of rice agro-ecosystems Kerosene light traps operated over standardized crop seasons in 12 sites measured the activity of a narrow spectrum of rice insect pests, mainly plant-/leafhoppers, stemborers, and Cyrtorhinus mirid that preys on hoppers. The overall analysis shows that brown planthoppers were just as prevalent in dryland as in other synchronously planted wetland sites (Table 2). The same was true of whitebacked planthopper for which there are no resistant rice varieties. Brown planthopper was found at low levels in three of the four dryland sites despite susceptible varieties being grown. At Tupi the incidence was as high as in irrigated areas and only less in the two asynchronously planted irrigated areas where genetic resistance had broken down. The low levels in Manaoag (IR36), Victoria (IR42) and Cabatanuan/Zaragoza (IR42, IR52) indicate that the rice varieties planted at the time were resistant to brown planthopper. At Iloilo farmers grew a mixture of traditional types and IR36 which was resistant. Tupi farmers selected modern semi-dwarfs that, however, were not resistant. Green leafhoppers were most abundant in Tupi with the lowest incidence in Claveria but in none of the dryland sites were varieties resistant to green
Leaolder (% damaged Whiteheads ag leaves)b Deadhearts (%) Cyrtorhinus C. spectra predator S. furcifera Nephotettix spp.
c
Stemborersb
Crops Sown (no.) seed pests Variety
Dagge UPLRi5
5 3
9.1 + 1.4 11.4 + 2.2 14.1 + 4.7 10.7 + 3.0 9.8 + 2.4 16.4 + 5.3
Plant stand (% reduction) 21 DEb
Root pests
Combined
78 + 47 34 + 8
143 + 90 34 + 12
N. lugens
1,318 + 763 310 + 218
8.1 + 2.5 31.4 + 10.1 0.4 + 1.4 1.6 + 0.5 7.3 + 1.7 23.2 + 2.2 0.3 + 0.1 0.5 + 0.2
50 DE
70 DE
2.6 + 0.8 1.5 + 0.6
17.3 + 5.1 9.6 + 4.0
1.3 + 1.6 4.1 + 0.6 1.3 + 0.9 3.7 + 0.5
Rice bugde
No./m
1.2 + 0.9 1.7 + 1.5
139
Figure 1. Abundance of planthoppers, leafhoppers, spiders, and a mirid predator on a traditional dryland rice variety determined by weekly suction sampling with a DVAC machine in Tanauan, Batangas, Philippines, 1980. Data are averages of 25 m2 samples in each of four elds where rice was sown in June and harvested in October. WBPH, whitebacked planthopper Sogatella furcifera; BPH, brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens; GLH, Nephotettix spp. green leafhoppers; ZLH, zigzag leafhopper Recilia dorsalis, and the mirid predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis.
leafhopper grown. In the case of dryland sites, crop apparency was low due to a long dry fallow and in irrigated sites genetic resistance prevailed. Modern rices are resistant to green leafhoppers, as can be seen in Laguna and Cabanatuan/Zaragoza among the irrigated sites. However, resistance had broken down in the asynchronous areas. Generally the lowest incidence was in both dryland and irrigated synchronous sites with high numbers in rainfed wetland and asynchronous irrigated areas. The short season dryland rice environment suppressed green leafhopper build up whereas in synchronous irrigated sites resistant varieties were responsible. There are no resistant varieties for zigzag leafhopper and white
leafhopper Cofana spectra (Distant). The highest zigzag leafhopper incidence was the asynchronous sites, but was also recorded in Tupi, and there were no dierences between dryland, rainfed wetland, and irrigated (synchronous) cultures. Also, there was no signicant dierence between rice cultures for white leafhopper. The mirid predator densities mirrored more the brown planthopper than any other prey species. The lowest incidence of Scirpophaga stemborers was recorded in the dryland habitat, whereas the highest catches were recorded in Koronadal from white stemborer in the asynchronous area. The ratio of non-Scirpophaga to Scirpophaga was positive only
140

