International Journal of Pest Management, JulySeptember 2006; 52(3): 195 207

Evaluation of action thresholds for chronic rice insect pests in the Philippines. IV. Stemborers

J. A. LITSINGER1, J. P. BANDONG2, B. L. CANAPI3, C. G. DELA CRUZ2, P. C. PANTUA2, A. L. ALVIOLA2, & E. H. BATAY-AN III4
Dixon, CA, USA, 2International Rice Research Institute, Metro Manila, Philippines, 3Monsanto Philippines, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines, and 4Philippine Department of Agriculture, Philippines
1

Abstract Action thresholds (ATs) as insecticide application decision tools were developed and tested against mainly yellow Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) and white S. innotata (Walker) rice stemborers in four sites in the Philippines over 68 crops. Damage incidence was low with a mean over all crops and sites of 2% deadhearts (DH) and 3% whiteheads (WH) based on weekly sampling. Highest incidence reached 19% WH as a mean of one crop and 31% WH in an individual eld in 1 week. AT characters were based on deadhearts, egg masses, or ushed moths. A mean of 9% elds exceeded ATs in the vegetative, 5% in the reproductive, and 4% in the ripening stages. The most effective AT character in each of the three growth stages was percentage DH with 5% being optimal in the vegetative, 25% in the reproductive, and 10% in the ripening stages. These ATs resulted in 96 99% correct decisions based on criteria involving DH and yield loss benchmarks set from earlier studies on economic loss. Insecticide response to the highly accurate ATs was a disappointing 540% control, with chlorpyrifos BPMC mixture being superior to chlorpyrifos or endosulfan alone. Despite this low level of control and the noted high tolerance of modern rices to stemborer damage, the AT treatments resulted in signicant 0.2 0.3 t/ha yield gains over the untreated check in each growth stage. This yield response is explained in part by control of coterminous nontarget chronic pests and in part to a synergistic compensatory yield response when a crop under multiple stress is even partially released. It is hypothesized that under such conditions, even low levels of control allow greater compensatory capacity to tolerate stemborer injury but also from other causes, thus accentuating yield responses, particularly if the nutrient supply is adequate and the variety is longer maturing. Stemborer IPM is seen as a two-pronged strategy, the rst is couched in integrated crop management as a preventative measure to bolster the crops ability to compensate from stemborer injury or other crop stress and the second to regularly monitor the crop using ATs. Crop monitoring protocols were seen to be improved if adjustments were made for crop maturity and damage pattern. The typical damage pattern over a crop showed DH initially increasing in the vegetative stage, then leveling off during the reproductive stage (indicating a period of natural plant resistance) before a late peak of WH. Vigilance can be relaxed during the mid-growth stages and heightened during periods of tiller elongation and panicle exsertion. AT levels need to be adjusted for each location, but as a rule of thumb percentage DH could follow the ratio 1:5:3 and 2:3:1 in the three growth stages for longer and shorter maturing varieties, respectively.

Keywords: Pest control, irrigated rice, insecticides, decision-making, yield loss, plant tolerance, planting date, seasonal damage pattern

1. Introduction Yellow Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) and white S. innotata (Walker) rice stemborers and are recurring pests causing signicant yield losses in the Philippines as determined by the insecticide check method (Litsinger et al. 2005). The former species is most important in Luzon and the latter in Mindanao. Moths lay egg masses on rice foliage of all stages and the dispersing neonate larvae tunnel into rice tillers within a few hours to feed on internal tissues. The rice crop is most susceptible when it is actively elongating, either during tillering or panicle exsertion, where injury occurs as deadhearts (DH) when the base of tillers are severed or as whiteheads (WH) when the vascular tissue at the base of panicles is cut off causing the grains to wither (Bandong and Litsinger 2005).

High tillering modern rices can tolerate stemborer damage best particularly if they are not suffering stress from other causes such as drought or nitrogen deciency (Litsinger et al. 2005). Longer maturing rices exhibit greater tolerances to insect pest losses (Litsinger et al. 1987). Greatest natural mortality of stemborers occurs from generalist egg predators and specialized egg parasitoids (Ooi and Shepard 1991). The internal feeding habits of the larvae normally result in poor control with foliar insecticides. Action thresholds (ATs) have been used to improve upon insecticide timing for rice stemborers (Dyck et al. 1981; Bandong and Litsinger 1988). This is the fourth paper in a series that reports on the development of decision tools for insecticide application for the chronic rice insect pests in the Philippines. The most commonly tested AT character has been DH. The purpose of this study was to test other characters

Correspondence: James A. Litsinger, 1365 Jacobs Place, Dixon, CA 95620, USA. Tel: 1 707 678 9068. Fax: 1 707 678 9069. E-mail: jlitsinger@thegrid.net ISSN 0967-0874 print/ISSN 1366-5863 online 2006 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09670870600659797

196

J. A. Litsinger et al. yield loss was recorded but thresholds were reached, levels were raised the following season and vice versa if yield loss did occur and no threshold was reached. Data were graphed to illustrate the dynamic weekly pest abundance as noted in Litsinger et al. (2006a). The earliest threshold character was DH percentage. Two additional characters were comparedegg masses and ushed moths. As it was noticed that earlier planted elds had low infestations whereas late planted elds had highest levels, earlier-planted, neighboring elds might serve as an early warning to impending economic densities. Neighboring elds (NF) were dened as the nearest two elds planted 1 2 weeks earlier than the target eld. Monitoring NF was done weekly beginning 1 week after transplanting (WAT). Two NF were monitored per target eld with results averaged. As farmers in irrigated areas tend to plant within 2 months of one another, such elds were readily available. NF were selected within 100 m of each other. Sampling was stopped after panicle exsertion thus WH were not used as a character. Levels of each character were adjusted by growth stage to account for periods of crop susceptibility in a ratio of 2:3:1 for each of the three growth stages (vegetative, reproductive, and ripening) (Yoshida 1981). The crop is moderately susceptible during the vegetative stage as damage can be compensated for the most part by tillering (Viajante and Heinrichs 1987; Rubia et al. 1996) thus threshold ranges tested were, e.g., 8 10%DH and NF8 10%DH. As the reproductive stage is the least susceptible to damage (Shiraki 1917; Lin 1980), levels were made highest, e.g., 15 25%DH and NF15 25%DH. Lowest levels were indicated for the ripening stage, e.g., 3 5%DH and NF3 5%DH. Egg masses (EM) from Scirpophaga stemborers are deposited on rice leaves near the tips and are covered by a mat of pale yellow or brown hair scraped by the female from her abdomen. Masses are ovoid in shape (5 10 mm diameter), but as the leaves may curl, manipulation of the foliage is necessary to detect the masses. EM densities were tested with a range of 0.25 4 per 100 hills. The same levels may have been tested in each growth stage from time to time but the ratio 2:3:1 was maintained. Levels ranged from 0.5EM (range 0.25 0.5EM/100 hills), 1EM, 2EM, and 3EM (range 3 4). A sample size of 100 hills (ca. 4 m2 at 20 cm spacing between hills) was inspected each week in a stratied sampling pattern. ATs were designed to account for egg parasitism which at times can be very high. Egg masses were clipped from the foliage and pooled from the various plots on a site basis and held in screw-capped glass jars until hatch. The ratio of parasitoids:larvae was assessed, and only if parasitism was 550%, was a response given. The third character tested came from the farmers themselves (Bandong et al. 2002), to monitor ushed moths. Stemborer moths are easily distinguishable by morphology and ight behavior from other lepidopterous pests such as defoliators and

