Chapter 3

N/\TURAL GAS TRANSMISSION

..
ln lhi, cllapter, the general flow equaton for cornpressible flow in a pipeline will be derived
mm basic principIes. Having obtained the general flow equation, the way in which flow
efficiency is affected by varying different gas and pipeline pararneters will be examined.
ni m:rent flow regirnes in gas transrnission systerns (i.e., partially turbulent and fully
turbulent flow) will be presented. Sorne of the widely used transrnission equations and their
applications, advantages, and lirnitations will be outlined.
This will be followed by a dscussion ofpipes in series, pipeline looping, gas velocity,
line packing, pipeline maximurn operating pressure, and sorne pipeline codeso The impact
01' gas temperature on the flow efficiency and gas temperature profile (Le., heat transfer
fro"1 a buried pipeline and Joule-Thornpson eflects) will be discussed.
Final/y, sorne rnajor econornic aspects and considerations in the design oi' gas pipeline
will be presented.
GENERAL IlOW EQUATION - STEADY STATE
.. ;cction, the general flow equation for cornpressible fluids in a pipeline at steady-state
cOlldltion is derived. Firs. the general Bernoulli equation will be obtained using a force
balance on a segment of the pipeline. The Bemoulli equation is then used to derive the
gcrH'ral Ilow equation for cornpressible fluids (natural gas) in a pipeline.
, ;o!lsider a pipeline that transports a cornpressible fluid (natural gas) betwecn points 1
alld 1. al steady-state condition, as shown in Figure 3-1
wherc P = gas density
P gas pressure
A = pipeline cross-sectional area
u gas velocity
al steady-state condition
dm
o (3 - 1)
dI
where m is the rnass of gas flowing in the pipeline and I is time. The rnass flow rate ofgas at
point 1 can be defined as
in PI A
I
!JI
(3 2)
57
58 Pipel ine Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
CD
U U
2
Figure 1-1. Steady state flow of a compressble fluid in a pipeline
Likewise, the mass flow rate at point 2 is
m= P2 . A
2
U2
It fuen follows that
PI AI 'UI
If the pipe has a constant diameter, then
PI . U P2 . U2
or, in general
m=pAu
or
m
= p u
A
p'U e
where e is a constant.
It s also known that
P
v
where ti the gas specific volume
so
u
e (3 3)
v
From Newton's Law of Motion for a particle of gas moving in a pipeline [see
Figure 3-2(a)]:
dF= a dm
where a = duldt is the acceleration:
du du dy
dF = . dm = . P . A . dy pA du
dt dt dt
Natural Gas Transmission 59
.... 1
1'"
dy
dm =p.A.dy
(g.,lI ] 2a. Movement of a gas partcJe in a pipeline
and
dv
-=- = u
d!
hercfare
dF = P . A . u . du
In l, S. units, using the proportionality constant gc, the above equaton c0111d be written
A A /l
dF = - . u . p. du . du (3 - 4)
ge gc l'
The mpact of all exsting forces (i.e., pressurc, weight, friction, ctc.) cxcrted on n
partic\e of gas in a nonhorizontal pipeline [Figure 3-2(b)] can be considered as follows:
;hc torces F and F
2
acting on the gas partic\e due lo he gas prcssure p and P
2
can be
J d t n e , ~ LIS:
dF AdP
1
and
The force F3 exerted on the gas due to the weight Wof the gas particle s
F3 = W sinO'
in differential form
dF dW sinO'
3
wh('fr the weght of the gas is
(3 - 5)
60 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
dH
w
Figure 3-2b. Demonstration of all forces acting on a gas particle moving in a nonhorizontal
pipeline
(;, is local acceleration of gravity)
fu rthcnn ore
dll
sin Cl' = ~ -
dy
whcre dI! is the change in elevation, Upon substitution for both dWand sin
df\ = gL ,A . p . dH
(3 ~ 6a)
gc
or
gL A
dF] = -- . - . dH (3 6b)
gc v
Fnally, the metion force is defined as:
dF
4
= ?T . D . dy . T (3 - 7)
where ?TDdy is the surface area and T is the shear stress.
The summation of all the forees acting on the elernent of the gas shouId be equal to
zero, therefore:
A U gL A
. du +AdP + - . - dH +?TDdy . T O (3 - 8)
gc V gc V
- - - - - _ . ~ . ~ -
Natural Gas Transmission 61
Thi; is the general fonn of the Bemoulli equation. In most cases, t is assumed that the
nll values of gL and gc are egual. Then
A u A
~ . . du + Ad? + - dH + 7rDdv . T
gc V V '
O (3 9)
Muaiply both sides by v/A:
1 7rDdyv
- . udu + vd? + dH + -. T
gc A
= O (3 10)
,V!lli . /u = kinetic energy; vdP= pressure energy; dH = potential energy; (7rDdyx vIA)T =
h;, " lf Iosses
]'1lr friction tenn or losses created by moving a fluid in a pipeline is defined by the
i equation as follows:
2
2fu . dL
dFFannng
(3 - 11)
gc D
w/,;n; u average gas velocity
friction factor
n pipeline diameter
L pipeline length
Substituting the Fanning equation for Iosses in the general energy equation will
n':.'>l.dl :n
2{u
2
. udu + vd? + dH + -'-- . dL O (3 - 12)
ge gc . D
iding both sides of the eguation by v
2
:
(3 13)
'e final fonn of the equaton can be obtaned by integrating each tenn, assuming
u/v'" nllA = C == constant.
Kinetic Energy Term
j
2 ~ . u
2
. du
I gc V
2
j
~ , ~ . du
1 gc V V
since
l!.=C
v
62 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
smce
u
v=
e
then
Kinetic energy
Pressure Energy T erm
J
2 dP 2
= pdP
IVI
From the real gas law
PV nZRT
whcrc Z is the comprcssibility factor of the gas and R is the gas constant for
m
n
and
m
p=-V
lhc equation for the density of a gas is:
PM
p
ZRT
wheTe M is the average mole!?ular weight of the gas.
AfteT substitution ioto IL pdP
2

