A

Report on
Practical training

YAGYAVALKYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

JAIPUR, RAJASTHAN.
WHAT IS A NETWORK?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to
share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked
through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

TYPES OF NETWORK
1. LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

1. CAN (CAMPUS AREA NETWORK)

1. MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)

1. WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

CABLES AND STANDARDS USED FOR LAN

NETWORK
 CAT 3, 4 AND 5
 IBM TYPE 1-9 CABLING STANDARDS
 EIA568A AND 568B
 ETHERNET CABLING STANDARDS: IEEE 802.3 (10base5),
IEEE 802.3a (10base2)
IEEE 802.3i (10baset)
 UNSHEILDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)
 SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP)
 CONNECTORS: RJ-45, RJ-11, RS-232, BNC
HARDWARE DEVICES USED IN LAN

NICs (NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS)

REPEATERS
ETHERNET HUBS
TOKEN RING
BRIDGES
BROUTERS
ROUTERS
GATEWAYS
PRINT SERVERS
FILE SERVERS
SWITCHES

PEER to PEER NETWORK

Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and

files located on their computers and to access shared resources found on
other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a centralized
management source (See the figure below). In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the
resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed
primarily for small to medium local area networks.
Client/Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize
functions and applications in one or more dedicated file servers (See the
figure below). The file servers become the heart of the system, providing
access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients)
have access to the resources available on the file servers. The network
operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of
the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same
resources irrespective of physical location
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK

Campus Area Network or CAN is a network spread over a limited

geographical area such as a university. Cables as the
communication medium, and a device that can interface various
patches of LANs across the campus. Once such device is the LAN
extender.

Cable 1: Power adapter

Cable 2: RJ45 Ethernet port. You could either connect the LAN
extender directly to a PC using a cross-over cable, or connect it to
an Ethernet hub or switch using a straight through cable.

Cable 3: Console port. Initial configuration of the LAN Extender

is done by connecting it to a free COM port on your PC using a
RS232 cable.

Cable 4: RJ11 Telephone cable. A plain two-wire telephone cable

serves as the WAN link between the two LAN Extenders.

MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS (MAN) ARE

NETWORKS THAT CONNECT LANS TOGETHER WITHIN A
CITY.
THE PROTOCOLS USED FOR MAN ARE :-
RS-232, V-35
X.25 (56KBPS), PACKET ASSEMBLETS AND DISSEMBLERS
FRAME RELAY
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)
ISDN (INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK)
A typical use of MANs to provide shared access to a
wide area network is shown in the Figure below:

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as

Florida, the United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or
satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network.
Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo
in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is
complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks
to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a
WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
When computers were first linked together into networks, moving
information between different types of computers was a very
difficult task.

In the early 1970s, the International Organization of Standards

(ISO) recognized the need for a standard network model. This
would help vendors to create interpretable network devices. The
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, released in
1984, addressed this need.
The OSI model describes how information makes its way from
application programs through a network medium to another
application program in another computer. It divides this one big
problem into seven smaller problems.
Each of these seven problems is reasonably self-contained and
therefore more easily solved without excessive reliance on external
information. Each problem is addressed by one of the seven layers
of the OSI model.

The Seven Layers of the OSI model

• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data-link
• Physical

The lower two OSI model layers are implemented with hardware
and software.
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer of the OSI model is the layer that is closest to the user.
Instead of providing services to other OSI layers, it provides services to
application programs outside the scope of the OSI model. It's services are
often part of the application process. Main functions are:-
• identifies and establishes the availability of the intended communication
partner.
• synchronizes the sending and receiving applications.
• establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data
integrity.
• determines whether sufficient resources for the intended communications
exist.
Devices:-
• Browsers
• Search engines
• E-mail programs
• Newsgroup and chat programs
• Transaction services
• Audio/video conferencing
• Telnet
• SNMP

PRESENTATION LAYER
It ensures that information sent by the application layer of one system will
be readable by the application layer of another system. It provides a
common format for transmitting data across various systems, so that data
can be understood, regardless of the types of machines involved.
The presentation layer concerns itself not only with the format and
representation of actual user data, but also with data structure used by
programs. Therefore, the presentation layer negotiates data transfer syntax
for the application layer.
Devices:-
• Encryption
• EBCDIC and ASCII
• GIF & JPEG
SESSION LAYER

The main function of the OSI model's session layer is to control "sessions",
which are logical connections between network devices. A session consists
of a dialog, or data communications conversation, between two presentation
entities. Dialogs can be
• Simplex (one-way)
• half-duplex (alternate)
• full-duplex (bi-directional)
Simplex conversations are rare on networks. Half-duplex conversations
require a good deal of session layer control, because the start and end of
each transmission need to be monitored.
Most networks are of course capable of full-duplex transmission, but in fact
many conversations are in practice half-duplex.
Devices:-
Some examples of session layer protocols and interfaces are:
• Network File System (NFS)
• Concurrent database access
• X-Windows System
• Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
• SQL
• NetBIOS Names
• AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)
• Digital Network Architecture

TRANSPORT LAYER
You can think of the transport layer of the OSI model as a boundary between
the upper and lower protocols. The transport layer provides a data transport
service that shields the upper layers from transport implementation issues
such as the reliability of a connection.
The transport layer provides mechanisms for:-
• multiplexing upper layer applications
• the establishment, maintenance, and orderly termination of virtual circuits
• information flow control
• transport fault detection and recovery
Devices:-
• TCP, UDP, SPX and Sliding Windows.
NETWORK LAYER

Layer three of the OSI model is the network layer.