including egg and moth densities with a view to increase performance. ATs are composed of a character to measure, a level for that character, a monitoring plan, and a corrective response, normally an insecticide that would entail a recommended dosage and timing. All of the AT components were tested in a series of trials spanning 13 years, in 68 crops, and in four locations in Luzon and Mindanao, Philippines. 2. Materials and methods The four study sites, research teams, and experimental design were discussed in Litsinger et al. (2005). 2.1. Action thresholds Thresholds comprise a series of variables, any one of which can affect efcacy. The rst variable is a character such as an insect stage (egg, moth) or damage symptom (DH). Second is the character density (percentage DH or number of ushed moths per m). Third is the sampling unit (e.g., percentage DH in 20 hills or number of moths ushed per 20 m walked). Rice seedlings are planted in clumps called hills with a range of normally three to eight seedlings per hill. Higher densities tend to occur if transplanting is contracted to crews who transplant more hurriedly and are not paid per hour. Normally, each character was tested at two threshold levels each season per site, termed low level (e.g., 5%DH) and high level (e.g., 15%DH). The levels of each of these thresholds were adjusted season to season as deemed necessary in an iterative process based on performance (e.g., tested variously as 3, 5, 8, 10, 15% DH). Thus, sites with higher pest pressure and more rapid colonization rates evolved lower threshold levels in both the low and high level treatments and vice versa for sites with lower pest pressure and less rapid rates. Lower levels were needed to respond to high infestations as the damage curves were steeper and earlier warning was required. Having two or more levels tested per crop enabled more reliable adjustments to be made. New characters were continually being developed in an effort to improve performance. WH have been used as an AT character (Way et al. 1991) but are considered to be too late in the crop cycle to be useful. As development of ATs was iterative, there was no balanced design to test many characters and response variables in a given eld. Most characters were tested in the four study sites providing further replication. Data analysis after each season entailed comparing yield in the threshold treatments to that in the untreated check. The design of the yield loss trials included treatments that partitioned losses by the three major growth stages. Yield loss results were scrutinized to determine if yield loss occurred in each growth stage where thresholds were reached. If no

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers leaffolders. Levels tested ranged from 2 to 5 moths per 20 linear m in a transect as two characters: 2 and 4 moths/20 m (range 4 5 moths), termed 2Moths and 4Moths. 2.2. Corrective response Another set of variables was associated with the corrective insecticide response triggered by a threshold as explained in Litsinger et al. (2006). DH, the most indicative character associated with yield loss, were assessed for a period of 1 4 weeks after treatment (WAT), allowing ample time for the crop to recover by generating new tillers. In the tropics, tillering has mostly terminated by the end of the vegetative stage (Yoshida 1981). Percentage control of each threshold character was based on the untreated check. Three insecticide products were evaluated chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, and a mixture of chlorpyrifos BPMC. All were applied as single sprays at 0.4 kg a.i./ha and represented the most effective materials (Litsinger et al. 1980). 2.3. Sampling methods Stemborer incidence was sampled weekly in the threshold treatments and untreated check, but only once per growth stage in the yield loss treatments. Pest monitoring for AT decision making was carried out in the respective threshold plots rather than the untreated check. Pest or damage levels were measured on a per-hill basis with the sample size of 20 hills taken in a stratied pattern. Mechanical hand counters were used to tally the number of tillers per hill with pest damage recorded as percentage of tillers as DH. Moths were ushed using a wooden improvised hockey stick the length of the standard sweep net brushed side and side in a pendulum swing ahead of the person while walking. The number of steps was calibrated for a 20-m distance. 2.4. Threshold assessment In order to assess the outcome of each AT character and in the absence of adequate damage functions, the pest infestation and yield loss were scored against benchmark infestation and yield loss levels in each growth stage. Combining pest damage with yield loss was necessary to assess the economic impact in a given crop growth stage. The benchmarks were based on average insect pest infestation levels that were associated with the losses based on completed economic analyses of the basic threshold characters (Smith et al. 1988). The standardized infestation levels for stemborers were set at 10%DH in the vegetative stage but raised to 15% in the reproductive stage and lowered to 5% in the ripening stage. ATs were then scored on a per eld basis. The benchmark for yield loss was set at 250 kg/ha in each growth stage.

197

Each combination of pest infestation and yield loss was scored and considered justied on the basis of the infestation exceeding both the damage and yield loss benchmarks during that growth stage. Four outcomes were possible: (1) if the AT were surpassed and was justied based on the benchmarks, it was scored correct to treat, (2) if the AT were not surpassed and was not justied it was scored correct not to treat, (3) if the AT were surpassed but was not justied (false positive) it was scored should not have treated, and (4) if the AT were not surpassed but was justied (false negative) it was scored should have treated. The frequencies of these four outcomes add to 100%. Five criteria were developed to judge each character: (1) correlation to the damage yield loss benchmark, (2) most correct decisions, (3) least errors, (4) ratio of errors per correct decision to treat 51, and (5) correlation to yield gain. The fourth criterion rewards characters that triggered at least moderate numbers of responses, and in doing so made proportionally fewer errors than correct decisions as distinguished from characters which had predominantly correct decisions based on correct not to treat errors. 2.5. Response assessment Stemborer control from insecticide treatments was measured as the percentage difference in pest damage level between the treated and the untreated plots divided by the level in the untreated plot multiplied by 100. Because stemborers were monitored weekly in the threshold plots, there was an opportunity to measure the effect of applying insecticide against nontarget pests. These chronic pests were whorl maggot Hydrellia philippina Ferino (Diptera: Ephydridae), defoliators Naranga aenescens Moore and Rivula atimeta (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and leaffolders Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenee) and Marasmia patnalis Bradley (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The data were analysed in the same way as for target pest control. 2.6. Crop age and seasonal damage patterns Stemborer damage patterns were graphed in time series by site to describe the rates of damage as the crop aged from an expected low point early in the crop cycle to a peak sometime later. Knowledge of such patterns could indicate the optimal AT monitoring requirements in terms of timing and frequency. The crop-age damage pattern was described for stemborer damage level by site using the averages of each of the weekly sampling dates in the untreated plots. The results were then averaged over each crop. Using the same dataset, a second analysis was made on the effect of seasonal planting date. The hypothesis supporting monitoring earlier planted