Pl..l .dP
,ftvf J2
Zave . R . T I PdP
ZR T ave
M ~ ~ ~
Zave . R . T
ave
2
wheTe T
ave
, is defined as follows:
(3 14)
(3 - 15)
(3 16)
(3 - 17)
Natural Gas Transmission 63
'"
lo.
~ O . 6
.E
,...
J5
';
..
.,
l5.0.5
'"
,...
...
:c;
';;
~
Q.
E E
o o
Figure 3-3. Compressibility factor for natural gases [Katz et al., 1959 Handbook of Gas
Engneenng, reproduced with perrnssion from McGraw-Hill Co.}
(Ti and T
2
are the upstream and downstream gas temperatures) and P
ave
is obtained based
on the relation l PdP:
u u
._1.0
___---0.9
8 12 14 15
Pseudo reduced pressure
Pave
64 Pipelne Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
or
P
avc
= ~ [PI + P2 - ; ! ~ ~ J
(3 - J8)
(Pj and P2 are the upstream and downstream gas pressures).
Having obtained T
aye
and P
ave
for the gas, the average compressibility factor, or
Zave, can be obtained for lean sweet natural gases with an excellent accuracy using
Kay's rule and compressibility factor charts. The Z factor can also be calculated with
one of the widely used equations of state, such as AGA-8. BWRS, RK, SRK, or any
other such formula.
ro calculate Zave for a natural gas using Kay's rule, T
aye
and P
ave
ofthe gas are needed,
and also pseudocritical pressure and temperature oftlte natural gas. Pseudocritical values
can be obtained with Kay's rule as folIows:
T ~ TCA ' YA + Tes' Ys + Tcc ' Yc + ...
(3 19)
P ~ = PCA . YA + P
CB
.YB + P
ce
. Yc + ... (3 - 20)
where Tel = average pseudocritical temperature of the gas
Pe' := average pseudocritical pressure of the g'!s
T(:A, T
eB
, T
ee
,. critical temperature of each component
PeA, PeB, P
ec
,. = critica! pressure of each component
YA, YB, Ye, mole fraction of each component
Finally, pseudoreduced pressure and temperature can be obtained as follows:
P aye
Pr
I
-
_
(3 - 21)
and
Tave
(3 22)
T ~
The values of Pr' and T/ can be used in compressibility factor charts to calculate Zave
(as shown in Figure 3-3).
I
Example 3.1
I
What is the compressibility factor for a natural gas with the following analysis at 1,000 psia
and 100F?
l
Gas
COMPONENT Mole %
85
10
5
Using Kay's rule to calculate pseudocritical properties (see Table 3-1):
P ~ P
CA
' r4 + P
eB
. Y
B
+P
ee
. Y
c
+
T ~ = T
C4
. YA + T
CB
' f
B
+ T
cc
. fc+
P ~ = 666 x 0.85 +707 x 0.10 + 617.4 x 0.05 = 667.67 pSIa, pseudocritical pressure
Natural Gas Transmission 65
= 343.3 x 0.85 + 549.8 x 0.10 + 666.0 x 0.05
= 380.085R pseudocritical temperature
, P
a
\'(' 1 , 000
P
r
= F{ = 667.67 = 1.498
, T\\e 460 + 100
1.474
Te = = -380.085
using the appropriate chart (see Figure 3.3), which covers both the p/ and range valuc,
Zave 0= 0.85 is obtained.
The model mentioned aboye for the calculation of the compressibility factor is a quick
and accurate model for dry and sweet natural gases, and is most suitable for hand
calculations. In arge gas transmssion networks with hundreds of pipe segments, while
dividing each pipe into smalIer segments to consider temperature changes in the pipeline,
this modeI becomes a cumbersome and time-consuming procedure to calculate the
compressibility factor. For these networks, where all simulations are automated, apply
accurate equations of state to calculate the compressibility factor. There are a arge number
of equations of state that are suitable for a limited range (depending on pressure,
temperature, and gas composition), but could deviate to produce inaccurate resuIts if used
without these considerations. One such equation, which is commonly used in gas
transmission systems and has a proven accuracy of better than 0.3% for compressbility
lactor, is an AGA equation givcn by Starling and Savage (1994). This equation covers most
of the existing pressure and tcmperaturc ranges used in gas transmission Iines. For further
information on different equations of state (e.g., for gases containing H
2
S ami COl) refer to
(Campbell el al., 1994).
(,I\BlE 3-1. Critical propertes of constituents of natural gas (Courtesy Campbell Petroleum
Series)
Critical TE'mperaturE' Critical PrE'ssurE'
..
('ompound Molecular Weight R K psia MPa
.._ .. __....
C
I
16.043 343 191 666 4.60
C
2
30.070 550 305 707 4.8&
C, 44.0n 666 370 617 4.25
iC
4 58.124 734 408 528 3.65
ne. 58.124 765 425 551 3.80
iC
s
72.151 829 460 491 3.39
nC
s
72.151 845 470 489 3.37
nC
6
86.178 913 507 437 3.01
nC
7
100.205 972 540 397 2.74
114.232 1,024 569 361 2.49
nCq 128.259 1.070 595 332 2.29
nCjO 142.286 1,112 618 305 2.10
nC
I
156.302 1,150 639 285 1.97
nC2 170.338 1,185 658 264 1.82
N
2
28.016 227 126 493 3.40
CO
2
44.010 548 304 1,071 7.38
H
2
S 34.076 672 373 1,300 8.96
O
2
32.000 278 155 731 5.04
Hz 2.016 60 33 188 1.30
H
2
0 18.015 1,165 647 3,199 22.06
Air 28.960 238 132 547 3.77
He 4.000 9 5 33 0.23
.----.. __ ..
66 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Potential Energy T erm
lntegration of the potential energy tenn of Equation (3-13) will result in:

2dH 2 2 /2 (P' /vl) 2

. = p dH = -_.. d1/ (3 - 23)
1 1'2 I . 1 ZRT
where 8.H 1/
2
HI '
There is no simp.le mathematical relationship between e1evation change, gas
pressure and gas temperature, so the relationship (P2,M
2
/Z
2
.R
2
,T
2
) can be taken
out of the integral in the fonn of average values whik maintaining reasonable
accuracy.
Friction Loss Term
The integral of the energy losses can be evaluated as follows:
(3 - 24)
where L is the pipeline length.
The general tOrm of the flow equation is obtained by adding all the terms together and
setting them equal to zero
o (3 25)
The aboye equation ean be further simplit1ed ifthe kinetie energy tcon is neglectcd (tor
almost atl high-pressure gas transmission lines, the contribution ofthe kinetic energy term
compared to the other tenns is insignificant). Therefore
Al (2
P (3 26)
2RZ;vp Ta,." 2
The aboye equation ean be even further simplified upon the following substi
tutions:
m 2 1fD
2
A=- a pipe e
A
e (;)2
4 '
for
Moreover, the gas relationship at a base or standard eondition is
Pb Qb
where Qb is the volumetrie gas flow.
Ir
and
Natural Gas Transmission 67
.2
m
hen
Uas gravity s defined as
G
whclC /l4."ir'::::; 29.
t fp(111 substitution and rearrangement to solve for C, Equation (3-26) would be
2 7 {2 ...2 5
2 . R . g z r PI 1"2 R. T .Z D
Qb = ....::._c b b 1 &.. ave
(3 27)
32 . T - 58Z ' T G . L . 1
ave ave
By fa king the square root 'of Qb, the general flow equation ofnatural gas in a pipeline is
"
- P; - VI 2.5
_____=--.....c.:.:.,,---. - . D
(3 28)
Zave . Tu"" . G . L 1
1; 1bove equation can be used in Imperial or S.L units; for any size or length of pipe;
1, 1; ar, partially turbulent or fully turbulent flow; and for low, medium, or high
. ,\/stems.
ution 01Parameters (Imperial Units):
Q" gas flow rate at base conditions, MMSCFD or MCF/HR
g( proportionality constant, 32.2 (lb
m
x ftIIbrx sec
2
)
/. -; compressibility factor at base condition Zb ,::::; I
r temperature at base condton, 520
0
R
F" pressure at base condition, 14.7 psia
P, = gas inlet pressure to the pipeline, psi a
P2 gas exit pressure, psia
G gas gravity, dimensionless
= elevation change, ft
P
ave
average pressure, psi a
R= gas constant, 10.73, (psiaxft
3
llb molesxOR)
average temperature, eR
Zave compressibility factor at P
ave
, T
ave
, dimensionless
L = pipeline length, ft or miles
f = fuction coefficient, dimensionless
r;

\;,1 transmission factor, dimensionless

. V J
D = inside diameter of the pipeline, inch
j
I
i
O"
ce

-o
-o
:2.

O
ro
U'\
0;5'
::J
llJ
::J
o...
d
::J
U'\
......
....
e
("
.
o'
::J
>
TABLE 3-2. Formulas and transmission actors or commonly used flow equations (Courtesy JGT)
'"O
llJ "'"
Equation Formula
a
Transmissjon Factor ("

::;.
Fritzsche
b
Q, 1720(k)
llJ
5.145

-o
.!og( 37 t) .
-o
a
llJ
("
Turbulent Q, "" 0.4696 4 log (3. 7Dlk
e
) :;-
Panhandle B Q, 2.431
16.49(R,,)oOI%1
Colebrook-White Q, = 0.4696 D" -410g(&+ I
10T Distribution Q, 0.6643
4.6! 9 (R,,)o 100
Mueller Q, = 0.4937
3.35 (Re)OIlU
.._-_.---=-..
l
Panhandlc A b 'T)
Q, 6.872
Pipe Diameter, (in.)
ce
Pipe Diameter, (in.)
Pole Q,
3i4 to I 1.732 3/4 lo 1 956
1 1 '4 to 1 1'2 1.905 1 1/4 to I 1/2 10.51
2 2.078 2 11.47
3 2.252 3 1243
4 2.338 4 12.90
Q )1)0

SpJtzglass (Hgh Pressure)d Qh 3415
Sptzglass (Low Pressure)d Q/, 3.550
Weymouth Q, = 1.3124 11.19 D!"
z
, The units 01' the quantities in all ofthese equations are: D in, h, in. WC; L tl; P" P
2
, P
b
pSla; Q MCF:nr; J = Ibmift sec; and Tr, h R,

c:
b The constants 1.720 and 2450 include: ji 7.0 x 10'" lbm/f sec . ...,
e lncludcs: P
b
= 14,73 psia; T
h
492'R; and T
r
= 500'R.