• The network layer sends packets from source network to destination
network.
• It provides consistent end-to-end packet delivery services to its user, the
transport layer.
In wide area networking a substantial geographic distance and many
networks can separate two end systems that wish to communicate. Between
the two end systems the data may have to be passed through a series of
widely distributed intermediary nodes. These intermediary nodes are
normally routers.
Routers are special stations on a network, capable of making complex
routing decisions.
• The network layer is the domain of routing.
Routing protocols select optimal paths through the series of interconnected
networks.
Network layer protocols then move information along these paths.
• One of the functions of the network layer is "path determination".
Path determination enables the router to evaluate all available paths to a
destination and determine which to use. It can also establish the preferred
way to handle a packet.
After the router determines which path to use it can proceed with switching
the packet.
It takes the packet it has accepted on one interface and forwards it to another
interface or port that reflects the best path to the packet's destination.
Devices:-
• IP, IPX, Routers, Routing Protocols (RIP, IGRP, OSPF, BGP etc), ARP,
RARP, ICMP.
DATA-LINK LAYER
Layer two of the OSI reference model is the data-link layer. This layer is
responsible for providing reliable transit of data across a physical link. The
data-link layer is concerned with
• Physical addressing; Bridges, Transparent Bridges, Layer 2 Switches
• network topology; CDP
• line discipline (how end systems will use the network link)
• error notification
• ordered delivery of frames
• flow control
• Frame Relay, PPP, SDLC, X.25, 802.3, 802.3, 802.5/Token Ring, FDDI.

PHYSICAL LAYER

Layer one of the OSI model is the physical layer. The physical layer is
concerned with the interface to the transmission medium. At the physical
layer, data is transmitted onto the medium (e.g. coaxial cable or optical
fiber) as a stream of bits.
So, the physical layer is concerned, not with networking protocols, but with
the transmission media on the network.
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and
functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems. This layer puts 1's & 0's onto the wire.
Characteristics specified by the physical layer include
• voltage levels
• timing of voltage changes
• physical data rates
• maximum transmission distances
• physical connectors
Devices:-
• Hubs, FDDI Hardware, Fast Ethernet, Token Ring Hardware.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
What is a Topology?

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,

computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused
with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations. Logical topology will be discussed in the Protocol Chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

1. Linear Bus
2. Star
3. Ring
4. Tree
5. Mesh
6. Hybrid

Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at
each end (See fig. 1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a
linear bus topology.

Nodes

Nodes

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building
Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub or concentrator (See
fig. 2).
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before
continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and controls
all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This
configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be
used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or
LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring.
Ring Topology

A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star

topology. Internally, the MAU (multi station access unit) of a star-wired ring
contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in
a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology.

nodes

Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing
network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies

MESH TOPOLOGY
nodes

HYBRID
Hierarchical Topology
Physical Common Cable Common Protocol
Topology

Linear Bus Twisted Pair Ethernet

Coaxial LocalTalk
Fiber

Star Twisted Pair Ethernet

Fiber LocalTalk
Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Tree Twisted Pair Ethernet

Coaxial
Fiber

NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
ETHERNET

The term Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN) products
covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines what is commonly known
as the CSMA/CD protocol. Three data rates are currently defined for
operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
• 10 Mbps—10Base-T Ethernet
• 100 Mbps—Fast Ethernet
• 1000 Mbps—Gigabit Ethernet
10-Gigabit Ethernet is under development and will likely be published as the
IEEE 802.3ae supplement to the IEEE 802.3 base standard in late 2001 or
early 2002.
Other technologies and protocols have been touted as likely replacements,
but the market has spoken. Ethernet has survived as the major LAN
technology (it is currently used for approximately 85 percent of the world's
LAN-connected PCs and workstations) because its protocol has the
following characteristics:
• Is easy to understand, implement, manage, and maintain
• Allows low-cost network implementations
• Provides extensive topological flexibility for network installation
• Guarantees successful interconnection and operation of standards-
compliant products, regardless of manufacturer

Ethernet Network Elements

Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting media. The

network nodes fall into two major classes:
• Data terminal equipment (DTE)—Devices that are either the source or
the destination of data frames. DTEs are typically devices such as PCs,
workstations, file servers, or print servers that, as a group, are all often
referred to as end stations.
• Data communication equipment (DCE)—Intermediate network devices
that receive and forward frames across the network. DCEs may be either
standalone devices such as repeaters, network switches, and routers, or
communications interface units such as interface cards and modems.
Throughout this chapter, standalone intermediate network devices will be
referred to as either intermediate nodes or DCEs. Network interface cards
will be referred to as NICs.
The current Ethernet media options include two general types of copper
cable: unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP), plus
several types of optical fiber cable

802.3 (Ethernet)
This standard specifies a network that uses a bus topology, base band
signaling, and a CSMA/CD network access method. This standard was
developed to match the Digital, Intel, and Xerox (DIX) Ethernet networking
technology. So many people implemented the 802.3 standard, which
resembles the DIX Ethernet, that people just started calling it Ethernet. It is
the most widely implemented of all the 802 standards because of its
simplicity and low cost.