198

J. A. Litsinger et al. Calauan. The longer maturing varieties used by Calauan farmers probably allowed a greater carryover between wet and dry season crops in that instance. Statistical analyses of the differences in stemborer damage incidence between sites and crops were insignicant for all three crop stages. Aside from Scirpophaga species, infestations included low numbers of striped stemborer Chilo suppressalis (Walker) and pink stemborer Sesamia inferens (Walker) as determined from light trap data and stem dissections (Jahn et al. 2006). Infestation levels were remarkably similar between sites and crops showing the ubiquity of this pest group. Highest mean damage occurred in Guimba wet season with 5% WH in the critical ripening stage. Highest recorded damage levels in any site per season were all in the ripening stage (Guimba 19% in 1984 WS under severe drought stress, Zaragoza 9% 1986 WS, Calauan 5% 1983 WS, Koronadal 4% 2nd crops of 1986 and 1990). Highest DH incidence in the vegetative stage was 8% also in the 1984 WS Guimba crop but in the other three sites the range was 3 5%. 3.2. Crop age and seasonal damage patterns Stemborer damage patterns by crop age over each of the four sites averaged over seasons were expressed in different ways (Figure 1). In Guimba and Koronadal DH rose to a peak in the late vegetative stage, leveling off in the reproductive stage, and steeply climbing again in the ripening stage. In Zaragoza this same pattern emerged with the exception that WH incidence sharply declined at the end of the ripening stage. In Calauan no WH peak materialized and it was the only site where WH damage was less than that of DH. Guimba was distinguished by having the lowest levels of DH but highest levels of WH. Stemborer damage levels also showed only a minimal seasonal increase from earlier to later planted elds. The results of regressing the number

elds assumes progressively increasing pest damage levels from earlier to later elds over the season. The dataset comprised the untreated plots in the trials with elds being selected randomly from the set of elds to be planted every 1 2 weeks in a stratied manner spanning the breadth of dates each season. The number of elapsed days between the date the earliest eld was transplanted and date for each succeeding eld was calculated over all crops by site. The number of elapsed days (seasonal age) from the date the rst eld was planted to that for each successive eld was regressed against the mean damage (averaging the mean weekly counts, and then calculated as the percentage change from the earliest eld). Regression was carried out for each site separately on a per eld basis and a signicant positive correlation would indicate a rising population over the season. 2.7. Statistical analysis Results were subjected to one-way ANOVA and regression/correlation analysis where appropriate. Treatment means were separated using the paired t-test for two variables or least signicant difference (LSD) test for more than two variables. Means are shown with standard errors of the mean (SEM) using a pooled estimate of error variance.

3. Results 3.1. Stemborer damage incidence Stemborer damage was generally low with only 3% of elds 15% DH/WH including 1%  20%DH/ WH (highest level per eld was 31% WH at 10 weeks after transplanting) over the study. Mean stemborer infestation on a per crop basis averaged over sites, cultivars, and seasons increased during the cropping seasons from 2% DH in the vegetative stage to 3% WH in the ripening stage (Table I). This relationship generally held true except for the dry season crop in

Table I. Comparison of stemborer pest density by season for three crop growth stages in four sites, Philippines.a Deadhearts/whiteheads (%) Site Zaragoza Koronadal Guimba Calauan Season WS DS 1st 2nd WS DS WS DS total average
a b

Crops (no.) 12 11 7 8 7 6 9 8 68

Fields (no.) 72 69 52 57 44 44 44 37 419

Vegetative 1.7 + 0.4 1.1 + 0.5 1.5 + 0.5 1.8 + 0.5 1.7 + 0.5 1.0 + 0.6 1.6 + 0.5 2.9 + 0.5 b b b b b b a

Reproductive 2.9 + 0.4 2.1 + 0.5 1.6 + 0.5 1.4 + 0.5 1.9 + 0.5 1.3 + 0.6 1.6 + 0.5 2.2 + 0.5 a a b b b b ab

Ripening 2.7 + 0.7 2.0 + 0.8 2.5 + 1.0 2.4 + 0.9 4.7 + 1.0 2.4 + 1.1 2.3 + 0.9 1.6 + 0.9 a a a a a a b

P 0.02 0.003 0.004 50.0001 50.0001 0.04 ns 0.03 0.002

F 3.48 3.11 2.98 5.67 7.21 2.19 1.6 2.37 4.62

df 71 68 52 56 43 43 43 36 134

1.7 + 0.2 b

1.9 + 0.2 ab

2.6 + 0.3 a

In a row, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.05) by LSD test. Mean differences between sites and seasons (column-wise comparisons) were insignicant for each growth stage. bWS, wet season; DS, dry season.

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers

199

Figure 1. Stemborer infestation pattern expressed as resulting damage as the crop aged in each of four locations, Philippines.

of elapsed days from the rst eld planted with the mean percentage change in stemborer damage levels were non-signicant for all sites except in Calauan where they were negatively signicant (Table II). Therefore monitoring earlier planted elds would not be justied for stemborers. 3.3. Stemborer thresholds 3.3.1. Decision threshold characters. Results are presented for each of the three crop growth stages in separate tables (Tables III V). Results by site are in the top half of each table and by AT character in the bottom half. The most commonly tested AT character was egg mass density followed by DH and ushed moths monitored in the eld itself, and in turn by DH monitored in neighboring elds. 3.3.1.1. Vegetative stage. In the vegetative stage (Table III), the greatest frequency of ATs surpassed occurred in Koronadal (21% of elds) followed by Calauan (13%) (column 2 top). In Zaragoza and Guimba, not a single eld reached a threshold, being justied by the lack of instances where the damage yield loss benchmark was reached (column 4), and consequently had the highest score for correct decisions, 98 100% correct not to treat (column 6). The frequency of elds in Koronadal and Calauan justied by the damage yield loss benchmark was

Table II. Regression correlations between planting date and percentage change in mean weekly stemborer damage on a pereld basis in four sites, Philippines.a Site Zaragoza Guimba Koronadal Calauan
a

Crops 22 15 16 13

Linear regression ns, df 112 ns, df 67 ns, df 67 y 78.0 3.7 x, r 0.371, P 0.02, df 41

Percentage change in mean stemborer damage is the dependent variable (y), planting date is the independent variable (x) based on the number of elapsed days after the rst planted eld, level of signicance (P  0.05).

many-fold less than the frequency of decision triggers to treat leading to signicant frequencies of should not have treated errors (13 19%). The reason for the errors in Koronadal may have been from the heavy use (45% of elds) of ATs based on ushed moths, while in Calauan it was probable that AT levels were set too low. All sites registered signicant yield gains in elds where vegetative stage stemborer ATs were reached (column 12) compared to all other elds, but there was no difference among sites. In total nine characters were evaluated with the 2Moths and 4Moths characters most frequently surpassing AT levels (28 51% of elds) in the vegetative stage (Table III, bottom of column 2). It is

200

Table III. Stemborer action threshold analysis of the vegetative stage by site and character from four Philippine rice bowls over a 13-year period.
Frequency (% elds)a Correlations (AT vs damage Justied Ratio From Pest  AT r (5) 100 + 2.9 a 98.1 + 3.5 a 85.7 + 3.2 b 76.4 + 3.3 b 90.0 50.0001 ns 1.80 126 126 12.15 126 50.0001 10.84 0.5 90.5 1.4 + 0.5 77.7 + 3.3 b 0.6 + 0.5 86.4 + 3.2 b 1.0 + 1.3 3.8 + 1.3 1.7 ns 1.60 126 0 + 0.5 98.1 + 3.5 a 1.9 + 1.4 0 + 0.4 100 + 2.9 a 0 + 1.2 (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 0 + 2.8 a 0 + 3.4 a 12.6 + 3.1 b 18.5 + 3.2 b 7.8 50.0001 8.76 126 P treat treat treated treated (2) 0 + 2.9 b 0 + 3.5 b 13.2 + 3.2 a 21.1 + 3.3 a 8.6 50.0001 ns 2.31 126 126 8.40 10.62 126 50.0001 3.1 1.9 10.7 + 1.8 a 3.5 + 1.0 2.1 + 1.0 1.8 + 1.7 b 1.9 + 1.1 0 + 1.9 b 0 + 1.6 b 0 + 0.9 (3) (4) damagea,b (6 7) yield lossa,c From damage
b

Decisions (%)a

J. A. Litsinger et al.

yield loss)d Correct decision Incorrect decision

Correct not to to Total have not have

Correct

Should

Should

(9) (10) (7) (11)

Yield gain (AT vs untreated)e kg/ha (12) f f 156 + 50 158 + 45 157 ns 0.28 121 0.004 0.002 31 30 P df

Crops

Fields

(no.)