Table 5. Yield loss determined by partitioned growth stage, insect pest guild insecticide check method in farmers elds in Claveria, Misamis Oriental and Tupi, S. Cotabato, Philippines 19851991.a
Yield loss was determined as the dierence between a full protection treatment that protected ve growth stages and associated pest guilds with insecticides selected for their ecacy and phytotoxic/ phytotonic neutrality Five treatments sucessively omitted insecticide protection so that losses could be attributed to that growth stage/guild See text for descriptions of insecticides, dosages and timing. All trials were conducted in farmers elds with each eld as a replication. Means + SEM in a row not followed by a common letter are signicantly dierent (P 0.05) by LSD test, ns not signicantly dierent
Stemborer/ leaolder Ricebug 2.2 0.2 4 1987 198991 3.46 + 0.19 2.96 + 0.32 0.10 + 0.08 0.11 + 0.08 0.09 + 0.07 0.01 + 0.04 15.0 3.3 3.5 5.5 2.5
Yield loss (%)
Root aphid White Seed/ grubs/ seeding termites pests Total Ricebug Stemborer leaolder Root aphid Seed/seedling pests White grubs termites Total Untreated Complete protection Crops Site Years
in the dryland sites. Dierences among habitats for non-Scirpophaga species were not signicant. Skewing the results were three sites wherein only Scirpophaga stemborers were found. Koronadal had high incidence of Maliarpha sp. stemborers in both dryland and irrigated sites. 3.2. Yield loss
Yield (t/ha)
3.2.1. Siniloan The slash and burn crop suered greatly from both biotic and abiotic stresses, foremost of which was the eroded acidic soil which reduced root growth, thus when periodic water stress occurred the plants were not able to extract moisture from deep in the soil. Biotic stresses were mainly diseases and vertebrate and insect pests to the extent that in 1984 there was no grain harvest. Most serious was leaf and neck blast disease (Pyricularia oryzae Cav.) followed by rats and birds and an array of insect pests. Also, those plots that grew best from added soil amendments and good insect control suered greater yield loss than the poorer-growing ones due to lodging from typhoons. At harvest, plant height and biomass were insignificantly dierent between treatments. Less blast occurred in the second year which produced a grain harvest that illustrates how complex quantication of yield loss is when multiple stresses are involved. The farmers practice was the untreated (treatment 7) which yielded 60 kg/ha, barely returning the seed sown (Table 1). If insecticide seed treatment is provided, a yield of 210 kg/ha occurred resulting in a loss of 0.15 t/ha or 71% (treatment 6 vs. 7) from sown-seed and seedling pests. However, if the farmer follows the recommended practice of adding 23 kg N/ ha there is no yield loss from insect pests (treatment 3 vs. 4) because of crop compensation. The best treatment yielded 480 kg/ha, that is the technical yield potential, which was also reached by applying only 23 kg N/ha plus ash without insecticide. There was no additional yield benet from foliar sprays, thus the measured yield loss from insects came from control of the sown-seed and seedling pest guilds. Clearly, the degree of loss is highly inuenced by agronomic practices. 3.2.2. Claveria Claveria resulted in an average loss of 0.79 t/ha or 23% as the dierence between the fully protected crop (3.43 t/ha) and the untreated (2.64 t/ha) grown under farmer management (Table 5). Using the partitioned yield loss method, losses (t/ha) were highest from white grubs and termites (0.31) followed by root aphids (0.21), sown-seed/seedling pests (0.16), rice seed bugs (0.09), and stemborers (0.03). The total yield loss equalled 22.8%: that breaks down to 8.3% for white grubs and termites, 6.6% for root aphids,
Yield loss (t/ha)
Claveria P F df Tupi P F df
198591
3.43 + 0.21 a
2.64 + 0.16 b
0.79 + 0.24 0.01 6.36 73 0.50 + 0.16 0.21 ns 1.61 39
0.31 + 0.18 a
0.16 + 0.21 ab
0.21 + 0.17 ab 0.04 3.17 73 0.19 + 0.15 ns 0.57 39
0.03 + 0.10 b
0.09 + 0.08 ab 22.8
8.3
5.0
6.6
0.7
International Journal of Pest Management 5.0% for sown-seed pests, 2.2% for rice seed bugs, and 0.7% for stemborers. 3.2.3. Tupi
Yield loss determined by partitioned growth stage/pest guild insecticide check method in farmers elds in Tanauan, Batangas, Philippines, 19761980.a
Yield loss (%) Ripening stage 0.3 2.3
141
Reproductive stage
0.3
4.1
3.2.4.
Tanauan
0.05 + 0.07
0.734 ns 0.117 63 0.40 + 0.38
3.3.
Crop management
3.3.1. Siniloan The slash and burn crop was protected with a seed treatment as an initial recommended practice which was tested together with several agronomic and insecticide interventions including organic and inorganic fertiliser amendments and foliar sprays. With carbosulfan seed treatment, yields increased signicantly from 60 to 210 kg/ha, giving a marginal return of only $0.60/ha (Table 1). The highest yield with the least amount of inputs was obtained from applying 23 kg N/ha and ash to reach 450 kg/ha and a marginal return of $42 and B:C ratio was a highly favourable 6.1. Adding the seed treatment did not increase yield, neither did adding lime, chicken manure, doubling the N rate from 23 to 46 kg/ha, or foliar insecticide sprays. This agronomic recommendation probably increased the crops compensatory ability against insect pest damage, but it may change if and when the yield potential can be
Total yield loss
Yield (t/ha)
2.85 + 0.06
2.90 + 0.08
Crops
197680
Variety type
Traditional/ Dagge P F df Modern/ UPLRi5 P F df
Table 6.
197880
Years
4.01 + 0.16
Complete protection
3.61 + 0.35
Untreated
0.165 ns 2.02 35
In Tanauan the modern variety out-yielded the traditional variety under the same management in both the comparison of full protection (4.01 vs. 2.90 t/ha) and untreated (3.61 vs. 2.85 t/ha) (Table 6). With Dagge there was an insignicant dierence between the protected (2.90 t/ha) and the unprotected check (2.85 t/ha); total loss was too low (5%) for us to have condence in assigning signicance apportioned across each pest guild. There was, however, a signicant yield loss in UPLRi5 of 0.40 t/ha or 18% between protected and unprotected treatments. This higher loss was spread fairly evenly between guilds with most due to white grubs/termites and sown-seed/ seedling pests (5.9% each), and least in the ripening stage (2.3%). The 4.1% loss in the reproductive stage was probably from whitebacked planthopper.