d The constants 3.415 and 3.550 indudc: Ph 14.7 psia; T 520 R; and TI 520'R. ['
!l)
Vl
-!
-<
!l)
:::l
Vl
:::l
-'
Vl
Vl
(5'

:::l
C'
\.t:)
\,..
l
70 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practica I Approach
Equation (3-28) can be written in the following form, taking all constants as e',
therefore
(3 - 29)
In transmission lines, ifthe pipeline is horizontal or MI i8 insignificant compared to
the value of - or
2
2 2)) SBG . 6.H . P ave
P -- P
1 2 R T ave . Z ave '
then the elevation term can be omitted and Equation (3-29) becomes:
Q c. __.
(3 30)
. b Zave . r
ave
. G . L YJ
The aboye equation shows the efTect of jj and D on the flow _of gas in a pipeline. The
expression IJ is the transmission factor and is an important para meter that represents the
transmissivity of gas in a pipeline. Diameter is another major factor in pipeline design; it
can be seen that ifthe diameter ofthe pipeline is doubled, the gas flow rate will be increased
by (2)25 5.66 times.
This demonstrates the importance of considering possible future expansions when
selecting pipeline diameter. For example, if a 20 inches gas pipeline is changed to a 30
inches pipeline, gas flow rate is increased by almost 2.756 times, assuming the remaining
parameters are constant.
Unlike liquids, Equation (3-30) shows that a system operating at a lower temperature
results in higher flows or lower pressure drops. I!1 contrast, higher temperatures will
increase the gas viscosity, which will reduce fue flow capacity of the pipeline. The impact of
other parameters, such as G and Z, will be discussed Jater.
Considering the previous equation (3-30), Ql; can be calculated as
Q
2 C,,2. 15
b ---'---=--- . . D
. TaV<' . G . L f
Rearranging the equation:
2 2 . 2 1 f
PI P2 = Qh . e
2
' (Zave . Tave . G L) .
or in general
(3 31)
where PI pipeline inlet pressure
P
2
== pipeline exit pressure
K == pipeline total resistance. K == RxL, where R is resistance per foot of pipeline
and L is the length of pipeline in feet
Qb gas flow rate at base condition
n gas flow exponent (having values between 1.74 and 2)
Natural Gas Transmission 71
TABLE 3",3. Common flow equation resistance f,lCtorS (Courtesy IGTJ
Flow-Rate Exponent
Ilesistance Factor for Simplified flow
[qu.aliOtl (per fooWb,c
---'_.. .. ..
Equation
Fntzschc
4.82 x 10' 4 1J(;0859
Ul6
Flllly Tumulent (AGA) 3.639 x 10-
3
8GZ
avg
I (Iog ,UDKJl 2.00
Panhandle B 1.405 X
10-
4
TZsvgGO%1 ! /)4961
1.961
Colebrook White 3.li39 x BGZ
avg
! (log(K,.l3.7D + 1.4126FIRe2 2.00
IGT Distribution 3.418 x
10-
3
T(GO
SO
l20 / D4.80
UO
[vI ucl kr 6,922 X
10-
3
T
f
G
on9
10261 / D
4
.
73Q
1.74
Panhandlc NI 2.552 x
10.
4
TI z. cf>R55 / D 4856
1,855
vg
Palee G C
2
D
5
2,00
Spitzglass 8,575 X 10-
2
(1 + 3.6 I D + 0,03D) GID
5
2.00
rligh-Pn:':::,,,rJ'
:-'pilLglass 7,935 x 10-
2
(1 + 3.6 / D + 0,03D) GIIY 2,00
Low-Pressure
f
10-
4
Weyrnoutll 4.659 x 2.00

, The following standard condiltons are included in Ihe constant unlcss olhern';sc spccificd: T.
h JI
, /, )05
d C",,:,I;1nt indudcs: 7.0 x 10,6 Ib",/fl sec.
e V"iI",.'. (,1' e can be obtalOcd Irom Tab1e 3,2.
1 C'l(';!' 11 neludes: P
b
14.7 psia; Te 520 'R; and T 520 "R
11: aboye equation, K and n have different values dependng 011 the type of
,\ 1 l)f different pipeline equatons, together with the pipeline resistance and flow
exponent, is given in IGT's "Gas Distribution Horne Shldies Course" (Wilson et. al.
1991).
I
.MPACl'ur MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND COMPRESSIBILlTY
iACTOR ON FLOW CAPACITY \
1
The general flow equaton for a horizontal pipe (Equation 3-30) indicates that the pipeline
flow capacity is proportiooal to ,fi7az. This relationship shows that lighter natural gas
with a higher percentage of rnethane, and heoce lower gas gravity, exhibits a higher flow
capacity. lo this situation, the compressibility factor Z will also be high (close to unity).
However, when heavier hydrocarbons (e 2+) are introduced, the gas gravity begins to
increase, which decreases the value of JI /G. yet the presence of heavier hydrocarbons
also reduces the value of Z, hence increasing JI/Z,
The overall impact on JI/GZ is detennined by the rate at which Z is reduced
when C1+ are added. Ths rate is not only affected by gas cornposition, but also by
pressure and temperature conditions. Figure 3-4 shows the change in Z over a range
of different temperatures and pressures (base condition is 100% rnethane), At
fHC:;;illlt.:" in the range of 1,350-2,149 psia, the decrease in Z balances the increase
72 Pipeline Oesign and Construction: A Practica I Approach
0.9 ..,.-----,----,...------,---.......----,------------,
N
0.4 +----+----+---+---+-----.-----ii-----i-----l
0.7
0.5
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
Figllre 3-4. Compressibility factor lar methane-ethane mixtures al 35F fWciss 1998]
in G, whch means that thc overall value of Jl/GZ s changed very Httle.
However, at pressures exceedng 2,140 psa, the hgher rate of Z reduction results in
an overall increase of T / GZ. Likewise, at pressures bclow 1,350 psia, the dccrcase
in Z is relativcly nsignificant, so JI! GZ tends to decrease. For operating pressures
between XOO and 2,140 psia, it is recommendcd that careful analysis be perforrned to
condude how the flow capacity will he affected by the addition of cthanc or heavicr
hydrocarhons.
,
Figure 3-5 shows the way in which flow capacity, 1/GZ or J 1/MZ, responds as
a functon of mole perccnt of ethane added to methane for a range of pressures on a
li
standard volume bass. As expected, the flow decreases when only a small percentage of
1
cthane is present, and when operating pressures are low. For examp\c, a gas mixture of
25% ethane and 75% mcthane at 800 psia exhibits a reduction in standard volume flow
J
rate of 4%. However, at 1,150 psa there 1S no change, and al 1,350 psia, the standard
volume tlow rate is increased by nearly 2%.
1t is very important to remember that the bass for almost all pipeline transportation
comparisons is mass or energy (.e., heating value of the natural gas). Therefore, volume
flow capacity s not usualIy the best means to compare two difIerent conditions and could
sometimes be misleading.
Figure 3-6 plots mass flow capacty versus ethane percentages (or heavier
hydrocarbons) over a range of operating pressures. This is based on a mass flow
capacity of Qxp where standard density is only a function of molecular weight (M),
so if
flow capacity (XV~
Natural Gas Transmission 73
12
10
8
6
N