(no.)

Site

(1)

Zaragoza

22

141

Guimba

15

88

Calauan

13

81

Koronadal

16

109

avg

df

Character 0 + 5.0 c 0.000 0.888 0.307 0.601 0.000 0.000 0.875 0.758 0.02 0.01 ns ns 0.01 ns 93.3 + 3.0 a 97.0 + 4.2 a 98.4 + 4.0 a 91.7 + 6.6 a 48.4 + 6.1 b 65.5 + 6.7 b 50.0001 9.95 127 50.0001 91.4 + 4.3 a ns 8.6 + 4.3 c 6.1 + 3.0 c 3.0 + 4.1 c 0 + 4.0 c 0 + 6.5 c 51.2 + 6.0 a 28.2 + 5.6 b 50.0001 0.01 2.44 127 9.56 127 127 8.31 50.0001 15.2 + 2.2 a 4.9 + 1.9 ab 22.7 + 3.1 a 5.6 + 2.0 a 8.3 + 2.1 a 0 + 3.3 b 0.8 + 2.1 b 0 + 1.3 b 1.7 + 2.2 b 0.8 + 1.4 b 1.2 + 1.0 b 0.4 + 1.6 b 4.3 + 2.3 b 0 + 1.4 b 0 + 2.7 b 0 + 1.7 b 100 + 5.1 a

Level

Sampling site

Abbreviation 0 + 0.8 0 + 0.7 0 + 0.5 2.2 + 0.7 0 + 0.7 0 + 1.1 2.0 + 1.0 1.8 + 0.9 ns 1.7 127 100 + 5.1 a 91.4 + 4.3 a 93.3 + 3.0 a 99.2 + 4.2 a 98.4 + 4.0 a 91.7 + 6.6 a 50.5 + 6.1 c 67.3 + 5.7 b 50.0001 9.28 127 0 + 1.7 a 0 + 1.5 a 0.6 + 1.1 a 0 + 1.4 a 0.8 + 1.4 a 8.3 + 2.3 b 0 + 2.1 a 6.3 + 1.9 b 0.02 2.39 127 0 + 5.0 a 8.6 + 4.3 a 6.1 + 3.0 a 0.8 + 4.1 a 0.8 + 3.9 a 0 + 6.5 a 49.5 + 6.0 c 26.4 + 5.6 b 50.0001 8.81 127 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 24.8 18.2 155 + 68 164 + 56 224 + 46 299 + 68 130 + 67 7196 + 138 65 + 105 17 + 109 ns 1.28 121 0.03 0.005 50.0001 50.0001 ns ns ns ns 58 80 154 81 73 15 36 41

Egg mass

0.25 0.5

Field itself

0.5EM

22

133

(no./hill)

Field itself

1EM

29

186

Field itself

2EM

27

172

Deadhearts

35

Field itself

5%DH

15

86

(%)

8 15

Field itself

10%DH

16

94

5 15

Neighboring

NF10%DH

36

Moths (no./

Field itself

2Moths

44

20 linear m)

45

Field itself

4Moths

49

df

AT, action threshold. Columns 6 7 9 10 100%. In a column, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.05) by LSD test. bStandard benchmark of 10% deadhearts. Standard benchmark of 250 kg/ha yield loss in vegetative stage. dSignicant (P  0.05) ANOVA regression correlations. eYield comparison by paired t-test (P  0.05). fInsufcient data for analysis.

Table IV. Stemborer action threshold analysis for the reproductive stage by site and character from four Philippine rice bowls over a 13-year period.
Frequency (% elds)a Correlations (AT vs damage Justied Ratio From Pest AT r (5) 94.2 + 2.5 97.1 + 3.1 90.0 + 2.8 89.7 + 2.8 92.8 ns 2.97 126 126 126 1.51 1.69 ns ns 1.2 94.0 2.1 ns 0.39 126 0 + 1.1 89.7 + 2.6 1.9 + 1.3 3.5 + 1.0 93.5 + 2.5 3.1 + 1.3 1.0 + 1.1 98.1 + 2.8 1.9 + 1.4 0.4 + 0.9 94.6 + 2.3 1.3 + 1.2 4.1 + 2.0 0 + 2.5 3.3 + 2.2 8.4 + 2.3 4.0 ns 2.12 126 (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) P treat treat treated treated (2) 5.8 + 2.4 1.9 + 2.9 6.9 + 2.6 7.2 + 2.7 5.4 ns 0.73 126 126 126 0.66 2.00 ns ns 6.1 3.3 5.2 + 2.6 4.4 + 2.0 8.8 + 2.5 6.7 + 1.9 3.8 + 2.8 0 + 2.2 6.7 + 2.3 2.1 + 1.8 (3) (4) damagea,b (6 7) yield lossa,c From damageb not to to Total have not have (7) (11) kg/ha (12) 205 + 59 154 + 48 157 + 51 158 + 45 169 ns 0.18 121 0.001 0.005 0.004 0.002 34 19 31 30 P df Correct Correct Should Should (9) (10) Yield gain (AT vs untreated)e yield loss)d Correct decision Incorrect decision Decisions (%)a

Crops

Fields

(no.)

(no.)

Site

(1)

Zaragoza

22

141

Guimba

15

88

Calauan

13

81

Koronadal

16

109

avg

df

Character 7.6 + 3.1 0.905 0.957 0.605 0.332 0.452 0.742 0.000 0.975 0.977 50.0001 50.0001 ns 0.0003 ns 90.5 + 4.5 98.3 + 3.8 87.5 + 6.6 81.4 + 6.1 83.7 + 5.7 ns 1.49 127 ns 95.1 + 3.3 a 0.0008 96.5 + 3.2 50.0001 92.2 + 3.1 3.5 + 2.7 1.5 + 2.8 4.2 + 3.3 9.5 + 4.0 1.7 + 3.4 8.3 + 5.9 14.5 + 5.5 12.7 + 5.1 ns 1.44 127 127 127 2.86 0.71 0.009 ns 9.8 + 4.7 b 7.8 + 3.7 11.2 + 5.0 b 8.9 + 4.0 27.8 + 5.4 a 0 + 4.2 3.1 + 3.1 b 0.9 + 2.6 5.7 + 3.7 b 3.4 + 3.1 1.4 + 1.1 b 0.5 + 1.7 11.2 + 5.0 b 3.3 + 2.2 4.4 + 2.5 b 2.8 + 2.1 6.1 + 2.8 b 3.8 + 2.4 50.0001 90.9 + 3.5 0 + 1.3 2.0 + 1.1 1.5 + 1.2 0 + 0.5 1.3 +1.7 0.9 + 1.4 4.2 + 2.5 0 + 2.3 0 + 2.1 ns 0.51 127