Reproductive stage
0.01 + 0.02
Yield loss (t/ha)
Sown seed/ seedling pests
0.01 + 0.01
White grubs/ termites
0.01 + 0.02
0.02 + 0.02
0.13 + 0.12
0.13 + 0.12
0.09 + 0.10
0.05 + 0.06
Interestingly the yield potential in Tupi was similar to that in Claveria despite these being better soils in Tupi. The four crops in Tupi recorded a 0.50 t/ha or 15% loss as the dierence between 3.46 and 2.96 t/ha for full protection and the check (Table 5). Yield loss was lower than in Claveria, even though pest complexes and densities were similar. The ranking of yield loss diered, in that the greatest loss was from root aphids (0.19 t/ha or 5.5%), sown-seed/seedling pests (0.11 t/ha or 3.5%), white grubs and termites (0.10 t/ha or 3.5%), stemborers (0.09 t/ha or 2.5%), and rice seed bugs (0.01 t/ha or 0.2%).
Yield loss was determined as the dierence between a full protection treatment that protected four growth stages and associated pest guilds with insecticides selected for their ecacy. Four treatments successively omitted insecticide protection so that losses could be attributed to that growth stage/guild. See text for descriptions of insecticides, dosages and timing. All trials were conducted in farmers elds with each eld as a replication. Means + SEM in a row followed by a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (P 5 0.05) by LSD test, ns not signicantly dierent
Seed/ seedling pests
White grubs/ termites
0.3
Total yield loss
0.8
Ripening stage
18.2
1.7
5.9
5.9
142
J.A. Litsinger et al. 3.3.3. Tupi Almost the same mix of management practices was tested in Tupi as in Claveria. Lowest yields again were in the unfertilised and non-insecticide treated plots at either 50 and 90 kg/ha seeding rates (2.4 2.5 t/ha) (Table 7). There was no benet of increasing just the seeding rate from 50 to 90 kg/ ha without fertiliser or seed treatment. The most economical return was at 50 kg seed/ha with inorganic fertiliser (50-25-0) and insecticide seed treatment with highest marginal return of $90/ha and 3.0 B:C ratio. Adding only fertiliser had a greater benet as yields increased 0.53 and 0.66 t/ha in the 50 and 90 kg/ha seeding rates, respectively, although not signicantly. Economically there was a marginal return of $44/ha and B:C ratio of 2.8 from use of inorganic fertiliser at 50 kg seed/ha without seed treatment. If the farmer increased to 90 kg seed/ha with fertiliser but without seed treatment, the marginal return became $64/ha and B:C ratio rose to a more favourable 3.1. Prot was higher with an insecticide seed treatment however. No further benet was realized from applying the more expensive soil insecticide treatments, indicating less pest pressure than in Claveria. In Tupi the full protection treatment did not yield more than the seed treatment or use of fertiliser. Therefore there was no signicant benet from any insecticide protection on a well fertilised crop at 90 kg seed/ha, again indicating crop compensation.
signicantly raised, i.e. with a blast resistant variety, better soil management, or improved vertebrate pest control. 3.3.2. Claveria The crop management variables tested were inorganic fertiliser, seeding rate, as well as insecticide soil and/ or seed/seedling treatments. The lowest yields resulted without addition of either fertiliser or insecticide producing equally low levels (2.4 t/ha) at both the 50 and 90 kg/ha seeding rates (Table 7). The minimal input to raise the yield signicantly above the untreated level was the adding of inorganic fertiliser (50-25-0) at the 90 kg seed/ha rate producing 2.6 t/ha but a negative marginal return of $9/ha. The next yield plateau was reached at a seeding rate of 50 kg/ ha, 50-25-0 fertiliser level, and an insecticide seed treatment which improved to 2.8 t/ha, but only a meagre marginal return of $7/ha with a B:C ratio of only 1.2. The addition of a soil insecticide treatment to this last practice did not further improve yield. The fully protected plots produced the highest yields (3.4 t/ha) among all treatment combinations and out-yielded the fertilised control at the same seeding rate by 0.80 t/ha. This treatment was not a potential practice; but it merely showed that there was more scope for improvement. Thus the most protable practice for the farmer was to not apply any agricultural inputs due to the meagre yield response of added N and P.
Table 7. Yield response to crop management practices on dryland rice production, Claveria and Tupi, Mindanao, Philippines, 19841990. Insecticide treatment Complete protectionb Seed/seedling soil treatments Seed/seedling treatment Seed/seedling treatment Soil treatment Soil treatment Untreated Untreated Untreated Untreated P F df Seeding rate (kg/ha) 90 90 90 50 90 50 90 50 90 50 Yield (t/ha)a N-P (kg/ha) 5025 5025 5025 5025 5025 5025 5025 5025 0 0 Claveria 3.41 + 0.23 a 2.89 + 0.15 b 2.85 + 0.23 b 2.84 + 0.28 b 2.65 2.69 2.61 2.33 2.44 2.42 + 0.17 + 0.39 + 0.18 + 0.25 + 0.32 + 0.28 0.007 5.50 294 bc bc bc c c No. crops 7 4 6 3 2 3 7 3 3 3 N 28 16 24 28 8 26 28 28 12 12 3.20 + 0.26 ab 3.48 + 0.24 ab 3.41 3.37 3.17 2.96 2.51 2.43 + 0.29 + 0.37 + 0.28 + 0.32 + 0.30 + 0.27 0.03 2.22 135 ab ab ab ab b b 4 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 16 12 8 12 16 12 12 12 Tupi 3.61 + 0.22 a No. crops 4 n 16
a Each crop consisted of 46 farms replications (n) and treatments were analyzed on the basis of elds and not crops. In a column, means + SEM followed by a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (P 0.05) by LSD analysis. Soil treatment was 0.25 kg al/Lindane G/ha, seed treatment was 0.30 kg ai carbosulfan ST/ha. Fertilizer applied was 50250 with the N application split at 1425 days after crop emergence during inter-row cultivation and panicle initiation while P was applied basally during land preparation. b From the yield loss trial which treatments were randomly mixed with the insect control treatments each season.