-
.,-'
?
4
2
O
-2
-4
6
10
.
1 "
---t--
!
;
I r I -_.
. " " r 1
__ --1- l--- I I / ,/ / I .' ,,'
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
Figure 3-5. Standard volume flow capacity for methane-ethane mixture at 35F rWeiss 1998]
-.- BOOpsia
. o 1150psia
---...- 1350 pSia
-v ' 1675 psia
____ 2140 psia
'l'
;+--
I ! I

t ; ,
I I 1 /' i
<lr
i- ___ 800 psia
'o 1150 psia
-....- 1350 psia I I
--v ' 1675 psia I----+-.---+----r---l-!
-- 2140 psia " " ./
'//
i j
+------_t_
! I
I

l.' t----j-----j

O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
;: ',<MIl' 3-6. Mass flow capacity for methane-ethane mixtures at 35F [Weiss 1998J
74 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
then
fM
mass fl ow capacity n VZ
On a total energy basis the approximate amount of energy that can be transported
with a methane-ethane mixture (or other heavier hydrocarbons) increases at the same
rate as the mass flow capacity increases. Now, if the same case as previously stated
for 25% ethane at 800 psia is consdered, it can be concluded that the heating value
has ncreased by almost 18%. Therefore, the net effect is a 14% merease in energy flow
(i.e., when a 4% decrease in standard volume flow rate is subtracted) or heating value
(Weiss 1998).
FLOW REGIMES
In high-pressure gas trnnsmission lines with moderate to high flow rates, two types of flow
regimes are normally observed:
Fully Turbulent Flow (Rough Pipe Flow)
PartiaIly Turbulent Flow (Smooth Pipe Flow)
The regime of flow is defined by the Reynolds number, which is a dimensionless
expression:
pDu
Re (3 -- 32)
where p fluid density, lb
m
/ft
3
D = pipeline intemal diameter, ft
u fluid average velocity. ft/sec.
Il = fluid viscosity, Ibmlft.scc
For Reynolds numbers less than 2,000 the flow is normally laminar, or stable. When
the Reynolds number exceeds 2,000, the flow is turbulent, or unstable. In high-pressure gas
transmission Iines, only two types of flow regimes are observed: fully turbulent flow and
partially turbulent flow.
Partially Turbulent Flow Regime
PartialIy Turbulent Flow is defined by the Prandtl Von Karman equation as follows:
(3 - 33)
where f = friction factor, dimensionless; and Re Reynolds number, dimensionless.
This equation is obtained based on theory and experiments for the case in which the
flow is fully turbulent in the central region of the pipe, with a laminar sublayer covering the
interior surface of the pipe.
Equation (3-33) is plotted on a semi-Iog gmph, where the straight line shows the
maximum limit ofpartially turbulent flow (see Figure 3-7). Al! points lo the right-hand side
Natural Gas Transmission 75
Partially Turbulent Zone
Fully
Turbulent
Zone
L.________________~ __________________~ ____~ ~
~ L J O ( ) O 100000 1000000
Re (in Log Scale)
Fgllrc 3-7. Representaton of fully turbulent/partalJy turbulent zones by the Prandtl-Von Karman
Equation
IJr the line exhibit fuJly turbulent flow, and those to the left side remain partially turbuient.
Points located on the lnc are in the transition zonc.
What is the maximum Re number for which a flow regime remains partially turbulent,
given a transmission factor of VII] = ) 8.
(Jsing the Prandtl - Von Karman Equation:
~ 4log" ( ~ ) - 06
~ ~ 18,
then
!ogo(Re) = 5.9053
76 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Re = 804,081
If the calculaled Re number for an achlal pipeline with transmission factor 18 exceeds
Ihis value, the flow regime is fully turbulent.
Fully Turbulent Flow Regime
The transmission factor for fully turbulent flow is given by the Nikuradse equation as
follows:
(3 - 34)
~ ~ 4log" [37 ~ l
where /l7l = transmission factor, dimensionless
D pipeline inside diameter, inch
Ke effective roughness, inch
K)D = relative roughness, dimensionless
Thc effective roughness term Ke is comprised of the following tcrms:
Ke Ks + K +Kd (3 - 35)
where K, = surface roughness
K, = nterfacial roughness
Kd roughness due to bends, welds, fittings, etc.
Generally, in high-pressure gas transmission Enes with high flow rates, where the
regime of flow 1S fully turbulent and the natural gas is almost dry, the values of K and
Kd are negligible compared 10 Ks. Therefore, lhe effective roughness of the pipeline is
almost equal 10 the intemal surface roughness of the pipe. The value of K, or Ke is
important in fully turbulent flow because without the laminar sublayer, the surface
roughness of tbe pipe plays an important role in determining the flow and pressure drop
in the pipe.
The Nikuradse equation shows that if the effective roughness of the pipeline is
increased, the transmission factor decreases and results in higher pressure drops. However,
by decreasing the value of Ke, higher transmission factors or lower pressure drops are
obtained. For intemally uncoated commercial pipes, when a number for Ke is unavailable, a
value of 700 jJ, ioches (micro inches 10-
6
inches) may be assumed.
The effective roughness values that are normally measured and used for uncoated
commercial pipes are within the range of 650-750 .L inches. Different studies (Golshan
and Narsing 1994) have proven that these values could be increased between a range of
30-50 J.L inches per year due to erosion, corrosion, contamination, and other associated
problems, which finally resuIt in higher fuel consumption and compression power
requirements to overcome the higher pressure drops. Another way to reduce the effective or
surface roughness of a pipeline is to intemaIly coat the pipes. Materials such as epoxy/
polyamide coatings reduce the surface roughness to within a range of 200-300 micro
~ inches. It has been further proven (Golshan and Narsing 1994) that the rate of deterioration
for intemally coated pipes is much slower than the uncoated pipes (i.e., within the range of
50-75 micro-inches for every five years).
Natural Gas Transmsson 77
Some of the benefits of internal coating have been confinned by experimental studies
conducted by various pipeline companies. The amount of reduction in surface roughness
could substantial1y increase the pipeline capacity (a comparison of the etTect 01' the change
of Kc on different transmission equations is presented later in this text)o Another benefit
associated with internal coating is the protection against cOITosion, which is caused by
atmospherc oxidaton during storage or the presence of cOITosivc components in the
transported material during service.
Due to the high cost of internally coating pipelines, the final deesion about whether or
not to coat is essentally an economic one. lt requires a detailed evaluation of the costs and
benefits of internal coating over Ihe projecled life of Ihe pipeline (Asan te 1994).
Simplified Equation for the Calculation of Reynolds Number in Gas
Transmission Systems
As discussed earlier, Reynolds number is defined as:
pD u
Re = ~ . __..
J..
where
Q
u = --...--
/4
therefore
JI . /4
where pQ PbQb at steady-state conditions
4Qh' p"
Re = ~ - - - - (3 - 36)
Ji . T . D
and if
P
b
. Iv!
Zb . R T
h
where the value of Z" ~ one, and Al = 29G
then
29GP"
Re
ji . 7r . D . R . T"
'
suh"tituting i'or - R - 1073 psiaji T - 520 cR P - 14 7
pSla, and
l' b - . Ibmoles."R' b - ,b - .
{I 7.23 X 10-
6
~ - . l l " " (viscosity nonnally assumed for natural gases);
.see
G
Re = 45 (3 37)
D
wnere Qb gas flow rate, ft3/hr (standard conditions)
G gas gravty, dmensionless
D = inside diameter of the pipe, inches
78 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
This is a simplifed equation that gives the Re numba in tenns of pipeline parameters
with reasonable accuracy. The Re number can be used to check the flow regime of a gas
transmission line.
Example 3.3
What would be the re gime offlow in a 56 inches gas transmission line (ID 54 nehes),
G 0.64, when the gas flow rate is Qb = 1,500,000 rn
3
1hr?
1m
3
35.31 ft?
Re = :!2..:.
1