Level

Sampling site

Abbreviation 90.9 + 3.1 ab 94.3 + 2.7 a 98.1 + 2.9 a 95.1 + 3.3 a 91.8 + 4.1 ab 99.2 + 3.5 a 91.7 + 6.0 ab 81.4 + 5.6 b 83.7 + 5.2 b 0.05 2.07 127 1.5 + 1.5 2.4 + 1.3 1.9 + 1.4 0.7 + 1.1 0 + 1.9 0 + 1.7 8.3 + 2.9 4.1 + 2.7 3.6 + 2.5 ns 1.19 127 7.6 + 2.9 ab 3.4 + 2.6 ab 0 + 2.7 a 4.2 + 3.2 ab 8.2 + 3.7 b 0.8 + 3.2 a 0 + 5.5 a 14.5 + 5.1 b 12.7 + 4.8 b 0.05 2.01 127 0 2.9 1.3 0 6.3 0.9 2.0 0 0 143 + 47 238 + 47 149 + 42 204 + 47 258 + 68 189 + 67 7197 + 138 65 + 106 17 + 109 ns 1.00 121 0.003 50.0001 50.0001 50.0001 0.003 0.006 ns ns ns 122 153 149 131 66 88 15 36 41

Egg mass

0.5

Field itself

0.5EM

10

59

(no./hill)

Field itself

1EM

85

186

Field itself

2EM

187

172

34

Field itself

3EM

25

160

Deadhearts

5 10

Field itself

10%DH

13

78

(%)

15 25

Field itself

25%DH

18

102

10 25

Neighboring

NF15%DH

36

Moths (no./

Field itself

2Moths

44

20 linear m)

Field itself

4Moths

49

df

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers

AT, action threshold. Columns 6 7 9 10 100%. In a column, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.05) by LSD test. bStandard benchmark of 15% deadhearts. Standard benchmark of 250 kg/ha yield loss in vegetative stage. dSignicant (P  0.05) ANOVA regression correlations. eYield comparison by paired t-test (P  0.05).

201

202

Table V. Stemborer action threshold analysis for the ripening stage by site and character from four Philippine rice bowls over a 13-year period.
Frequency (% elds)a Correlations (AT vs damage Justied Ratio From Pest AT r (5) 84.0 + 3.4 78.1 + 4.2 90.5 + 3.8 87.1 + 3.9 84.9 ns 1.75 126 126 2.35 2.55 126 ns 0.05 2.0 86.9 0 + 2.2 87.1 + 3.1 ab 0 + 2.1 90.5 + 3.0 a 1.4 + 2.3 79.6 + 3.4 b 20.4 + 3.0 c 6.9 + 2.7 ab 12.9 + 2.8 bc 11.2 0.0006 6.25 126 6.4 + 1.9 90.4 + 2.7 a 4.6 + 2.5 a (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 5.0 + 1.3 b 0 + 1.6 a 2.6 + 1.4 ab 0 + 1.4 a 1.9 0.03 3.11 126 P treat treat treated treated (2) 9.3 + 2.2 a 1.4 + 2.7 b 5.2 + 2.4 ab 0 + 2.5 b 4.0 0.03 3.10 126 126 126 4.14 0.93 0.008 ns 24.8 1.4 24.9 + 4.8 ab 0 + 1.4 11.5 + 4.6 b 1.0 + 1.3 32.8 + 5.1 a 1.4 + 1.5 30.2 + 4.2 a 3.0 + 1.2 (3) (4) damagea,b (6 7) yield lossa,c From damage
b

Decisions (%)a

J. A. Litsinger et al.

yield loss)d Correct decision Incorrect decision

Correct not to to Total have not have

Correct

Should

Should

(9) (10) (7) (11)

Yield gain (AT vs untreated)e kg/ha (12) 203 + 45 154 + 63 176 + 50 158 + 45 17.3 ns 0.18 121 0.001 0.005 0.004 0.002 34 19 31 30 P df

Crops

Fields

(no.)

(no.)

Site

(1)

Zaragoza

22

141

Guimba

15

88

Calauan

13

81

Koronadal

16

109

avg

df

Character 4.2 + 2.7 0.460 0.251 0.045 0.534 0.937 0.000 0.000 0.000 ns ns ns 50.0001 0.05 87.9 + 5.9 86.6 + 4.9 75.0 + 8.7 90.3 + 8.0 89.0 + 7.5 ns 0.52 127 ns 84.0 + 4.2 ns 82.8 + 4.0 ns 2.4 + 2.4 0.6 + 2.5 12.5 + 3.5 8.3 + 2.9 0 + 5.2 0 + 4.8 0 + 4.5 ns 1.78 127 127 127 1.27 0.65 ns ns 30.0 + 9.5 0 + 2.6 28.6 + 10.1 0 + 2.7 33.3 + 10.9 0 + 3.2 12.6 + 6.3 4.2 + 1.8 17.1 + 7.5 3.2 + 2.1 21.7 + 5.3 0.6 + 0.5 26.4 + 5.1 0.4 + 1.5 34.1 + 5.7 1.9 + 1.6 89.6 + 4.5

Level

Sampling site

Abbreviation 0.6 + 2.4 0.9 + 2.1 0 + 2.2 1.9 + 3.1 9.7 + 2.6 0 + 4.6 0 + 4.2 0 + 3.9 ns 1.54 127 90.2 + 3.6 83.7 + 3.2 84.0 + 3.4 89.8 + 4.7 96.3 + 4.0 75.0 + 7.0 90.3 + 6.5 89.0 + 6.1 ns 1.63 127 5.7 + 3.3 a 14.8 + 2.9 b 15.4 + 3.0 b 2.2 + 4.3 a 1.4 + 3.7 a 25.0 + 6.3 b 9.7 + 5.9 ab 10.9 + 5.5 ab 0.005 3.13 127 4.2 + 1.7 1.5 + 1.5 0.6 + 1.6 8.0 + 2.2 2.3 + 1.9 0 + 3.3 0 + 3.1 0 + 2.9 ns 1.54 127 16.5 18.1 0 5.4 0.4 0 0 0 143 + 47 238 + 47 149 + 42 258 + 68 189 + 67 7197 + 138 65 + 106 17 + 109 ns 1.00 121 0.003 50.0001 50.0001 0.003 0.006 ns ns ns 122 153 149 66 88 15 36 41

Egg mass

0.25 0.5

Field itself

0.5EM

22

133

(no./hill)

Field itself

1EM

29

186

Field itself

2EM

27

172

Deadhearts

35

Field itself

5%DH

13

78

(%)

8 15

Field itself

10%DH

18

102

3 10

Neighboring

NF5%DH

36

Moths (no./

Field itself

2Moths

44

20 linear m)

Field itself

4Moths

49

df

AT, action threshold. Columns 6 7 9 10 100%. In a column, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.05) by LSD test. bStandard threshold of 5% deadhearts. Standard threshold of 250 kg/ha yield loss in ripening stage. dSignicant (P  0.05) ANOVA regression correlations. eYield comparison by paired t-test (P  0.05).