International Journal of Pest Management 3.3.4. Tanauan Combinations of seeding rates and insecticide treatment of seeds and soil were tested in one season with Dagge variety. There was a yield benet (0.50 t/ha) of increasing the seeding rate from 50 to 100 kg/ha although not signicantly (Table 8), but it had a highly favourable marginal return of $55/ha and a B:C ratio of 8.3. Higher seeding rates up to 150 kg/ha did not increase yield. At the 50 kg/ha seeding rate, insecticide seed treatment resulted in modest but insignicant yield gains (0.230.27 t/ha) that produced a marginal return of only $15/ha and B:C ratio of 1.7. Slightly higher, but again insignicant, gains (0.36 t/ha) were obtained with the 0.5 kg a.i. carbofuran/ha soil insecticide treatment at 50 kg seed/ha producing a marginal return of $20/ha and B:C ratio of 1.8. The highest yield gain (0.64 t/ha) was obtained with the highest rate of soil insecticide treatment (2 kg a.i. carbofuran/ha) at the 100 kg/ha seeding rate producing marginal return of only $7/ha and B:C ratio of 1.1. In 2 years trials (19801981) the same seed and soil treatments produced no signicant yield gain in UPLRi5. In the 1979 trial which had more sown-seed and root (white grub) pest pressure, also at 100 kg seed/ha, that included both a seed treatment of 0.30 kg a.i. carbosulfan ST/ha (3.68 t/ha) and a soil
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treatment of 0.75 kg a.i. diazinon G/ha (3.82 t/ha) resulted in signicant yield increase over the untreated of 3.28 t/ha (P 0.03, F 3.54, df 28). Both insecticide treatments produced similar marginal returns of $31 and $41/ha, respectively, and B:C ratios of 2.6 and 2.4. The average in untreated plots with UPLRi5 over the 3 years was 3.6 t/ha; thus, in 1979 there was greater insect pest pressure. The farmer practice of 100 kg seed/ha without insecticide is probably the most economical practice as farmers are hesitant to use insecticides. 4. 4.1. Discussion Yield potential
Except for the very low productivity of the slash and burn site, yields in the unprotected treatment of the other three sites ranged from 2.6 to 3.6 t/ha; these are much higher than the world average of 1 t/ha. This eect is likely attributable to the Philippine climate and soils being as a whole more suitable for dryland rice compared to those of many other countries. The highest yielding site was Tanauan with the most favourable soils, good crop management, and highest use of inorganic fertiliser where the low tillering variety Dagge averaged 2.9 t/ha, which is equal to yields obtained from similar traditional varieties in the irrigated wetlands. The high tillering UPLRi5
Table 8. Comparison of dierent practices on the yield of Dagge rice including increasing the seeding rate, insecticide seed and soil treatment and combinations thereof, Tanauan, Batangas, Philippines, 1976.a Insecticide treated Seed rate Seed Soil Untreated Untreated Untreated Untreated Untreated Untreated 0.5 kg ai carbofuran G/ha 2 kg ai carbofuran G/ha Untreated Untreated 0.5 kg ai carbofuran G/ha 2 kg ai carbofuran G/ha Plant standb no./m-row) 14 DE 35 d 45 bc 60 a 59 a 38 cd 41 cd 38 cd 41 cd 51 ab 52 ab 52 ab 51 ab 0.02 5.38 33 Yieldc (t/ha) 2.00 2.49 2.43 2.23 b ab ab ab
Seeding rate 50 kg seed Untreated 100 kg seed Untreated 125 kg seed Untreated 150 kg seed Untreated Seed treatment 50 kg seed Carbofuran ST 50 kg seed Dieldrin WP Soil treatment 50 kg seed Untreated 50 kg seed Untreated Seed treatment increasing seeding rate 100 kg seed Carbofuran ST 100 kg seed Dieldrin WP Seed treatment increasing seeding rate 100 kg seed Untreated 100 kg seed Untreateed P F df
2.27 ab 2.23 ab 2.36 ab 2.47 ab 2.27 ab 2.19 ab 2.51 ab 2.64 a 0.04 4.98 33
a Farmer practice was 00 kg seed/ha without insecticide usage and N was applied at 60 kg/ha in all treatments. ST seed treatment formulation, WP wettable powder, G granule. In a column, means + SEM followed by a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (P 0.05) by LSD analysis. The randomized complete block trial was replicated across six farmers elds. b 20 samples of 1-m rows. DE days after crop emergence. c Two 10 m2 yield cuts.
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J.A. Litsinger et al. growth hormone like properties (Venugopal and Litsinger (1984). Nematodes are a serious problem in dryland rice (Villanueva et al. 1992), causing high losses in their own right. In fact, carbofuran is the chemical of choice for estimating losses in the nematicide check method, but again the dosage used in our study (1 kg ai/ha) was half used by nematologists (e.g. Plowright et al. 1990) and at the lower end of the dosage range that gives a phytotonic eect. Another mitigating eect was that the timing of the rst of two applications 40 and 70 DE which, being late in the growth period, would have tempered both potential eects. Each of these factors would lead to an overestimation of yield loss. On the other hand, none of the insecticide treatments achieved 100% control of insect pests in the trials osetting the aforementioned eects. The low yield loss of 5% on Dagge rice contrasts markedly with the results of the earlier studies by Pathak and Dyck (1975) where 430% yield loss was recorded on similar traditional varieties in the same location. Such high losses recorded earlier were probably due to the high rate of in-furrow carbofuran G (2 kg ai/ha) which would have both induced a phytotonic response (Venugopal and Litsinger 1984) and signicantly suppressed nematodes (Villanueva et al. 1992), resulting in overestimates of insect losses. Carbofuran was not used in our study in Tanauan. 4.3. Insect pest complex The key ecological factors of dryland sites that aected insect species composition were the result of: (1) an aerobic soil due to lack of soil puddling and ponding, (2) the extensiveness of alternative plant hosts (perennial grasslands and presence of maize or sugarcane), and (3) nearness to wetland rice bowls. We conclude that the most signicant species associated with loss were adapted to the non-ooded drylands (ants, eld crickets, mole crickets, white grubs, termites) or those that survive well on grassy weeds, or on the more dominant maize or on sugarcane (seedling maggot, ea beetle, root aphids, mealybugs, thrips, rice seed bugs, non-Scirpophaga stemborers). The most important among this list were undoubtedly ants which was the only taxon of economic importance acting across all four sites. Root aphids also reached economic numbers in two sites. Seedling maggot was economically important in all sites except for Tanauan which is devoid of grasslands. Siniloan has extensive grassy areas comprising the abandoned slash and burn elds from previous seasons that only slowly return to forest. Termites appear not to prefer living rice plants, so are not considered economically important pests as