Ethernet
Speeds - 10, 100, or 1000 Mbps
Access - CSMA/CD
Topologies - Logical bus
Media - Coaxial or UTP

The IEEE 802.3 Logical Relationships to the ISO

Reference Model

Figure below shows the IEEE 802.3 logical layers and their relationship to
the OSI reference model. As with all IEEE 802 protocols, the ISO data link
layer is divided into two IEEE 802 sublayers, the Media Access Control
(MAC) sublayer and the MAC-client sublayer. The IEEE 802.3 physical
layer corresponds to the ISO physical layer.

The MAC-client sublayer may be one of the following:

• Logical Link Control (LLC), if the unit is a DTE. This sublayer provides
the interface between the Ethernet MAC and the upper layers in the protocol
stack of the end station. The LLC sublayer is defined by IEEE 802.2
standards.

• Bridge entity, if the unit is a DCE. Bridge entities provide LAN-to-LAN

interfaces between LANs that use the same protocol (for example, Ethernet
to Ethernet) and also between different protocols (for example, Ethernet to
Token Ring). Bridge entities are defined by IEEE 802.1 standards.

Because specifications for LLC and bridge entities are common for all IEEE
802 LAN protocols, network compatibility becomes the primary
responsibility of the particular network protocol. Figure shows different
compatibility requirements imposed by the MAC and physical levels for
basic data communication over an Ethernet link.

The Basic Ethernet Frame Format

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format that is required
for all MAC implementations, plus several additional optional formats that
are used to extend the protocol's basic capability. The basic data frame
format contains the seven fields shown in Figure.
• Preamble (PRE)—Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an alternating pattern
of ones and zeros that tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, and that
provides a means to synchronize the frame-reception portions of receiving
physical layers with the incoming bit stream.
• Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF)—Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1-bits
indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of the
destination address.
• Destination address (DA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies
which station(s) should receive the frame. The left-most bit in the DA field
indicates whether the address is an individual address (indicated by a 0) or a
group address (indicated by a 1). The second bit from the left indicates
whether the DA is globally administered (indicated by a 0) or locally
administered (indicated by a 1). The remaining 46 bits are a uniquely
assigned value that identifies a single station, a defined group of stations, or
all stations on the network.
• Source addresses (SA)—Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the
sending station. The SA is always an individual address and the left-most bit
in the SA field is always 0.
• Length/Type—Consists of 2 bytes. This field indicates either the number
of MAC-client data bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame, or
the frame type ID if the frame is assembled using an optional format. If the
Length/Type field value is less than or equal to 1500, the number of LLC
bytes in the Data field is equal to the Length/Type field value. If the
Length/Type field value is greater than 1536, the frame is an optional type
frame, and the Length/Type field value identifies the particular type of frame
being sent or received.
• Data—Is a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal
to 1500. If the length of the Data field is less than 46, the Data field must be
extended by adding a filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to
46 bytes.
• Frame check sequence (FCS)—Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence
contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by
the sending MAC and is recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for
damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and
Data fields

Frame Transmission
Whenever an end station MAC receives a transmit-frame request with the
accompanying address and data information from the LLC sublayer, the
MAC begins the transmission sequence by transferring the LLC information
into the MAC frame buffer.
• The preamble and start-of-frame delimiter are inserted in the PRE and SOF
fields.
• The destination and source addresses are inserted into the address fields.
• The LLC data bytes are counted, and the number of bytes is inserted into
the Length/Type field.
• The LLC data bytes are inserted into the Data field. If the number of LLC
data bytes is less than 46, a pad is added to bring the Data field length up to
46.
• An FCS value is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields
and is appended to the end of the Data field.
After the frame is assembled, actual frame transmission will depend on
whether the MAC is operating in half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
The IEEE 802.3 standard currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support
half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be either transmitting or
receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously. Full-duplex
operation is an optional MAC capability that allows the MAC to transmit
and receive frames simultaneously

Half-Duplex Transmission—the CSMA/CD Access Method

The CSMA/CD access rules are summarized by the Protocol’s acronym:

Carrier sense— each station continuously listens for traffic on the medium
to determine when gaps between frame transmissions occur.
Multiple accesses—Stations may begin transmitting any time they detect
that the network is quiet (There is no traffic).
Collision detect—If two or more stations in the same CSMA/CD network
(collision domain)begin transmitting at approximately the same time, the bit
streams from the transmitting stations will interfere (collide) with each other,
and both transmissions will be unreadable. If that happens, each transmitting
station must be capable of detecting that a Collision has occurred before it
has finished sending its frame.