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers noteworthy that with these two characters the most elds attained the 10% DH benchmark criterion of damage (15 23%) (bottom of column 3), but when the benchmark also included 250 kg/ha yield loss component, in only 5 6% of elds was corrective action justied. As a result these two AT characters scored highest levels of should not have treated error (26 50%). All other characters registered levels of correct decisions 490%, based on egg mass characters (0.5EM, 1EM, 2EM) as well as two DH characters in the eld itself (5%DH and 10%DH) and one monitoring neighboring elds (NF15%DH). It is noteworthy that none of the egg mass characters nor 10%DH or NF15%DH scored any correct to treat decisions. It was surprising that 0.5EM, being so low a level, did not trigger an AT response in any eld. Records showed that egg parasitism levels tended to be high in those crops thus allowing natural control to occur. Those characters most correlated with the damage yield loss results were 1EM, 5%DH, 2Moths, and 4Moths (column 5). The DH character 5%DH had the most favorable ratio of incorrect decision errors to correct decisions to treat (0.4) (column 11), while 0.5EM, 1EM, 2EM, and 5%DH had signicant yield gains over the untreated. Overall 5%DH scored highest in all ve categories (seen in columns 5, 8, 9 10, 11, 12) with 1EM second lacking only a good ratio. 3.3.1.2. Reproductive stage. In the reproductive stage (Table IV) an average of 5% of elds surpassed AT levels with no signicant differences evident between sites. The relationship between frequencies of elds surpassing ATs and surpassing the damage benchmark of 15% DH 250 kg/ha yield loss were similar among all sites. There were no differences among sites regarding frequencies of total correct decisions ranging from 90 to 98% with only an average of 1% correct decisions to treat. Error frequencies were similar among the sites. All sites registered signicant yield gains from treatments where ATs were reached over the untreated with no differences between sites. Among the nine characters tested there was no difference in frequencies in those reaching ATs which ranged from 2 to 15% of elds. Six of the characters had signicant correlations between frequencies surpassing ATs and the damage yield loss benchmark. Characters that failed were 3EM, 10%DH, and NF10%DH. Most of the decisions were correct not to treat ranging from 81 to 98% and all characters scored similarly. Characters with the highest total correct scores were 1EM, 2EM and 10%DH, while the lowest were 2Moths and 4Moths. Highest levels of should not have treated errors were afliated with 2Moths and 4Moths as well as 10%DH. The character 25%DH had the most favorable ratio of errors to correct to treat decisions (0.9). The best characters based on the fewest errors were 2EM, 25%DH, and NF15%DH. The highest

203

scoring character was 25%DH which had high rankings in all ve categories. The next best character was 2EM which only lacked a better ratio. 3.3.1.3. Ripening stage. The ripening stage (Table V) had the lowest rate of surpassing AT decisions averaging 4% elds over the three growth stages. Zaragoza surpassed AT levels most (9% elds) where EM characters dominated, with Koronadal least (0%) in which ushed moth characters prevailed. Benchmark damage levels were high but were not matched by signicant yield loss as perhaps the 5% DH benchmark was set too low. Most decisions were correct not to treat, and Zaragoza and Calauan had the highest score of correct decisions reaching 90%. A high of 20% of elds with the should have treated error occurred in Guimba, while 5% of elds in Zaragoza had the opposite error. As with the earlier growth stages, signicant yield gains occurred in the elds where ATs were reached compared to the untreated but with no differentiation between sites. In Guimba the low AT frequency in the ripening stage seems at odds with the high WH damage levels registered in Figure 1. This is explained by the high should have treated error and the low DH levels preceding the ripening stage. ATs were based on DH and not WH as it was assumed that once WH were formed it was too late for control to have an effect. Guimba was under moisture stress in a number of crops due to failure of the electric irrigation pump which accentuated WH expression. There were no differences among the eight characters in terms of frequencies of elds surpassing ATs (range 0 13%). Likewise correct decisions that ranged from 75 to 96% were statistically similar between characters. Only 5%DH and 10%DH characters had high correlations between surpassing ATs and the 5% DH damage 250 kg/ha yield loss benchmark. The characters 1EM, 2EM, and NF10%DH had the highest levels of should have treated errors (15 25%) with 2Moths and 4Moths following (10 11%). Signicant yield gains were registered by all the egg mass characters as well as 5%DH and 10%DH. Only 10%DH came out with the best ratio of errors to correct decisions to treat (0.04) and based on the ve criteria was the superior character overall with 5%DH coming in second with only a poor ratio. 3.3.2. Insecticide response. Overall the level of control achieved by insecticides was low for single spray responses (536% control) to stemborer thresholds in the four test sites based on DH damage (Table VI). The combination chlorpyrifos BPMC (34% control of DH) was superior to both chlorpyrifos alone (13%) and endosulfan (9%) 1 4 weeks after treatment (WT). Data from the 3 WT sampling date revealed the combination (36%) was statistically equal to endosulfan (18%) but higher than that of chlorpyrifos alone (75%).

204

J. A. Litsinger et al. the eld itself. It is most probable that natural enemies and natural resistance of rice plants were responsible for the low performance of these characters by severely limiting the number of larvae successfully infesting tillers. The egg mass AT even had a provision that included preventing a corrective response if egg parasitism reached 50%. Egg and larval predators are also abundant in rice elds (Ooi and Shepard 1991) reducing infestation rates when egg parasitism levels were low particularly in later growth stages. The DH character monitored in the eld itself outperformed all others in each of the three growth stages averaging 92 99% correct decisions and gave the most outstanding score among AT characters. DH measured in neighboring elds registered consistently high should have treated false-negative errors showing this character lacked accuracy. This is reinforced by the fact that only in Calauan was planting date correlated with increasing seasonal stemborer abundance (Table II). Rising stemborer incidence in the eld itself is the reason that the DH character worked. This was particularly evident in Guimba and Koronadal in the late reproductive and ripening stage and in Zaragoza in the late vegetative stage and early reproductive stages. Comparing pest densities with yield loss suggested that the damage benchmark could be improved. The best performing levels in each growth stage were 3 5, 15 25, and 8 15% DH from vegetative to ripening stages. These represented a ratio of ca.

When insecticide control data was aggregated by the four AT main characters, egg masses and DH in the eld itself were superior (26 29% control) to DH from a neighboring eld (5% control) 1 4 WT when measured as DH damage (Table VII). Flushed moths from the eld itself was in between (11%). On the 3 WT sampling date, DH sampled from a neighboring eld showed signicantly lower control than when the other three characters were used. The control of nontarget pests (whorl maggot, defoliators, leaffolders) ranged from 23 to 40% (Table VIII). These would be the same pests in the other articles in the series that were sampled from the same elds where ATs were tested.