averaged even more 3.6 t/ha under the same management. Its characteristics of high tillering combined with blast resistance make UPLRi5 an attractive variety for dryland rice farmers. Tupi soils are similar to those of Tanauan, but farmers applied less nitrogen, 30 vs. 110 kg/ha, and averaged 3.0 t/ha with UPLRi5 almost equal to Dagge under higher N rates. The two sites with the least favourable soils achieved the lowest yields. Claveria, with its highly eroded acidic soils and low organic matter content, averaged 2.6 t/ha. Slash and burn culture, exemplied by Siniloan, recorded the lowest yields with the farmers only doubling their investment in seed. 4.2. Partitioned-growth-stage yield loss There was no partitioned yield loss data for the slash and burn site due to the diculty of carrying out multiple-treatment trials on small and very patchy elds. The mean yield loss gure across the other three sites for UPLRi5 was 18.6%, with 5.8% attributed to white grubs and termites, 4.8% to sown-seed/seedling pests (ants, crickets, seedling maggot, and ea beetles), 4.0% to root aphids and mealybugs, 2.4% to reproductive stage pests (stemborers, leaolders and plant- and leafhoppers), and 1.6% to rice seed bugs. The partitioned-growth-stage method has its limitations. We noted interactions in the yield loss calculations between pest guilds attributed to the broad spectrum nature of the insecticides used and the overlapping growth stages of a number of them. The greatest interaction was evident with Lindane granules between damage caused by white grubs and termites (root pests) that would also have aected sown-seed pests such as ants and crickets. The degree with which this occurred can be seen in Tables 3 and 4 where sampling plant stand in the untreated controls (combined) was 3.36.0% lower loss than was estimated by separate treatments that measured sown-seed/seedling and root pest protection. Other overlapping stages were between root aphids/mealybugs and the foliar pest protection for the reproductive stage. In the former the granular insecticide carbofuran directed at root aphids and mealybugs would have had some systemic activity against stemborers and leaolders dwelling in and feeding on the above-ground plant parts. The dosage selected (0.75 kg ai/ha) for carbofuran was such that only trace amounts would have been taken up by the stems and leaves from the root zone placement. Any statistical interaction would have underestimated loss from reproductive pests. Additional interactions would have developed from use of carbofuran as it has other properties than as an insecticide. In addition to being a nematicide it also has been found to have plant
International Journal of Pest Management dead plants were not seen. Thrips and mealybugs were present and would have become more abundant if prolonged drought had occurred. Rice seed bugs, like ea beetles, reached economic importance only in Siniloan due to their concentration in small elds. Rothschild (1970) also attributed high numbers of rice seed bugs in slash and burn cultivation in Sarawak to the same factor. Both pest groups have good local dispersive powers and can seek out small plantings. Puddling is a means of transforming a soil into a muddy consistency to allow long-rooted seedlings to be readily transplanted (DeDatta 1981). This process of tillage and eventual ponding would kill all except the most adapted soil-dwelling insects such as aquatic root weevils (Lissorhoptrus and Echinocnemus) which, only occur in ooded habitats. Our results show that dryland soil pests are mainly those that cannot tolerate sustained ooding. There are only limited records of soil-dwelling pests such as termites, mole crickets, and ants occurring in the wetlands. They exist primarily when there are large bunds that provide an aerobic environment from where they can make temporary incursions into the eld during periods of low water saturation but cannot sustain themselves (Way et al. 1998). Flooding is in fact a control method for these pests (Litsinger 1994). Polyphagy is one of the most distinguishing features of dryland rice insects (Litsinger et al. 1987a) and is exhibited by most of the prevalent species. The only monophagous insect pest encountered in signicant numbers in dryland rice was the white stemborer. Whitebacked planthopper has a wide host plant range compared to the monophagous but more infamous brown planthopper which it outnumbered in the drylands. The host plant range of N. virescens is primarily Oryza spp., whereas N. nigropictus could persist in the drylands on perennial grasses. The dryland site with the highest measured pest densities was in Claveria which has large tracts of wild perennial grasslands which grow quickly with the rst rains of the wet season enabling pest densities to build up rapidly. In Brazil for example, the extensive pasture lands surrounding tracts of dryland rice are responsible for build up of a number of pests such as spittle bugs which disperse to rice with devastating eect (Litsinger et al. 1987a). Both Tupi and Tanauan are highly cultivated areas where dryland rice occupies a smaller footprint than the surrounding maize and sugarcane; thus, immigration can be signicant by more dispersive species, i.e. seedling maggot, ea beetles, white grubs, mole cricket, eld crickets, root aphids, planthoppers, mealybugs, and rice seed bugs. Ho and Kibuka (1983) found that in dryland areas of Kenya where rice was grown in association with maize and sorghum, the principal rice stemborers were those species that fed on all three crops.