Re = 28,248,000
assume commercal pipe with Ke = 700 Il inches. Use tbe Nikuradse relationship to
calculate I7!:
jj log[3.7 0.g07J
IJ 21.82
Prandtl - Von Karman equation could now be use<! to find the Re number at the
transition zone, which is:
Re
41og- fi 0.6
Vl
21.82 = 0.6
lop; Re 6.94385
Re 8,787,291
The actua I Re obtained bascd on pipeline propertcs is much larger than 8, 7R7,291, so
the flow regime is ful/y turbulent.
WIDElY USED STEADY-STATE FlOW EQUATIONS
A more simplifico form ofthe general flow equation (3-28) in Imperial Units can be wriUcn
as follows:
1
Y- 2
0.0375G b.H .----""'"--j T .z 2.5
J ave av{' .D
(3 - 38)
Zave . T
ave
. G . L
assuming that the potential energy term is
E= O.0375Gt...H Z (3 - 39)
Tave ' ave
Natural Gas Transmission 79
thcn
f
[
]!
T 1 p'- r - E '.5
38 .-. ... 1 2 .o"
(3 40)
. P
h
f Zave . T
a
\(" . G . L
wherc Qb gas tlow rate at base conditions, SCFi D
T
h
temperature at base condition, 520 R
P
h
pressure at base condition, ] 4.7 psia
IJ transmission factor, dimensionless
PI = gas inlet pressurc, psa
P
2
= gas exit pressure, psia
G = gas gravity, dimensionless
t::.H eJevation change, ft.
P
ave
average pressure, pSIa
T.we avemge temperature, R
Z"ve average compressibility factor, dimensionless
L = pipeline length, miles
D = pipeline inside diameter, inch
lh,' fol1owing are sorne ofthemost cornmon and widely used flow equations that are
slJIlahlc x the design of large-diameter, high-pressure gas transmission Jincs. For further
inlum .! ion, see lGT "Borne Study Course" (Wilson et al. 1991) or IGT "Technical
Rl:;;r( ,)o Steady-Flow in Gas Pipelines."
., ":;'.llent Equations
die A
lile, diltlandle A equation is normally appropriate lor medium to relatively large diamctcr
pipelines with modcrate gas flow rate, opcrating under medium to high pressure.
" l' delined in Imperial Units as
I.OnS)2 2 - ] 0.5394
.0
261
435.83 (T.!!.) [____ '62
(3 - 41)
P GO.8539 1 T Z
b . ave' "ave ..l.
whcrc transmission factor is defined as
(1 0.07305
Vl
(3 42)
= 6.872 Re
or
(1 (Q .G) 0.07305
\/,-=7211 (3 43)
vi' D
wH:" is in SCFID. AH parameters are the same as in Equation 3-38.
..
80 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practica! Appmach
AGA Partially Turbulent
The AGA partialIy turbulent equation is highly dependent on the Reynolds number. It s
used for medium-diameter, medium-flow and high-pressure systems
In Imperial Units t s defined as follows:
" 0.5
P; - - E Re 2.5
L AD log __ . D (3 - 44)
[
:l,,, r,,,. . G L1 . L4126V}
where the transmission factor is:
fi Re
(3 - 45)
yr 4 Di .log-:'4;26/J
DI is the drag factor that norrnally appears in partialIy turoulent flow equations and
compensates for the inefficiencies due to the bends, welds, fittings, etc., and has a numerical
value in the range of 0.92 to 0.97. Qb is obtained in SCFlD; all other parameters are the
same as in Equation 3-38.
Fully Turbulent Equations
Panhandle B
The Panhandle B equation is norrnalIy suitable for high-flow-rate, large-diameter (i.e.,
pipes larger than NPS 24), and high-pressure systems. The degree of accuracy depends on
how precisely the pipeline efficiency is measured.
The equation has thc following form in Impcrial Units:
. _ 102 2..J. 0.510
1h) [ PI - 1'2 - E 1 2.53
737.02-- - D (3 - 46)
(
GO.
961
P 1 T Z'
h . .,; ave' .... ave
where the transmission factor is:
r
0.01961
\/-
16.49( Re) (3 47)
vI
or
Q .
16.70 -2_ (3 - 48)
(
D
The efficiency in Panhandle B cquations is defincd as:
Qactual
77 =
(3 -- 49)
Qtheoretcal
wherer could be multiplied in the equation to calculate more accurate values for Qb. Al!
other parameters are the same as in Equation 3-38 and Qb is in SCFID.
Weymouth
The Weymouth equation is norrnalIy used for high-flow-rate, large-diameter, and high
pressure systems. This equation tends to overestimatc the pressure drop predictions, and
contains a lower degree of accuracy relative to the other equations. Weymouth is commonly
used in distribution networks for the sake of safety in predicting pressure drop.
Natural Gas Transmission 81
The Weymouth equaron has the following form in Imperial Units:
(3 - 50)
where the transmission factor is defned as
(3 51)
Q is in SCF/D, and all other parameters have the same units as in Equation 3-38.
AGA Fully Turbulent
The AGA fully turbulent is the most frequently recommended and widely used equation in
high-pressure, high-flow-rate systems for medium- to large-diameter pipelines. It predicts
hoth flow and pressure drop with a high degree of accuracy, especially if the effective
roughness values used in the equation have becn measured accurately.
The AGA fuIly turbulent equation has the following form in Imperial Units:
T
b
[ - Y; - E 10.5 [ 3.7DJ 2.5.
Qb = 38.774- . . 4Iog-- D . (3 52)
Pb G . L . Tave . Zaw Ke
whcre he transmission factor is defined using the Nikuradse equation:
fl 3.7D
Vi = 4log Ke
Qi> is obtained in SO'ID, and alI other parameters are the same as Equation 3-38.
(nlebrook-White
Ihis equation combines both partialIy turbulent and fulIy turbulent flow regimes and is
Il),1 ';uitable for cases where the pipeline is operating in the transition zone. This equation
. again used for Jarge-diameter, high-pressure, and medium- to high-tlow-rate systems. It
predicts a higher pressure drop or lower flow rates than the AGA fully turbulent equation.
This equation has the following form in Imperial Unts:
38.774 T/y
2.5
. 5[--410
g
1.4126/j) j
D
P
b
Zavc' T
aw
. G . L 3.7 D Re
(3 - 53)
where the transmssion factor is defined as:
Ke 1.4126fj)
-410g --+ (3 - 54)
3.7 D Re
(
Qb is obtained in SCFID, and aH other parameters are the same as in Equation 3-38.
Fxample 3.4
Agas transmission line is to be constructed to transport 1,500,000 m
3
/brofnaturaI gas from
gil" refinery to the first compressor station located 100 km away. The route is almost
l,\qnzontaI with no considerable elevation changes. Determine the size of the pipeline
MI::'; '$<,
..
<32 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
requred to transport the gas if the pipeline inlet pressure is 1,140 psia, and a 300 psa
pressure drop is allowable. Use Weymouth, Panhandle B, and AGA fully turbulent
equations to compare the diameters predicated by each flow equation. Assume an effective
roughness value of Ke 700 micro nches for the lineo
Additional data:
T
ave
= 522.6 'R
G = 0.64
TI> 520 'R
PI> = 14.7 psa
Zavc = \.0
Solution: Usng equations in Imperial Units:
L 100 km = 62.1504 miles
PI = 1,140 psia
P
2
= 1,140 - 300 = 840 psia
D ? (inches, inside diameter)
Q 1,500,000 x 35.31 52,965,000 SCFIHR = 1,271,160,000 SCFlD
E = zero
A. Using Weymouth Equation:
".--2 jl/2
. TI> /""2 E 2.667
Qh = 432.7 _. D ..._.-.--:;--
PI>
[
Zav,' . T"vp . G L
upon substitution
ID 37.287 inches, NPS 40 or 42
B. Using Panhandle B Equation:
T
h
) 1.02 [ j(]'iIO 253
737.02 p- D
(
, G L . T"w . z,"'p
amI upon substitution of data
iD = 35.380 nches, NPS 36
using 100% etliciency for Panhandle B.
C. AGA fully turbulent equation:
-2 j0.5
T, P; - /"'2 E 3.7D 25
Qh = 38.774- . D
PI> [ Zave' T
ave
. G . L [ Ke ]
and upon substitution of data:
iD 36.765 inches, NPS 40 or 42
It can be concluded that the Weymouth equaton is normally the one that s the most
conservative type ofequation. An efficiency factor is always needed for the Panhandle B to
compare it with the AGA equation. In this case the efficiency has been assumed to be 1.0
Natural Gas Transrnission 83
!'(); <1n uncoated pipe with 700 micro inches of surface roughness, which is not a practical
;l:,:,urnption, The efficiency could be 1ess than 95%,
"'UMMARY Uf THE IMPACT OF OIFFERENT GAS ANO PIPELINE
ON THE GAS FlOW EFFICIENCY
The percentage impact of different parameters on the flow capacity of a pipeline is listed in
1:1 ile 3-4 (Asante 1996). A further numerical analysis on the perfonnance of the pipeline,
lIow capacity, using three different major gas flow equations (AGA tul1y turbulent.
B, and Colebrook-White), together with the impact of different gas/pipeline
:' :!!fIeters are given in Appendix B.