4. Discussion 4.1. Stemborer action thresholds ATs based on egg masses or moths would appear to have been a more logical choice as these stages preceded the period of damage, and neonate larvae would be more vulnerable to sprayed insecticide. But both characters had high levels of false positive triggers in the vegetative and reproductive stages and high levels of false-negative responses in the ripening stage. The least accurate character was ushed moths which had the lowest correct decision rates. In addition insecticides performed equally well when either egg mass or DH characters were monitored in

Table VI. Insecticide efcacy against stemborers in response to thresholds. Insecticide dosage Insecticide Chlorpyrifos Chlorpyrifos BPMCb Endosulfan (kg a.i./ha) 0.4 0.4 0.4 n 47 52 18 P F df
a b

Control (%)a (deadhearts/whiteheads) 1 4 WT 8.5 + 5.8 b 33.8 + 5.5 a 13.3 + 14.0 b 0.007 5.28 106 3 WT 75.4 + 9.9 b 35.5 + 9.7 a 18.4 + 13.5 ab 0.02 4.34 84 Yield gaina (kg/ha) 91 + 92 157 + 87 210 + 82 ns 0.54 112

In a column, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.05) by LSD test. WT, week after treatment. Mixture of 20% chlorpyrifos and 11% BPMC.

Table VII. Insecticide efcacy and yield as affected by stemborer threshold character. Control (%)a (deadhearts/whiteheads) Character Egg mass Flushed moths Deadhearts Deadhearts Monitoring site Field itself Field itself Field itself Neighboring eld n 51 37 18 17 P F df
a

1 4 WT 26.0 + 5.7 11.3 + 6.7 28.8 + 7.6 5.2 + 7.9 0.03 2.58 106 a ab a b

3 WT 17.9 + 8.1 a 21.7 + 10.2 a 25.0 + 12.1 a 717.9 + 6.9 b 0.002 5.25 90

Yield gaina (kg/ha) 266 + 88 126 + 94 406 + 146 230 + 63 ns 0.94 90

In a column, means + SEM followed by a common letter are not signicantly different (P  0.5) by LSD test. WT, weeks after treatment.

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers

Table VIII. Control of nontarget pests by insecticides used in response to action thresholds against stemborers. Control of nontarget pests (% damaged leaves)a Target pest Whorl maggot n Defoliators 39.9 + 5.7 n 25 Leaffolder 22.5 + 4.1 n 154

205

Stemborers 35.0 + 5.2 41

a

Average of four sites and 66 crops, n number of elds, mean + SEM.

1:5:3, whereas the original ratio was set at 2:3:1. Based on damage pattern and yield loss data from Bandong and Litsinger (2005) the original ratio ts the data best for a 110-day variety. Differences in crop maturity not only affect the damage pattern but also tolerance to damage with longer maturing varieties having greater compensatory ability (Litsinger et al. 1987). The crop compensates from DH during tiller elongation by producing more productive tillers (Rubia et al. 1996). Compensation from WH occurs as increased grain weight in undamaged panicles. Longer maturing varieties (120 135 days) such as those commonly used in Calauan (IR70, C1, Malagkit) have a prolonged vegetative stage and consequently higher DH densities from the same egg mass infestation level and with relatively fewer WH. This can be seen in Figure 1 for Calauan and for IR70 in Bandong and Litsinger (2005). Foliar spraying is the application method of choice by farmers, with only a few using granular formulations. Systemic granulars such as carbofuran are most economical only if soil incorporated before planting (Bandong and Litsinger 1979). To achieve an equal level of control when applied to a standing crop, a 4-fold increase in dosage is required when broadcast into paddy water, as much of the chemical becomes bound to the soil before entering roots (Seiber et al. 1978; dela Cruz et al. 1981). As farmers prefer to respond to damage only when observed, preplant application is not popular. Chlorpyrifos has been the best performing insecticide spray for stemborer control but the results showed there was an enhanced synergy even at a lower active ingredient level with the addition of BPMC (Table VI). Chlorpyrifos BPMC is sold as a mixture for broad spectrum control of chronic rice pests. BPMC is effective against leafhoppers, planthoppers, and leaffolders but is not recommended for control of stemborers alone (PCARR 1977; Litsinger et al. 1980). 4.2. Pest pressure-crop tolerance paradox Research has shown up to 30% stemborer deadhearts and 10% whiteheads (Rubia et al. 1996) and 3 whiteheads/hill (Litsinger 1993) can be tolerated

by modern rices without yield loss. Despite this compensatory ability, signicant yield increases were associated with the best performing ATs against stemborers in this study (Tables III V, column 12) where damage did not exceed the above levels in any of the four sites. The recorded chemical control of nontarget pests may only be a partial explanation, because these pests were not at economic densities. A more profound explanation is sought. Such a reason for this seeming paradox were put forth in a companion paper on leaffolder (Litsinger et al. 2006b) based on concept of synergistic yield losses from multiple stresses in a given growth stage. The basis for this hypothesis is 2-fold: (1) low yields have been found to be associated with multiple stresses by Savary et al. (1994) such as the combination of stemborer damage and weeds and (2) synergistic losses have been documented by IRRI (1984) from the combined action of rice insect pests at low densities. The opposite effect of small stresses jointly causing high losses would be that upon releasing even one stress such as stemborer, large yield gains would occur under favorable conditions. If true this response should occur even upon low level of insecticide control, just as low pest densities contributed to synergistic losses, particularly when the crop is managed under optimal agronomic conditions. This hypothesis is supported by trials which showed crop tolerance to stemborers is enhanced through increasing seeding rate or nitrogen fertilizer as well as via selecting a longer maturing variety (Litsinger 1993). As a corollary, high tolerance would be expected to occur in a crop where agronomic requirements are met in an otherwise stress free environment. Such results have a bearing on developing IPM strategies. 4.3. Input to IPM programs The rst step in IPM for irrigated rice advocated in farmer eld schools is to grow a good crop following integrated crop management principles (Matteson 2000). The rationale behind this conviction has been to bolster modern rices with greater capacity for pest tolerance including stemborers. Interpretation of the pest pressure-crop tolerance paradox supports this approach. Crop management then becomes a two pronged strategy. The rst thrust is for the farmer to undertake steps to increase the crops inherent yield potential commensurate with the magnitude of the complex of stresses present a given season and expected favorable weather. This can be best done by aping the practices of the highest yielding farmers in the area who have found the best crop management practices often by trial and error. Some examples of such practices often include selecting a longer maturing variety (within the range of 135 days as much longer durations will favor stemborer buildup), utilizing healthy seeds to