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Aestivation is a mechanism enabling survival during a long dry season and S. innotata has the ability to enter this diapause state for up to a year (Litsinger et al. 2006a). No other Asian stemborer has this adaptive trait and the ability to diapause is probably the reason that in Sarawak, Rothschild (1971) found it to be the most abundant stemborer in slash and burn rice. But despite this adaptation, its numbers were lower than other stemborer species in the Philippines as determined from tiller dissections (Jahn et al. 2007). Yellow stemborer enters quiescence in cool climates such as N. India and Bangladesh but not in the Philippines. Quiescence is not a true diapause state as the insect can resume activity rapidly from rain or land soaking (Islam 1993). Quiescence is dierent than diapause in that it occurs in direct response to an environmental change while S. innotata enters physiological inactivity in anticipation of the change from short day lengths and crop age (Litsinger et al. 2006a). Dry season tillage in the two Mindanao sites acts as a control measure against white stemborer survival. Other species with known dormancy abilities are Leptocorisa rice seed bugs, white grubs, and rice butteries (Litsinger et al. 1987a). Light trap data revealed that traditional pests emanating from wetland culture continually rained down on dryland rice elds in all four sites essentially year-round (Table 2). Tupi, Tanauan, and Siniloan were situated relatively near (1020 km) to large wetland rice bowls, whereas Claveria is more distant. Light trap data showed that dispersal of wetland rice insect pests, even to Siniloan in the midst of a mature tropical rainforest, occurred when rice was not even present. The most dispersive species are brown and whitebacked planthoppers, Cyrtorhinus, armyworms/ cutworms, locusts, and leaolders followed by rice butteries, leafhoppers, and stemborers (Litsinger et al. 1987a). Inorganic nitrogen usage and drought stress accounted for the abundance of some insect pests among sites. Tanauan with highest nitrogen usage would have favoured planthoppers and leaolders along with stemborers, as noted by studies done in wetland rice culture (Litsinger 1994). The benecial eects of nitrogen on planthoppers have been higher fecundity, greater survivorship, and increased feeding rates while those for leaolders were egg recruitment (ovipositing moths are attracted to the most vigorous growing elds) and survival (Kraker et al. 2000). Rothschild (1970) also found leaolders on dryland rice to be more abundant in elds of high N but least numerous if the crop were under drought stress. Dryland rice farmers on acid soils such as in Siniloan and Claveria obtained poor results from applying inorganic fertiliser, thus it is likely these pests were not numerous in these locations due to poor soils. The 2-year life-cycle of white grubs in Claveria is
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J.A. Litsinger et al. presence of ant predation could be that S. geminata was tending them for honeydew (Way et al. 2002). Further research should clarify what triggers ants to prey on or tend planthoppers. We have already documented the abundance of Cyrtorhinus in dryland rice (Table 4). The species richness of dryland spiders was elucidated by Barrion and Litsinger (1981). Rice leaolders also are heavily preyed upon by S. geminata and carabids in Tanauan (Barrion and Litsinger 1985). Other natural enemy groups such as earwigs (Barrion et al. 1987) and parasitoids (Barrion and Litsinger 1987a, 1987b) have also been identied in dryland rice areas. Litsinger et al. (1997) found lower levels of parasitism of rice butteries in dryland versus irrigated wetland rice areas. What needs further study is the natural biocontrol of soil dwelling pests. Of the three main rice cultural systems, dryland rice has the least crop apparency, thus rice pests nd it dicult to build-up and sustain numbers. Loevinsohn et al. (1988) and Litsinger (2008) showed that spatial eects of the area sown in rice and temporal eects of the length of the dry season were strong determinants of pest density. In cross cultural comparisons, the lowest densities of rice insect pests were found in single crop sites with the smallest areas planted which characterizes dryland rice culture. 4.4. Integrated crop management
attributable to poor nutrition (Litsinger et al. 2002). Higher yield losses in Claveria than in other sites can likewise be attributed to the lower level of compensation linked to poorer soil nutrition. Litsinger (1993) showed that higher application of nitrogen in wetland rice resulted in lower losses. Among the worlds main cereals, rice is least adapted to drought stress. In most years in all sites, the crop exhibited leaf rolling, a sign of water stress. Studies on insects have shown that high mortality occurs if dietary moisture is not adequate (Mochida et al. 1987). Xylem-feeders in particular are negatively aected by reduced turgor pressure. On the other hand, drought stress favours a number of dryland pests such as mealybugs, aphids, and thrips, as they feed on the phloem sap containing N compounds whose quantities have increased in stressed plants (Rothschild 1970; Williams 1970; Mochida et al. 1987; Jahn 2004; Jahn et al. 2005). Drought also releases locust and armyworm populations from the suppressive eect of their natural enemies (Litsinger et al. 1987a) and increases the number of breeding sites along river banks (Zhang and Li 1999). Locusts and armyworms generally aect dryland rice more than irrigated rice but were not noted in this study. Climate played a role in seasonality of pest densities as can be seen when we compare monsoon versus inter-tropical convergence zone sites. The latter climate aects dryland rice by extending host apparency via longer wet seasons, so favouring polyphagous and dispersive pests. The two Luzon sites were inuenced by the short monsoon rainy season, whereas the two Mindanao sites with a longer growing season allowed greater time for pest buildup. Additional generations