PARAlU1,
CAlCUlATION FOR PIPELlNES IN SERIES ANO
("ipdines in Series
For pipelines in series with different diameters and lengths (see Figure 3-8), pressure drops
are calculated as follows.
Using the simplified form of the general flow equation (3-31):
p2 p2 KQn
1 2 1 b
= K2 Q:
p2 ? r n
3 K3 Qb
Wherc K" Kb and K} are pipeline resistance at each segment and n is the flow
,,;( ponent depending on the type of equation.
r the three cquations are added together, then
(3 55)
Let
(3 56)
then
? 2 n
p- - p = Kr' Q (3 - 57)
1 4 b
Pipelines in Parallel (looping)
Consider two different pipe segments connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3-9.
The govemng equation to caIculate pressure drop for each segment would be:
=K1 Q:l
? n r
F; 2 =K2 Qb2
where
1ABLE 34. Percent o different parar',E;'erS on A,ante1996J
::o
J;:.
Pipe Parameters Unit Variation of Parameter Percent Change in Flow Remarks Applicable AnalyticaJ Equation

Inside Oiameter ConsecutJve standard 40 - 70% 40% reflects consecutive

fb..
-o
pipe size Q,
~ .
:
r
i?
O Wall Thickness (w.t.) 10% change < 0 . 5 / ~ Impact is minimal for ~ [1
i? Q,
U1
vanations usually encountered
C10
in planning. R is the ralo.
:
Pipe Grade Consecu!ve standard grades < l(% ~ orgrade l
Wi 'f"ade 2
l
Roughness 100 micro inch change 1.25-1.5% Impact on flow is also
fb..
Q,
dependent on roughness ratio
n
O
:
Q,
Factor 1% 1% factor varies U1
~ ==i
from 0.92 0.98 ror typical
e
in the
~
regime. o'
:
Gas Parameters
);;
Q,
Specfic Gravty 0.01 change 0.8'0 Mnimal
u Q,
..,
:lJ
Compressiblity 0.05 change 1.5% For 0.825 ::; Z ::; 0.925
~
Vscosty 10% change < 1% in partially turbulent lnsignticant, mnimal impuct n
In partially turbulent flow
()
No effeet in fully turbulent region.
Heat Transfer Parameters
Sol 1 e change 3/0% Change in flow is minimal
SOl! Thermal Conductlvl 50% < l% lmpact is mnimal
Buna! 50
0
ft) < 1% lmpact is minimal
System Operating Parameters Typical Unt Variation of Parameter Percent Change in Flow Remarks Applicable Analytical Equation
Operating Pressure 100 kPa change (14.5 psia) 2.0 - 2.47% For MOp range of 5,000-10,000
kPa. The higher the MOP, the
f" .. [>'
~ ;-p;
I d
Pressure Buffers
Delivery Pressure
Operating Temperature (Avg.)
Elevation
50 kPa change (7.25 psia)
100 kPa change (14.5 psia)
10"C change
100 m (328 ft)
::::o%
::::01%
3%
1.5%
(Same conditions
as stated aboye apply)
AIso slightly dependent
on average compressibility
May change slightly with
change in gas composition.
v
!ower he
Natural Gas Transmission 85
P,
P2
P
3
f>4
D
1 D
2
K
D3
K
1
2
K3
~
<
e
f i ~ n r e 3-8. System of pipeline with different lengths and diameters connected in series
[ti general
whcrc K is the total resistance ofa pipe substituted for the loop. Upon rearrangement ofthe
,alions:
(3 58)
(3 59)
(3 60)
now substitute [he values for Qbl, Qb2, and Qb:
i' ,11 I't) 3-9. System of pipelines connected in paralIel (looped)
..
86 Pipeline Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
or
KI K
2
K (3 - 61)
-(K;/n + K ~ / 1
For n = 2, the following equation giving total resistance oftwo pipelines in paralle! is
obtained:
K K
2
K = ------::- (3-62)
(VK +
In the above equation, K is the total resistance of the two pipelines looped
together. If the two pipes in parallel have equal diameters, then K = 1/4 KI> which
means that the resistance of the looped system against flow is equal to 1/4 of a single
line.
Example 3.5
What would be the downstream pressure of a gas pipeline transporting 200,000 m
3
lhr of
natural gas (G 0.65)7 lnlet pressure to the pipeline is PI 1,000 psia, L 200 miles, DI
20 inches (19.5 inches inside diameter), and average flowing gas temperature is assumed to
be T
r
520 eR and Zavg = 1.0. What would be the downstream pressure if the existing
system is looped with a 16-inch pipeline (inside diameter 15.5 nches)? Use the Panhandle
A flow equation.
Data given:
PI 1,000 psi a
G = 0.65
ni 20 mch (inside diameter 19.5 inches)
L 200 miles
Qb = 200,000 m
3
/hr
D
2
16 inch (inside diameter 15.5 inches)
T 520 "R
P2 =? (psia)
The simplified form of the general flow equation will be used:
with the Panhandle A flow equation. pipeline resistance and flow exponent can be obtained
from Tables 3-2 and 3-3:
R
-4
2.552 x 10 . TI . Za,\"g
G0855
. D4856
n = 1.855
where R pipeline resistance per foot
TI = average flowing gas temperature in oR
G = gas gravity
D pipe nside diameter in inches
n = flow exponent
Natural Gas Transmission 87
PI nlet pressure, psia
p} = exit pressure, psa
K = total pipeline resistance, K = RL (L is in ft)
Qb ga!> flow rate at base condition and it should be in MCF/hr.
fIJen: (re
_4 ') (0.65)855
K = RL = 2.)52 x 10 . 2005280
(19.5)4856
K, = 0.052745
Qb 200.000 35.31 7.062 MCFI hr
2 ') n
PI P; K, Qb
(l, 000)2 -p; = 0.052745(7062(855
P
2
= 522 psia
Now if the system is looped:
'dal resistance of the second pipe is:
0.855
( )
K
2
= R
2
L 2.55 x 10-
4
520 0.65 200 5280
(J 5.5)4.856
K
2
0.160728
FOl' looped system, the total resistance is:
Kr
wl '1 1.855.
Kr (0.052745)(0.160728)
( +0.160728
1
/1855 jl.855
Kr = 0.023430
f2 f2 K ()1855
I 2 r rtf
(l, 000)2 = 0.023430(7062)1855
P2 = 823 psia ( downstream pressure after looping)
16", 200 Mile
20", 200 Mile
L 10. Pipeline system after ooping
88 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Pipeline Segmental Looping
In many cases, it may nol be necessary lo loop the entire pipeline to obtain Ihe desired flow
or downstream pressure. Therefore, only a segment of the pipeline is looped lo meel
requrements.
Assume tha! the existing line has length L, diameler D), and a total resistance of K
K', where inle! and exit pressures are p and P2, respectively. It is intended lo increase the
existing gas Ilow rale from Q. to Q2 (i.e., Qb to Qb without any changes in downstream
pressure. A pipeline loop with diameter D
2
and length X will be added lo the existing
pipeline in order to increase QI to Q2 without any changes lo the downstream pressure. The
value of X, the length of the pipeline lo be looped lo the existing syslem, mus! be
determined. Note that usrng, larger diameler pipes will reduce the required length of the
segment to be looped.
To obtain the total pipeline resistance, slart with one of the major transmission
equations and conlinue to develop the equation to calculate the length ofthe loop. For this
example, the Weymouth equation will be used.
The Weymouth equation in Imperial Units, is written as:
2 2 0.000466 G . . L 2
PI - P2 = ~ - - - - ~ ~ . : - - : - : - ~ - _ . Q)
or
2 2 2
PI K QI P
2
and K Kt + Ki (total resistan ce of the single line)
In the total resistance formula ofthe Weymouth equation, the value ofO.000466. GTris
a constant, which could be assumcd as:
e = 0.000466 . G T
r
ex , ex e(L X) CL
- ~ " . _ - ~ - .._
K' --- K
and K
::-::-;-- I
) 16'3' 2
-16/3' K
16jJ
d
613
!
DI DI
D
1 2 I J
The equivalent resistancc for the looped segment is:
\
(3 63)
after simplification K" would be:
ex
., (3 - 64)
d/3 D8/3)
( + 2
and
K
E
Total = Ke + K ( i.e., pipes in series)
Natural Gas Transmission 89
L-X
p ""--------.
.... QI