206

J. A. Litsinger et al. (1) with early maturing varieties, (2) crops are under multiple stresses, and/or (3) crops have otherwise been well managed and favorable weather is expected. Acknowledgements We are duly appreciative of the generous cooperation provided by over 400 farmers in the study sites. Their willingness to become experimenters with the research teams and devote at times a tenth of their ricelands to trials is a testament to their desire to seek improvements in rice production technology. Many locally hired project staff were responsible for conducting the trials and their invaluable contributions are acknowledged. Those assisting in Zaragoza were Catalino Andrion and Rodolfo Gabriel, in Guimba George Romero, in Calauan Mariano Leron, Eduardo Micosa, and Carlos de Castro, and in Koronadal Hector Corpuz, Joseph Siazon, Beatriz Velasco, and Anita Labarinto. Cooperation of the staff in the Central Luzon and Mindanao regions of the Philippine Department of Agriculture is highly appreciated. References
Bandong JP, Litsinger JA. 1979. Evaluation of granular insecticides for rainfed wetland rice in the Philippines. International Rice Research Newsletter 4(2):15. Bandong JP, Litsinger JA. 1988. Development of action control thresholds for major rice pests. In: Teng PS, Heong KL, editors. Pesticide management and integrated pest management in Southeast Asia. College Park, MD, USA: CICP/USAID. pp 95102. Bandong JP, Litsinger JA. 2005. Rice crop stage susceptibility to the rice yellow stemborer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). International Journal of Pest Management 51:3743. Bandong JP, Canapi BL, dela Cruz CG, Litsinger JA. 2002. Insecticide decision protocols: a case study of untrained Filipino rice farmers. Crop Protection 21:803816. dela Cruz CG, Litsinger JA, Paragna F. 1981. Tillage implements for soil incorporation of carbofuran granules in rainfed wetland elds. International Rice Research Newsletter 6(1):17. Dyck VA, Htun Than, Dulay AC, Salinas GD, Orlido GC. 1981. Economic injury levels for rice insect pests. Agricultural Research Journal of Kerala 19:7585. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). 1984. Yield losses caused by multiple species infestations. In: Annual Report for 1983. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI. pp 187188. Jahn GC, Litsinger JA, Chen Y, Barrion AT. (2006). Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In: Koul O, Cuperus GW, editors. Ecologically based integrated pest management. UK: CABI Press. Lin Y. 1980. Studies on the control of the yellow paddy borer Tryporyza incertulas (Walker). In: Rice improvement in China and other Asian countries. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI. pp 134151. Litsinger JA. 1993. A farming systems approach to insect pest management for upland and lowland rice farmers in tropical Asia. In: Altieri MA, editor. Crop protection strategies for subsistence farmers. Westview Studies in Insect Biology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. pp 45101. Litsinger JA, Heinrichs EA, Valencia SL. 1980. Biological efcacy, cost, and mammalian toxicity of insecticides recommended for rice in the Philippines. International Rice Research Newsletter 5(3):16.

minimize diseases, increasing the seeding rate, optimizing the nutrient regime, providing adequate water management, and removing weeds from both the seedbed as well as crop before canopy enclosure. Early planting is also a good practice to avoid pests (Savary et al. 1994). In the current study we showed that there is not a progressive increase in stemborer infestation levels over the planting season among neighbors as would be required to support monitoring earlier planted elds, but stemborer populations tend to rise and fall, often dynamically, over the season. Earliest plantings tend to escape damaging infestation. The second thrust is to monitor the crop on a regular basis; trouble shooting not only to detect stemborers but also other biotic and abiotic factors that restrain yield and then respond via corrective action. Bandong and Litsinger (2005) showed that the rice plant has natural resistance to stemborer damage during mid-growth, evidence of which can be seen as a plateau in DH density in each of the four study sites (Figure 1). DH did not decrease during this midgrowth period as it takes 3 4 weeks for a dead tiller to rot and fall away. Also that incidence did not increase is a sign of reduced infestation. The resistant period for early maturing varieties, typical of Koronadal and Guimba, runs from late vegetative to pre-booting but with longer maturing varieties it is extended to booting (Bandong and Litsinger 2005). Zaragoza represents a mixture of early and medium maturing varieties as farmers tend to plant early maturing rices in the dry season due to insecure water supply and longer maturing, taller rices in the wet season to tolerate expected monsoon ooding. The fact that DH/WH rose again in only some sites can be explained by differences in crop maturity (Bandong and Litsinger 2005). In the Calauan site, typical for longer maturing rices under similar pest infestation levels, higher DH densities occurred in the late vegetative stage along with lower WH levels than for earlier maturing rices. The monitoring periods should be tailored to the maturity class of rice. Responses from ATs were justied in 7% of elds in the course of the study based on benchmarks, about equally divided between the two susceptible stages. A program of regular monitoring should involve heightened vigilance during tiller elongation and panicle exsertion when the crop is most susceptible to stemborer damage. This is seen as the reason for the higher rates of ATs being justied in the reproductive (Table IV) than the ripening (Table V) stages. AT levels will need to be adjusted based on experience at the site for each of the three growth stages but a ratio of 1:5:3 for percentage deadhearts would be a good place to begin for longer maturing and 2:3:1 for early maturing varieties. During the tillering stage, farmers would have the option of using an insecticide and/or reducing stresses from other causes (particularly weeds), but during panicle exsertion there are not many other options than insecticide, which would be particularly favored

Evaluation of action thresholds for rice stemborers

Litsinger JA, Canapi BL, Bandong JP, dela Cruz CG, Apostol RF, Pantua PC, Lumaban MD, Alviola AL III, Raymundo F, Libetario EM, et al. 1987. Rice crop loss from insect pests in wetland and dryland environments of Asia with emphasis on the Philippines. Insect Science and its Application 8:677692. Litsinger JA, Bandong JP, Canapi BL, dela Cruz CG, Pantua PC, Alviola AL, Batay-An E III. 2005. Evaluation of action thresholds against chronic insect pests of rice in the Philippines: I. Less frequently occurring pests and overall assessment. International Journal of Pest Management 51:4561. Litsinger JA, Bandong JP, Canapi BL, dela Cruz CG, Pantua PC, Alviola AL, Batay-An E III. 2006a. Evaluation of action thresholds against chronic insect pests of rice in the Philippines: II. Whorl maggot and defoliators. International Journal of Pest Management 52:167180. Litsinger JA, Bandong JP, Canapi BL, dela Cruz CG, Pantua PC, Alviola AL, Batay-An E III. (2006b). Evaluation of action thresholds against chronic insect pests of rice in the Philippines: III. Leaffolders. International Journal of Pest Management 52:181194. Matteson PC. 2000. Insect pest management in tropical Asian irrigated rice. Annual Review of Entomology 45:549574. Ooi PAC, Shepard BM. 1991. Predators and parasitoids of rice insect pests. In: Heinrichs EA, editor. Biology and management of rice insects. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd. pp 584612. PCARR (Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research). 1977. The Philippine recommends for rice1977. College, Los Banos, Philippines. p 186.

207

Rubia EG, Heong KL, Zalucki M, Gonzales B, Norton GA. 1996. Mechanisms of compensation of rice plants to yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) injury. Crop Protection 15:335 340. Savary S, Elazequi FA, Moody K, Litsinger JA, Teng PS. 1994. Characterization of rice cropping practices and multiple pest systems in the Philippines. Agricultural Systems 46:385408. Seiber JN, Heinrichs EA, Aquino GB, Valencia SL, Andrade P, Argente AM. 1978. Residues of carbofuran applied as a systemic insecticide in irrigated transplanted rice: Implications for insect control. IRRI Research Paper Series No. 17:128. Shiraki T. 1917. Paddy borer, Schoenobius incertellus Wlk. Agricultural Experiment Station, Government of Formosa, Taihoku. p 256. Smith J, Litsinger JA, Bandong JP, Lumaban MD, dela Cruz CG. 1988. Economic thresholds for insecticide application to rice: protability and risk analysis to Filipino farmers. Journal of Plant Protection in the Tropics 6:6787. Viajante V, Heinrichs EA. 1987. Plant age effect of rice cultivar IR46 on susceptibility to the yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Crop Protection 6:3337. Way MO, Grigarick AA, Litsinger JA, Palis F, Pingali PL. 1991. Economic thresholds and injury levels for insect pests of rice. In: Heinrichs EA, Miller TA, editors. Rice insects: Management strategies. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp 67105. Yoshida S. 1981. Fundamentals of Rice Crop Science. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI. p 269.