per year potentially translate into a exponential increase in pest abundance (Loevinsohn et al. 1988). It is under the longer rainy seasons that changing planting time can have an eect. With the rst rains of the wet season, grasses emerge and farmers tend to sow maize rst and rice second in Mindanao. Thus reduction of seedling maggot can be realised by early sowing of rice, particularly in years of early rains (Litsinger et al. 2003). However, there is little scope for farmers to adjust planting time of rice and maize in the monsoon climate of Luzon. We have seen that within the dryland rice pest complex, typical wetland foliar species do not thrive on nutrient-poor and water-stressed plants, despite the constant aerial inundation. There is another factor at work. This study has revealed ants to be pests in reducing dryland plant stands, but they are also have an additional role as predators (Barrion and Litsinger 1980). Way et al. (2002) found that colonizing planthoppers could not become established in dryland rice elds in Tanauan due to ant predation, principally by S. geminata. The fact that planthoppers became so abundant in Tanauan in the
Despite the high yield losses measured in Siniloan (71%), Claveria (23%), and Tanauan (with UPLRi5) (18%) by the insecticide check method, crop management trials showed that most loss can be mitigated through use of either modest amounts of inorganic fertiliser (Siniloan) or overseeding in a fertilised crop (Claveria and Tanauan). Only in Tupi was there an economic advantage of applying a low dosage insecticide seed treatment, however this was only when rice was sown on a fertilised crop. Overseeding is an inexpensive method that anticipates chronic stand reduction from sown-seed pests. This preventive measure was found by Litsinger et al. (2003) to be eective in overcoming seedling maggot damage. Overseeding should be more eective on a high tillering plant type such as UPLRi5 compared to traditional low tillering varieties. UPLRi5 plants adjust the number of tillers per plant in response to fertility level and can ll in eld gaps. Overseeding is also environmentally sound as it conserves predatory ants. Way et al. (2002) cited reports where insect pests resurged in response to insecticide use directed against S. geminata. An optimally fertilised crop is a well known method for facilitating compensation from insect pest damage and has been found in wetland rice to be an optimal strategy for minimizing insecticide usage (Heong 1998; Litsinger et al. 2006b). In wetland rice the high tillering semi-dwarfs have been shown to exhibit extraordinary powers of
International Journal of Pest Management compensation from insect pest damage, particularly when the crop is well managed and there are few other stresses. An interesting nding in light of the above discussion was the lower relative losses of the traditional Dagge variety than the high tillering UPLRi5 (2 vs. 18%) under similar pest infestation levels. One would have expected that losses would have been higher in the traditional variety which has less compensatory potential. Two factors could account for the ndings: (1) Dagge is deeper-rooted and thus more drought-tolerant as the combination of insect damage and drought stress is known to be associated with high losses in wetland rice (Litsinger et al. 2005). (2) UPLRi5 is inherently higher-yielding than Dagge (Table 6), and may be suering from imbalanced fertiliser as only N was provided. P and K may not have been limiting for the lower-yielding Dagge. Nutrient stress could have been a cause of accentuated yield loss in UPLRi5. The weak response in Claveria to inorganic fertiliser was probably the reason why, with UPLRi5, there was a minimal response to agronomic interventions compared to Tupi and Tanauan sites. There was not even a response to increasing the seeding rate, although this did produce a favourable result in an earlier single season trial (Litsinger et al. 2003). Dryland rice in Claveria was under more stresses thus the crop had less potential to compensate (Litsinger 2006b). Tupi soils are more fertile than those of Claveria which are highly decient in organic matter (MacLean et al. 2003). Improved crop fertility may have had the added benet of increasing tolerance to nematodes (Villanueva et al. 1992; Prot et al. 1994) and may have been the reason why Tanauan farmers used such high rates of N. Samples of rice roots showed that they contained high densities of nematodes. N application stimulates plants to continuously produce new roots and allows them to grow deeper into the soil to escape reinvasion. Removing a stress such as nematodes would allow the crop to compensate more from insect pest damage and water stress; thus, good agronomic management is seen as a preventative strategy. Due to the many stresses inherent in dryland rice culture, workers have concluded that insect pests are not as important in dryland rice as they have been in wetland rice (Gupta and OToole 1986). But as our study has shown, insect pest losses can be very high and can vary dramatically in relation to site, management, and cultivar. Additionally most losses in dryland rice are caused by a quite dierent pest complex than most rice researchers are aware of. Given that many of the pests are soil dwelling and thus out of sight, evidence of their presence and damage is not as noticeable as their equivalents in wetland rice, thus they have been largely overlooked. Acknowledgements
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The able assistance of the Claveria site sta: Elsiner L. Dahilog Sr, Quirino S. Baguio Jr, and Nestor T. Labanes., Tupi site sta particularly Hector Corpuz as well as Beatriz Datijan, Anita Labarinto, and Joseph Siazon, and Tanauan and Siniloan site sta Mariano Leron, Eduardo Micosa, and Carlos de Castro is gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful for the assistance of Nonnie Bunyi and Josie Lynn Catindig at IRRI in providing references and technical information. The contributions of two anonymous reviewers is highly appreciated.
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Dryland Rice Insect Pests