K'
I
x
Fi!{: \ 11. Pipeline segmental looping
then
__C__X_. + C(LX)
(3 - 65)
D
16
8/3 8/3) 2 3
(
DI +D2 I
ami
D \fiding the flow equations tor the existing pipeline and afier segmental looping:
ur
eL
1 = C(L.X)' (ciJ 2
.. ..__.,
(Di
/J
DI .
: i !Inlly, the equation eould be written as follows:
XL, ..
(3 66)
x", length of the pipeline to be looped, miles
L length of the existing pipeline, miles
Q = initial gas flow rate, MMSCFD
Q2 = final gas flow rate, MMSCFD
D existing pipeline inside diameter, inehes
D
2
== looped segment inside diameter, iDehes
'Por AGA fully turbulent equation, a value of 2.5 instead of 8/3 is used as the exponent
i" ')c denominator of EquatioD (3-66).
90 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Example 3.6
A gas transmsson line of OD 16 inehes (ID 15.5 inches), Ql = 70,000 m
3
!hr, and
L = 300 km is to be used without any pressure changes in the delvery of 120,000 mJ/hr
of natural gas. What would be the length of pipeline with identical diameter that ShOllld
be looped to the existing pipeline to satisfy lhe increased eapaeity (aceording to lhe
Weymouth equalion).
Solution:
Using Equation (3-66).
Q 70,000 mJ!hr
Q2 = 120,000 m
3
br
DI 15.5 inehes
D
2
= 15.5 inehes
L 300 km
X=?km
2
X = 300
(
70.000)
120.000
1
(
1 .)2
l+m:D
813
1
X =300(7/12)2 1=263.88
km, segment lo be looped
( ~ )
Sorne Important Considerations Regarding Pipeline Looping
Equation (3-66) demonstrates that looping wi 11 inerease pipeline flow eapaeity without
any ehanges to the upstream and downstream pressures. Likewise, if lhe flow is kept
constant, adding a loop results in less of a pressure drop along the pipeline. However,
Eqllation (3-66) also implies that the impaet of Jooping on the flow capaeity (or
prCSSllre drop along the pipeline) is independenl of the location of the loop. In praetical
pipeline operations this is nol lhe case, and the placement of the looping can have a
:;ignificant impact on lhe response of lhe system. The behavior of the system is greatly
affected by changes in temperature and the compressibility factor of lhe gas along the
pipeline.
There are two important parameters lo consider when ehoosing lhe location for a
pipeline loop: temperature and pressure. Considering pipeline pressure, the magnitude of
lhe pressure drop is higher al the downstream section of the pipeline because the gas has
expanded. Hence, considering pressure alone, looping at the downstream portion of the
pipeline is more effieient.
However, temperature must also be considered. Al the upstream part of the
pipeline, particularly downstream of a compressor station, the gas temperature is
typically much higher than in other places along the line. Adding a loop in areas
where the gas temperature is hotter increases the heat transfer from the pipeline to the
immediate environment. This is especially true if the ground temperature is
significantly less than the gas temperature. When higher rates of cooling occur, the
pressure drop along the pipeline is considerably less. Therefore, it is most ofien
recommended that under steady-state conditions, pipeline looping be in an upstream
1:
)
l'
\


Natural Gas Transmission 91
region, suco as immediately downstream of a compressor station, especially if the gas
is hot. It should be noled that a comprehensive simulation involving a gas
temperature profile giving consideration lo elevation changes is always necessary to
determine the exact location of looping in steady-state operations. TypicaJly, in situations
wherc the gas temperature is very close to the ground tcmperaturc, or the differcnce is Jess
than 5 .- 10C, temperature is no onger an important consideration when choosing a
location for a loop.
In !he following example. the results of hydraulic simulations for three different
cases are presented to further clarify the effects of different loop locations for a
pipeline at steady state. In al! simulations, Hydraulic Analysis and Resources Tool
(HART) simulation software was used. It is TransCanada Pipeline's steady-state
,;imulation software developed in-house for use in designing the company's pipeline
network.
Parameters Jor Case Study:
Pipeline tength = 100 km (62.15 miles)
Gas ftow rate is constant = 289.542 MMSCFD
Gas inlet pressure 1,200 psia
Gas inlet temperature 45 oC or 113 "F
Pipeline OD 20 inches
Pipeline ID = 19.44 inches
Pipeline roughness =o 750 IL inches
Soil temperature 10 ('C (50 F)
Cdse :: No loop
P =1130Apsia
p::: 1059psia P ::: 984.6 psia P = 905.5 psia
;/5 km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T = 90.7"F (32.5'C) T 66.4"F (19.1C) T = 59.S"F (15.3"C)
eIS':: 11: looping First 25 Km of the Pipeline (Upstream)
p = p::: 1117.4psia p::: 1048.9psia p::: 976.5psia
25km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T =113'F (45C) T = B024'F (26.8"C) T =69.e'F (20.9'C) T =62.4'F (16.9'C) T::: 57.4'F (14.1C)
Case 111: looping Last 25 Km of the Pipeline (Downstream)
p = 1200psia P = 1130.4psia P = 1059psia
P
25 km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T = 113"F (45"C) T ::: 90.7"F (32.6'C) T =76. fF (245"C) T = 66.4'F (19.1C) T = 60.3'F (15.7"C)
For these three cases, it can be concluded that for the same gas flow rate, looping
upstrearn of the pipeline gives the highest delivery pressure or the least pressure drop.
...
92 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
1250
1200
-.
1150
...
1100
a
I:!
ji
! 1050
1000
950
900
o 25 50 75 100
Di_{\uo)
__case I - No Loop
.... Case 11
Figure 3-12. Comparison of pressure drops for cases 1, 11, and III
The collective results of the abovc cases are compared in Figure 3-12.
PIr'ELlNE CAS VElOCITY
_..,.._.- ---------------------------------
I
The equation to detenllnc the gas veJocity in a pipeline is obtained as follows:
1
US Q,<:!A (3-67)
1;
where U
s
= gas velocity at any section
1
Qs gas flow rate at any section 1
A = cross sectional area.
at steady sta te
and also
or
P
b
T
s
Ps P
s
' T
b
(consider the compressibility factor as 1).
Natural Gas Transmission 93
u]
Q
PI
I
I
I
I
U
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Qb
....
Q2
I
I
I
I
I
P
2
I
Figure 3-13. Change of gas velocity in a gas transmission tine
Combining these expressions, where A
Substitute P" = J4.7 psia, T" = 520 R, and assume a flowing gas temperatnre of
:520 "R:
Q"
Us = (3 68)
PD
whl:rc u, = gas veJocity at any segment, ftJsee
Qb = gas flow rate at base eondition, ft3/br
P pressure at any seetion, psi a
D pipeline inside diameter, nehes.
Equation (3-68) gives a good estimate ofthe gas velocity in the pipeline at any segment.
Ir the flowing gas temperature is different from T", then:
Qb T
f
Us = (3 69)
Tb PD
where T = flowing gas temperatnre, R
f
T
b
= base temperatnre, 520 R.
If the etTect of the compressibility factor is also eonsidered at any segment, the gas
velocity equation could be written as follows:
lj Q Z
U
S
= 0.75-. _b_.__
(3 70)
Tb P.D
2
or
3
Q ZT
f
1.44 x 10- _b----
U
s
2
PD
'd!",rc Z is the compressibility factor at any section.
94 Pipeline Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
Example 3.7
What would be the maximum and mnimum \'eloeity of gas in a pipeline
where Qb 1.500,000 m
3
hr
D 56 inehes
ID = 55 nehes
PI = 1,140 psia
P2 = 840 psia
= 520
c
R T
r
T
h
Minimum velocity occurs at the beginning of the pipe, where thc pressure is higher:
U
s
1,500,00035.31
= 0.75--__.._,
1, )40 (55f
= 11.52 ftjsec
and maximum velocity occurs at thc end of the pipe, where the pressure is less:
Us O
1,500,00035.31
.75 ------;;-
840
15.63 ftjsec
It is sometimes nccessary to calculate gas vclocity in mi\cs/hr whilc using gas flow rate
in MMSCFD. The following equation can be used with these units:
US
o ZT
40.909 _'_1>-,!
P D ~
(3 - 72)
wherc u, gas vclocity at any segment, miles/hr
Qb ga..,> tlow rate at standard eondition, MMSCFD
Z = comprcssibility factor, dimensionless
TI = flowing gas temperature, 'iR
P pipeline pressure al any segment, psia
D pipe inside diameter, inehes.
EROSIONAl VELOCITY
1
1\
When a fluid passcs through a pipeline with a high velocity it can cause both vibration and
erosion in the pipeline, which will erode the pipe wall over time. Ifthe gas velocity exceeds
the erosional velocity calculated for the pipeline, the erosion ofthe pipe wal1 is increased to
mtes that can signiticantly reduce the lite ofthe pipeline. Therefore, it is always necessary
to control gas velocity in gas transmission lines to prevent it from rising aboye this limit.
The erosional veloeity for compressible fluids is expressed as:
e
Ue = {f5
(3 73)
p
where, in Imperial Units,
u
e
= erosional veloeity, ftlsec
p = gas density, Ib
m
/ft3.
and e is a constant defined as 75 < e < 150. The recommended value for e in gas
transmission pipelines is e = lOO (see Beggs 1991).
- - - - - - - - , ~
Natural Gas Transmission 95
Gas density is obtained by:
PM
P=ZR.T
Substituting for e 100 and M = 29 G:
100
/29GP
y ZR-T
(3 - 74)
"
Tn (he aboye equation:
,osional velocity, ftJsec
, , gravity, dimensionless
. minimum pipeline pressure, psia
, Hllpressibility factor at the specified pressure and temperature, dimensionless
'iiwing gas tcmperature, R
10.73 (ft
3
x psiaJlb moles xOR).
'Ihe recommended value for the gas velocity in gas transmission mainlines is normally
i. ,,:;0% oI' the erosional vclocity (i.c., a value oI' 10-13 mis or 33-43ft1sec is an
,1; , "tliable valuc for design purposcs). This value could be increased to 15-17 mis for
nonmajor mainlines or aterals.
.
ji
'1;: would be the erosional, maximum, and minimum velocities in a gas pipeline ifthe gas
,, 'i f"t'SSure is 1,000 psia, gas exit pressure is 700 psia, gas gravity is 0.65, compressibility
I ; t. 0.9, isothennal flowing gas tcmperature is 520 'R, pipe OD 56 inehes (/D = 55
'1':""). and gas flow rute is assumed to be Qb 1,500,000 m'/hr.
SolLHon
I
Using the equ:ltion tor erosional velocity:
1
100
Ue
!29GP
VZKT
1
In this equation
G 0.65
P " 700 psia (minimum pipeline pressure)
Z 0.9
R ~ = 10.73
T 520.
Then erosiona! veloeity is:
100 100
U
e
61.7 ft /s (erosional velocity)
/290.65700 1.621
VO.9IO.73520
~
- ~ . _ .._ ~
~ . 4
96 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
maximum velocity in the pipeline is:
0.75QhZ _ 0.751,500,00035.310.9
Umax
PD2 - - 700.(55)2
li
max
= 16.9ftjs
mnimum velocity is:
Umin = IL8ft/s
Since the maximum velocity is considerably lower than the erosional velocity, the
systcm is in the safe velocity region.
Erosional Gas Flow Rate
The erosional gas flow rate is defined based on the pipeline erosional velocity as:
Q Ue A (3 75)
e
where Qe = erosional gas flow rate, ft3/sec
Uf' = erosional velocity, ft/sec
A pipeline cross-sectional area, ft2.
OPTIMUM PRESSU RE DROP FOR DESIGN PU RPOSES
The optimum pressure drop perunit lenglh ofpipe is an important factor used lo design the
most cost-effective system. Maintaining the optimal pressure drop along each section ofthe
pipeline' system is necessary to minimize the required facilities and operating expenses
(including pipeline, compressor, and fuel-consumption costs).
Studies performed by the Pipeline System Design departrncnt of TransCanada
Pipclines have proven that a pressure drop of 15 25 kPaJkm (3.5 ~ 5.85 psi/mile) is
optima!. Tbis means that, when the final system design is complete, the pressure drop in all
sections of the pipeline system should be within this range. Pressure drops in excess of 25
k.Pa/km will cause the downstream compressors to work at a greater load factor, which will
result in higher fuel costs. Excessive pressure drops also introduce a greater potential for
operating problems. Pressure drops below 15 kPa/km are an indication that too many
facilities have been installed. For further information see (Hughes (993).
PIPELINE PACKING
A gas pipeline, which transports gas from point 1 to point 2 with pressure PI and P
2
,
respectively, wiIl have sorne natural gas "packed" inside, at an average pressure of P
ave
'
The volume ofthe gas packed inside the pipe can bedetermined using the following equation:
P
ave
. V = nT . Zave . R . T
ave
(3 - 76)
Natural Gas Transmission 97
wherc
v
(L"ve can be obtained from Kay's rule)
'le P
ave
= average pressure, psia
D = pipe inside diameter, ft
L = pipeline length, ft.
n
r
= total number of moles of gas, lb. moJes
Zave = avemge compressbility factor, dmensionless
R gas constant, 10.73 (ft3 x psia/lb molesxOR)
average gas temperature, "R.
J ( 1I the total number of moles nr packed between points 1 and 2 at average pipeline
el i"liions is:
n =
liD
2
. P
ave
L
4 ZavcR . Tave
(3 77)
This valuc can thcn be used lo determine the gas volumc V", existing in the pipeline at
! condition (i.c., P =o 14.7 psia and T 520 "R):
V" =
nr
RT
"