Full Duplex Operation

Full-duplex operation is an optional MAC capability that allows
simultaneous two-way transmission over point-to-point links. Full duplex
transmission is functionally much simpler than half-duplex transmission
because it involves no media contention, no collisions, no need to schedule
retransmissions, and no need for extension bits on the end of short frames.
The result is not only more time available for transmission, but also an
effective doubling of the link bandwidth because each link can now support
full-rate, simultaneous, two-way transmission.
Transmission can usually begin as soon as frames are ready to send. The
only restriction is that there must be a minimum-length inter-frame gap
between successive frames, as shown in Figure, and each frame must
conform to Ethernet frame format standards

NETWORK CABLING
What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are several types of cable which are
commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one
type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and
size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how
they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of
a successful network.

The types of cables used in networks

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Wireless LANs

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the
best option for school networks
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-
speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is
twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the
twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost
per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five
categories of wire
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can
make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks
using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield
the metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent
lights, motors, and other computers
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between
network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are
thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the
specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to
the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact
the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in
school networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the
specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers
to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has
an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the
center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running
longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is
that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several
layers of protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for
certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It
has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings,
due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry
information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive
services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling;
however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the
specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters
10Base5 Thick Coaxial l500 meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters
100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

Wireless LANs
Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless.
Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or
lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or hubs.
Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort of
transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is relayed
between transceivers as if they were physically connected. For longer
distance, wireless communications can also take place through cellular
telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by satellite.

Hubs
The term ‘hub’ is sometimes used to refer to any piece of network
equipment that connects PCs together, but it actually refers to a multi-port
repeater. This type of device simply passes on (repeats) all the information it
receives, so that all devices connected to its ports receive that information.
Hubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to extend the network.
However, this can result in a lot of unnecessary traffic being sent to all
devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic to the network regardless of the
intended destination; the PCs to which the packets are sent use the address
information in each packet to work out which packets are meant for them. In
a small network repeating is not a problem but for a larger, more heavily
used network, another piece of networking equipment (such as a switch)
may be required to help reduce the amount of unnecessary traffic being
generated.

ROUTER
A router is a computer networking device that forwards data packets toward
their destinations through a process known as routing. Routing occurs at
layer 3 of the OSI seven-layer model.

Router Responsibilities
1. Optimizing the Routing Paths.
2. Switching

Router Features
Use dynamic routing
Operate at the protocol level
Remote administration
Support complex networks
The more filtering done, the lower the performance
Provides security
Segment networks logically
Broadcast storms can be isolated
Often provide bridge functions also
More complex routing protocols used [such as RIP, IGRP,
OSPF]

Bridges
A data-link bridge is a device that connects two similar networks or divides
one network into two. It takes frames from one network and puts them on
the other, and vice versa. As it does this, it regenerates the signal strength of
the frames, allowing data to travel further. In this sense, a data-link bridge
incorporates the functionality of a repeater, which also regenerates frames to
extend a LAN. But a bridge does more than a repeater. A bridge is more
intelligent than a repeater. It can look at each frame and decide on which of
the two networks it belongs. Repeaters simply forward every frame from one
network to the other, without looking at them.
A bridge looks at each frame as it passes, checking the source and
destination addresses. If a frame coming from Station 1 on LAN A is
destined for Station 5 on LAN B, the bridge will pass the frame onto LAN
B. If a frame coming from Station 1 on LAN A is destined for Station 3 on
LAN A, the bridge will not forward it; that is, it will filter it.
Bridges know which frames belong where by looking at the source and
destination addresses in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer
information carried in the frame. The MAC layer, which is part of the second
layer of OSI Model, defines how frames get on the network without
bumping into each other. It also contains information about where the frame
came from and where it should go. Because bridges use this level of
information, they have several advantages over other forms of
interconnecting LANs.
Bridge Features
 Operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
 Can reduce traffic on other segments
 Broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
 Most allow remote access and configuration
 Small delays introduced
 Fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and
 Reconfiguring paths in the event of failure
 Not efficient with complex networks
 Redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if
the major path being used was overloaded)
 Shortest path is not always chosen by spanning tree algorithm

SWITCHES
Switches are smart hubs that send data directly to the destination rather than
everywhere within a network. Switches also allow components of different
speeds to communicate.
Switches divide the network into smaller collision domains [a collision
domain is a group of workstations that contend for the same bandwidth].
Each segment into the switch has its own collision domain (where the
bandwidth is competed for by workstations in that segment). As packets
arrive at the switch, it looks at the MAC address in the header, and decides
which segment to forward the packet to. Higher protocols like IPX and
TCP/IP are buried deep inside the packet, so are invisible to the switch.
Once the destination segment has been determined, the packet is forwarded
without delay.

Different forwarding techniques:-

1. Cut-through Switches
2. Store-Forward Switches

MODEM
The word "modem" stands for "modulator-demodulator". A modem's
purpose is to convert digital information to analog signals (modulation), and
to convert analog signals back into useful digital information
(demodulation).
JACK

MAC Address
MAC addresses are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses.
They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.
Short for Media Access Control address. This is OSI layer 2 hardware
addresses defined by IEEE standard and is used to deliver packets in the
local network. It is sequence of six two-digits hexadecimal numbers
separated by colons, example: 00:2f:21:c1:11:0a

MM:MM:MM:SS: SS:SS
MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter
manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body. The
second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the
adapter by the manufacturer
IP ADDRESS
IP Addressing Requirements

Each Device that uses TCP/IP needs at least one!