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*Corresponding author. Email: jlitsinger@thegrid.net

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J.A. Litsinger et al.

1. High input, full protection

2. High input, foliar protection only

500 kg lime 3t chicken manure/ha 500 kg lime 3t chicken manure/ha Ashb

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Scirpophaga spp. Stemborersd

178 + 98 c 315 + 87b c

Irrigated (synchronous) 2.0 549 + 152 b 855 + 169 c 80 154 + 14 d 361 + 77 c

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.9

185 262 2,908 130 491 289 1,824 214

78 d 75 d 864 c 78 d 217 d 94 d 528 cd 79 d

451 75 1,449 860 3,218 2,179 2,440 629

144c 29 c 398 c 452 c 2,320 b 538 c 770 c 426 c

455 + 314 b 410 + 168 b

41 45 170 50 437 475 997 413

7c 11 c 43 c 23 c 133 c 66 c 108 b 88 c 305 + 17 c

South Cotabato Nueva Ecija South Cotabato

International Journal of Pest Management

J.A. Litsinger et al.

Leaolder (% damaged ag leaves)b

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Sown seed pests

Seeding maggot (% deadhearts) 21 DEb

Root mealy bugs

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No. per 25 m2 40 DEd

Crops Sown (no.) seed pests Variety

Plant stand (% reduction) 21 DEb

1,318 + 763 310 + 218

2.6 + 0.8 1.5 + 0.6

17.3 + 5.1 9.6 + 4.0

1.3 + 1.6 4.1 + 0.6 1.3 + 0.9 3.7 + 0.5

1.2 + 0.9 1.7 + 1.5

International Journal of Pest Management

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Yield loss (%)

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Yield loss (t/ha)

0.79 + 0.24 0.01 6.36 73 0.50 + 0.16 0.21 ns 1.61 39

0.21 + 0.17 ab 0.04 3.17 73 0.19 + 0.15 ns 0.57 39

0.09 + 0.08 ab 22.8

0.734 ns 0.117 63 0.40 + 0.38

Total yield loss

Traditional/ Dagge P F df Modern/ UPLRi5 P F df

Yield loss (t/ha)

Sown seed/ seedling pests

White grubs/ termites

Seed/ seedling pests

White grubs/ termites

Total yield loss

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