P,
nI' . 10.73520
14.7
For a fairly aecurate calculalion of the storage capacity of ppelincs at packcd
and unpacked conditions whcn gas is Ilowing, the Clinedinst eqution can be used,
which considcrs the variation in gas compressibility, For further infomlation see
iV;1I1. 1959).
DETERMINING GAS LEAKAGE USING PRESSURE DROP METHOD

The Pressure Drop Method can be used to determine the volume of gas Iha! wiII escape
from a pipeline due lo leakage. Consider Ihe pipeline in Figure 3-14 at two different lime
inlcrvals.
The number of moles of gas in the pipeline at time t = zero is:
PI . VI nI' R . TI
where PI initial pressure, psia
VI initial gas volume, ft3
nI initial number of moles, Ib.moles
R gas constant, 10.73 (psiaxft
3
/lb molesx'R)
TI = nitial gas temperature, R.
98 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Gas Leakage
D
J,
~ . ~
J'
t = O
"
t ~
L = Length of Pipeline = 1 mile
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Gas Leakage
.-"
~ ~
J ~
D
t = 1 hr.
"
~
L = Length of Pipeline = 1 mile
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Figure 3-14. Leakage in a gas pipeline
Assuming tbat the pipeline inside diameter isD (ft), and thepipeline length is L (ft), then
7fD
2
Pi . -- . L = nI . R . TI
4
)
li
1
where
I
2
7fD L F ( , ,. 1 . h . l' )
4 . = r' I mila gas volume m t e pIpe me
therefore, the number of moles of gas initially in the line is
7fD
2
. PI' L
(3 78)
4,RT
I
After one hour, due to leakage the volume of gas in the pipeline is reduced to
P
2
V
2
= n2 R ' T
2
and
Natural Gas Transmission 99
or
(3 - 79)
The amount of gas that has escaped from the pipeline due to leakage is n and jt is
egua! to:
substitute for ni and n2:
2
n = rrD L (PI _P
2
)
(3 - 80)
4R TI
The volume of gas that has escaped to the atmosphere at standard condition (SC)
\V0uld be:
whcre P
b
gas pressure at se, 14.7 psia
V
b
= leaked gas volume at SC, ft3
n = number of moles of leaked gas, lb moles
R gas constant, 10.73 (psia x ft3/lb moles x R)
T
b
"" gas temperature at se, 520 R.
thercfore
(3 - 81)
i ""'.'c:' R and substitute the eonstants:
14.7 V

2
rrD (PI
4-' 5,280 r:
520
If the length of the pipeline is L = 1 mile (5,280 ft) and one year is assumed to be
xh4f hr<; then
2
rrD 5.2805208.640
V
b
= 4 '1441.000,000 -14.7
Then the gas volume leaked in one year is
8.797D
2
(PI _P
2
)
(3 82)
TI T
2
where V
b
gas volume leaked, MMSCF/year
D pipeline ID, inehes
PI = pipeline initial pressure, psia
P
2
pipeline final pressure, psia
TI = pipeline initial temperature, R
T
2
= pipeline final temperature, R.