Computer/Host (each Network Interface Card)
Routers (each port or connection)

Other Devices

Each Device needs a Unique IP Address

An Example:
206.77.105.9
Configured in TCP/IP Software

What is an IP Address?

32-bit Binary Number (Address)

11000000101010000111000100010011
Divided into 4, 8-bit Octets
11000000.10101000.01110001.00010011
Converted to Decimal Numbers
See: Binary Math
192.168.113.19
Decimal range of an Octet: 0-255
It contains the device’s Network ID and Host ID

Network ID and Host ID

Network ID
Shared or common to all computers on the same physical segment
Unique on the Entire Network
“Area Code”

Host ID
Identifies a specific device (Host) within a physical segment
Unique on the physical segment
“Phone Number”
192.176.11.201
IP Addressing Rules

 Each Device (Host) Needs at Least One Unique IP Address

 All Devices on the Same Physical Segment Share a Common Network
ID (Subnet Mask)
 Each Physical Segment Has a Unique Network ID (Subnet Mask)

Class full IP Addressing

Traditional Manner of Addressing

Class A
Class B
Class C
Address Classes Specify Which Octets of the IP Address are the
Network-ID and which are the Host-ID
Address Classes Specify Network Sizes (Number of Hosts)

Address Classes
Class A
Network. Host. Host. Host
Class B
Network. Network. Host. Host
Class C
Network. Network. Network. Host
Class D & E

Class A Network:
The Definition per Specification:
1st Octet is the Network ID
2nd, 3rd, 4th Octets are the Host ID
In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “0” in the first bit!
First Class A Network Address:
00000001.00000000.0000000.00000000 (Binary)
1.0.0.0 (Decimal)
Last Class A Network Address:
01111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 (Binary)
127.0.0.0 (Decimal) (Loop back Address)
Network IDs
1st Octet is the Network ID
0.0.0.0 (Invalid)
1.0.0.0
2.0.0.0
3.0.0.0
~~~~
127.0.0.0 (Loop back)

2nd, 3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs

An Assigned Class A Network Address:
33.0.0.0 (Specifies the Network)
2nd, 3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs
Specified by Network Administrators

The Number of Networks

1st Octet is the Network ID
1-126 = 126 Possible Class A Network IDs

2nd, 3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs

Each of the three Octets has a possible 256 Host IDs
Number of Host IDs from three Octets:

256 * 256 * 256 = 16,777,216 (minus 2) = 16,777,214

Always Subtract 2 from the number of Host IDs

Host IDs cannot be all 1’s (reserved for broadcast address)
Host IDs cannot be all 0’s (reserved for “this network only” address)

Host ID Addresses
33.0.0.0 (An Assigned Class A Address)
All devices would share the 33 network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
33.0.0.1 – 33.0.0.255 (255 Addresses)
33.0.1.0 – 33.0.1.255 (256 Addresses)
~~~~
33.0.255.0 -- 33.0.255.255 (256 Addresses)
(A Total of 65,535 Addresses)
33.1.0.0 -- 33.1.255.255 (65,536 Addresses)
33.2.0.0 -- 33.2.255.255 (65,536 Addresses)
~~~~
33.255.0.0 -- 33.255.255.254 (65,535 Addresses)
( Total Addresses: 16.7 Million)

Class B Networks:
The Definition per Specification:
1st and 2nd Octets are the Network ID
3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs

In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “10” in the first two bits of the first
octet!
First Class B Network Address:
10000000.00000000.0000000.00000000 (Binary)
128.0.0.0 (Decimal)

Last Class B Network Address:

10111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 (Binary)
191.255.0.0 (Decimal)

Network IDs
1st and 2nd Octets are the Network IDs
128.0.0.0
128.1.0.0
~~~~
128.255.0.0
129.0.0.0
129.1.0.0
~~~~
191.255.0.0
3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs

An Assigned Class B Network Addresses 153.11.0.0

3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs
Specified by Network Administrators

The Number of Networks

1st and 2nd Octets are the Network IDs
1st Octet 128 -- 191 = 64 Possible Network IDs
2nd Octet 0 – 255 = 256 Possible Network IDs

Total Class B Network IDs 64 * 256 = 16,384

3rd, 4th Octets are the Host IDs
Each of the Two Octets has a possible 256 Host IDs
Number of Host IDs from Two Octets:
256 * 256 = 65,536 (minus 2) = 65,534
Always Subtract 2 from the number of Host IDs
Host ID cannot be all 1’s (reserved for broadcast address)
Host ID cannot be all 0’s (reserved for “this network only” address)

Host ID Addresses
An Assigned Class B Address 153.11.0.0
All devices would share the 153.11 Network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
153.11.0.1 -- 153.11.0.255 (255 Addresses)
153.11.1.0 -- 153.11.1.255 (256 Addresses)
153.11.2.0 -- 153.11.2.255 (256 Addresses)
~~~~
153.11.255.0 -- 153.11.255.254 (255 Addresses)
Total Addresses: 65,534

The DefinitionPer Specification:

1st, 2nd, 3rd Octets are the Network ID
4th Octet is the Host ID

In Binary –
Any address that starts with a “110” in the first three bits of the first octet!

First Class C Network Address:

11000000.00000000.0000000.00000000 (Binary)
192.0.0.0 (Decimal)

Last Class C Network Address:

11011111.11111111.11111111.00000000 (Binary)
223.255.255.0 (Decimal)
Network IDs
1st, 2nd, 3rd Octets are the Network IDs
192.0.0.0 – 192.0.255. 0
192.1.0.0 – 192.1.255.0
~~~~
192.255.0.0 – 192.255.255.0
193.0.0.0 – 193.255.255.0
~~~~
223.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0
4th Octet is the Host IDs

An Assigned Class C Network Address

201.11.206.0

4th Octet is the Host IDs

Specified by Network Administrators

The Number of Networks

1st, 2nd, 3rd Octets are the Network IDs
1st Octet 192 -- 223 = 31 Possible IDs
2nd Octet 0 – 255 = 256 Possible IDs
3nd Octet 0 – 255 = 256 Possible IDs

Total Class C Network IDs 32 * 256 *256 = 2,097,152

4th Octet is the Host ID

An Octet has a possible 256 IDs

Number of Host IDs an Octet:
256 (minus 2) = 254
Always Subtract 2 from the number of Host IDs
Host ID cannot be all 1’s (reserved for broadcast address)
Host ID cannot be all 0’s (reserved for “this network only” address)

Host ID Addresses
An Assigned Class C Address
201.11.206.0
All devices would share the 201.11.206.0 Network ID.
The Administrator would number the IP devices:
201.11.206.1, 201.11.206.2, ~~~~ 201.11.206.254
Class D & E
Class D
Used by Multicast Applications
Shared Addresses
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255

Class E
Experimental
240.0.0.0 +

Address Class Summary

1st Networks Hosts IDs
Octet IDs /Network

Class A 1-127 126 16,777,214

Class B 128-191 16,384 65,534
Class C 192-223 2,097,152 254

Subnetting and Creating Custom Subnet Masks

Introduction: Why Custom Subnet Masks? What are Subnet IDs?

Step 1 – Design the Physical Network

Step 2 – Choose a Custom Subnet Mask
Step 3 – Determining the Subnet IDs
Step 4 – Determining the Host IDs

What is a Subnet Mask?

An Address the accompanies an IP address that indicates which portion of

the IP address is the Network ID and which portion of the IP address is the
Host ID.
152.107.102.7 (IP Address)
255.255.255.0 (Subnet Mask)
The IP Address and Subnet Mask (SNM) are interrelated and each only has
meaning in the context of the other!
IP Address and SNM are the minimum IP addressing requirements.
What Makes up a Subnet Mask (SNM)?

In Binary:
1’s represent what portion of the IP address is the Network ID
0’s represent what portion of the IP address is the Host ID

For Example:
207.23.106.99 (Class C Address)
Net . Net . Net . Host
11111111 . 11111111 . 11111111 . 00000000 (SNM in Binary)
255.255.255.0 (SNM in Decimal)

Default Subnet Masks (SNM)

Class A (Net.Host.Host.Host)
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
255.0.0.0
Class B (Net.Net.Host.Host)
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
255.255.0.0
Class C (Net.Net.Net.Host)
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
255.255.255.0

Why Custom Subnet Masks?

Default Subnet Masks

Class A (1 Network – 16.7M Hosts)
Class B (1 Network – 65K Hosts)
Class C (1 Network – 254 Hosts)
Addressing an IP Network
Assigned an IP Network Address 152.77.0.0 (IP Address)
255.255.0.0 (Subnet Mask)
All Devices/Hosts on the Same Physical Segment Must have the Same
Network ID
One Network ID Supports Only One Physical Segment!
What are Subnets?

A Subnet is a portion or subdivision of the IP Addresses that are associated

with an assigned Network ID.The Range of IP Addresses included in a
subnet is determined by the Subnet Mask. Subnets must be meticulously
numbered for network communication to be successful.

Custom Subnetting:

The Steps

Design Physical Network

Determine the Number of Physical Segments
Determine the Maximum Number of Hosts per Physical Segment

Choose a Subnet Mask that creates the number of:

Subnet-IDs >= Physical Segments
Host-IDs/Subnet-ID >= Hosts/Physical Segment

Determine and Number Subnet IDs (SN ID)

Determine and Number Host IDs

Subnet IDs

Portions of the Assigned Network ID are Defined by Subnet IDs 152.77.0.0

(Network IP Address) 255.255.0.0 (Default Subnet Mask)

Network . Network . Host . Host (Default SNM)

Network . Network . SN-ID . Host (Custom SNM)

All Device/Hosts Share the Assigned Network ID (All Physical Segments)

Each Physical Segment of the Network has a Unique Subnet-ID and the
Subnet ID is
Common to All Hosts on a Physical Segment
Each Host on the Network has a Host ID Unique to its Subnet ID
Domain Naming System

DNS as a Service

IP Address needed by programs

100.109.23.144

The DNS Service Provides IP Name Resolution

DNS is a distributed database of Domain Names and their corresponding IP
Addresses

Domain Naming System

A hierarchical naming system used to give each server on the Internet a

unique name. www.varun.com (URL or FQDN)

HostName.Domain.TLD HostName and the Domain Name = Fully

Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)

DNS keeps a complete listing of all FQDNs and their associated IP address

Domain Name Structure (Organizational Structure)

Root

NET COM GOV Org, us, ca, etc

IIHT COMPAQ SEC

DNS Software

Resolver
Built into Client TCP/IP Software
Ask Designated Name Server for IP Address When Client Enters FQDN
(URL)

Name Server
DNS Server (Available with Most OS)
Retrieves IP Addresses for Clients
Supplies IP Address to other Name Servers
Provided by the Internet, ISP, or business

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

This is an agreed upon format for transmitting data between two devices
(eg, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The protocol
may determine, for example, the type of error checking and data
compression method used.

Protocol
Is a set of rules or standards which govern communication between
computers and peripherals?

Protocol Stack
A complete set of protocols that work together to enable communication on
a network. Compare protocol suite

Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet Protocol suite, usually referred to as "TCP/IP," is a full set of
internetworking protocols that operate in the network layer, the transport
layer, and the application layer. While TCP/IP refers to two separate
protocols called TCP and IP, Internet Protocol suite refers to the entire set of
protocols developed by the Internet community. Still, most people just say
"TCP/IP" when they are referring to the Internet Protocol suite.
The global Internet is a success because of TCP/IP. It is hard to believe that
there ever was a "protocol war," but during the 1980s and early 1990s, many
organizations were indecisive about which protocols to use. TCP/IP was
popular in academic, military, and scientific communities, but many
businesses had installed LANs using Novell SPX/IPX and Microsoft's
NetBEUI/NetBIOS, or were tied to legacy protocols such as IBM SNA. The
Internet protocols have been universally accepted because they support
scalable internetworking, for which the global Internet is the best example.

TCP/IP SUITE
LAYERS
 APPLICATION LAYER
 TRANSPORT LAYER
 INTERNETWORK LAYER
 NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

Network Access Layer

The design of TCP/IP hides the function of this layer from users—it is
concerned with getting data across a specific type of physical network (such
as Ethernet, Token Ring, etc.). This design reduces the need to rewrite higher
levels of a TCP/IP stack when new physical network technologies are
introduced (such as ATM and Frame Relay).
The functions performed at this level include encapsulating the IP datagrams
into frames that are transmitted by the network. It also maps the IP addresses
to the physical addresses used by the network. One of the strengths of
TCP/IP is its addressing scheme, which uniquely identifies every computer
on the network. This IP address must be converted into whatever address is
appropriate for the physical network over which the datagram is transmitted.
Data to be transmitted is received from the internetwork layer. The network
access layer is responsible for routing and must add its routing information
to the data. The network access layer information is added in the form of a
header, which is appended to the beginning of the data.
Internetwork Layer
The best known TCP/IP protocol at the internetwork layer is the Internet
Protocol (IP), which provides the basic packet delivery service for all
TCP/IP networks. In addition to the physical node addresses used at the
network access layer, the IP protocol implements a system of logical host
addresses called IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internetwork
and higher layers to identify devices and to perform internetwork routing.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) enables IP to identify the physical
address that matches a given IP address.
IP is used by all protocols in the layers above and below it to deliver data,
which means all TCP/IP data flows through IP when it is sent and received,
regardless of its final destination.

Host-to-Host Transport Layer

The protocol layer just above the internetwork layer is the host-to-host layer.
It is responsible for end-to-end data integrity. The two most important
protocols employed at this layer are the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TCP provides reliable, full-duplex connections and reliable service by
ensuring that data is resubmitted when transmission results in an error (end-
to-end error detection and correction). Also, TCP enables hosts to maintain
multiple, simultaneous connections. When error correction is not required,
UDP provides unreliable datagram service (connectionless) that enhances
network throughput at the host-to-host transport layer.
Both protocols deliver data between the application layer and the
internetwork layer. Applications programmers can choose the service that is
most appropriate for their specific applications.

Application Layer
The most widely known and implemented TCP/IP application layer
protocols are listed below:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Telnet.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
Hypertexts Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Domain Name Service (DNS).
Routing Information Protocol (RIP).
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
Network File System (NFS).
IPv4 header format

Version. 4 bits.
Specifies the format of the IP packet header.
IHL, Internet Header Length. 4 bits.
Specifies the length of the IP packet header in 32 bit words. The minimum
value for a valid header is 5
TOS, Type of Service. 8 bits.
Specifies the parameters for the type of service requested. The parameters
may be utilized by networks to define the handling of the datagram during
transport. The M bit was added to this field
Total length. 16 bits.
Contains the length of the datagram
Identification. 16 bits.
Used to identify the fragments of one datagram from those of another. The
originating protocol module of an internet datagram sets the identification
field to a value that must be unique for that source-destination pair and
protocol for the time the datagram will be active in the internet system. The
originating protocol module of a complete datagram clears the MF bit to
zero and the Fragment Offset field to zero
Flags. 3 bits.
Fragment Offset. 13 bits.
Used to direct the reassembly of a fragmented datagram
TTL, Time to Live. 8 bits.
A timer field used to track the lifetime of the datagram. When the TTL
field is decremented down to zero, the datagram is discarded.
Protocol. 8 bits. This field specifies the next encapsulated protocol.
Header checksum. 16 bits.
A 16 bit one's complement checksum of the IP header and IP options.
Source IP address. 32 bits.
IP address of the sender.
Destination IP address. 32 bits.
IP address of the intended receiver.
Options. Variable length.
Padding. Variable length.
Used as a filler to guarantee that the data starts on a 32 bit boundary.

BOOTSTRAP PROTOCOL

The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) allows a client system to discover its own
IP address, the address of a BOOTP server, and the name of a file to be
loaded into memory and executed.

DHCP

Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, a protocol for assigning

dynamic IP addresses to devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a
device can have a different IP address every time it connects to the network.
In some systems, the device's IP address can even change while it is still
connected. DHCP also supports a mix of static and dynamic IP addresses.
WAN TECHNOLOGIES
WAN

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad

geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies
generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the
physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Circuit Switching

Switched circuits allow data connections that can be initiated when needed
and terminated when communication is complete. This works much like a
normal telephone line works for voice communication. Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) is a good example of circuit switching. When a
router has data for a remote site, the switched circuit is initiated with the
circuit number of the remote network. In the case of ISDN circuits, the
device actually places a call to the telephone number of the remote ISDN
circuit. When the Two networks are connected and authenticated, they can
transfer data. When the data transmission is complete, the call can be
terminated.

Packet Switching

Packet switching is a WAN technology in which users share common carrier

resources. Because this allows the carrier to make more efficient use of its
infrastructure, the cost to the customer is generally much better than with
point-to-point lines. In a packet switching setup, networks have connections
into the carrier's network, and many customers share the carrier's network.
The carrier can then create virtual circuits between customers' sites by which
packets of data are delivered from one to the other through the network. The
section of the carrier's network that is shared is often referred to as a cloud.
Some examples of packet-switching networks include Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network, a circuit-switching network used for
voice, data and video transfer over existing copper telephone lines. ISDN is
a bit similar to the normal telephone system but it is faster and needs less
time to setup a call.
There are 2 types of services associated with ISDN:
BRI
PRI

ISDN BRI Service

The ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) service offers 2 B channels and one D
channel. BRI B-channel service operates at 64 kbps and is meant to carry
user data; BRI D-channel service operates at 16 kbps and is meant to carry
control and signaling information, although it can support user data
transmission under certain circumstances.

ISDN PRI Service

ISDN Primary Rate Interface service offers 23 B channels and 1 D channel

in North America and Japan, Yielding a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbps (The
PRI D channel runs at 64 kbps). ISDN PRI in Europe, Australia and other
parts of the world provides 30 B channels plus one 64-kbps D channel and a
total interface rate of 2.048 Mbps.

Advantages of ISDN
Speed
Multiple Devices
Signaling

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is an International Telecommunication
Union-Telecommunications Standards Section (ITU-T) standard for cell
relay wherein information for multiple service types, such as voice, video, or
data, is conveyed in small, fixed-size cells. ATM networks are connection-
oriented.
ATM Devices and the Network Environment
ATM is a cell-switching and multiplexing technology that combines the
benefits of circuit switching (guaranteed capacity and constant transmission
delay) with those of packet switching (flexibility and efficiency for
intermittent traffic). It provides scalable bandwidth from a few megabits per
second (Mbps) to many gigabits per second (Gbps). Because of its
asynchronous nature, ATM is more efficient than synchronous technologies,
such as time-division multiplexing (TDM).
With TDM, each user is assigned to a time slot, and no other station can
send in that time slot. If a station has much data to send, it can send only
when its time slot comes up, even if all other time slots are empty. However,
if a station has nothing to transmit when its time slot comes up, the time slot
is sent empty and is wasted. Because ATM is asynchronous, time slots are
available on demand with information identifying the source of the
transmission contained in the header of each ATM cell.

ATM Devices
An ATM network is made up of an ATM switch and ATM endpoints. An ATM
switch is responsible for cell transit through an ATM network. The job of an
ATM switch is well defined: It accepts the incoming cell from an ATM
endpoint or another ATM switch. It then reads and updates the cell header
information and quickly switches the cell to an output interface toward its
destination. An ATM endpoint (or end system) contains an ATM network
interface adapter. Examples of ATM endpoints are workstations, routers,
digital service units (DSUs), LAN switches, and video coder-decoders
(CODECs).

FRAME RELAY
Frame Relay is a simplified form of Packet Switching, similar in principle to
X.25, in which synchronous frames of data are routed to different
destinations depending on header information.

Frame Relay Devices

Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into the following two general
categories:
• Data terminal equipment (DTE)
• Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a specific
network and typically are located on the premises of a customer. In fact, they
may be owned by the customer. Examples of DTE devices are terminals,
personal computers, routers, and bridges.
DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices. The purpose of DCE
equipment is to provide clocking and switching services in a network, which
are the devices that actually transmit data through the WAN. In most cases,
these are packet switches. Figure 10-1 shows the relationship between the
two categories of devices

SONET
Short for Synchronous Optical Network
The transport network using SONET provides much more powerful
networking capabilities than existing asynchronous systems.