Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

English Consonants and Vowels Every language has a variety of sounds, and many of the sounds found in the language of the world are not found in English. In this chapter, all discussion refers to American English. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, but quite a few more than twenty-six sounds are used in speaking English. To discuss these sounds, a new alphabet of sounds, or a phonetic alphabet, is required. The phonetic symbols are enclosed in brackets to distinguish them from letters. Thus [p] is a phonetic symbol indicating a particular sound. Although in many cases this phonetic symbol alphabet corresponds to English spelling, many phonetic symbols have no direct correspondent in English spelling. Thus, it is important to remember that the phonetic alphabet describes only sounds, and each symbol represents only one sound. One important point must be made here. When we talk of the sounds of speech, we mean just thatthe sounds of speech, and not the way they happen to be represented on a printed page. To confuse sound and spelling is to confuse language with its representation. In many languages, the relationship between sound and spelling is very close. In these languages we have a very good chance of guessing the correct pronunciation of a word on the first try. There are many words in English, however, which are spelled in such a way as to conceal their correct pronunciation. This ill fit in many words between their sound and their spelling is the result of three factors: there may be more (or fewer) sounds in a word than the spelling would lead s to believe, the same sound may be represented by a variety of spelling, and the same spelling may represent several different sounds. For example: Different numbers of letters Same sounddifferent Same spellingdifferent and sounds spelling (homophone) sound night able cold tax wait cot knee weight corn judge day prove receipt obey love rhythm gauge wolf watch steak moss Sound, not spelling, is important in understanding why and how phonology functions. For instance, there is good reason to group together cool, character, and keen, since they begin with the same sound, even though that sound is spelled differently in each word. On the other hand, there is no reason (other than for dictionary use) to group together cool, city, and cello, even though they begin with the same letter. To avoid confusion such as these, phonetician use a special alphabet, called a phonetic alphabet, in which a given sound is always represented by the same symbol, and a given symbol always represents the same sound. In a phonetic alphabet, the vowels of love, prove, and cot would each be represents by a different symbol. Consonants The principal division of sounds is between vowels and consonants. Every language makes this distinction. Vowels are defined as those sounds produced with oral cavity relatively open to the flow of air. Consonants, on the other hand, are sounds produced with a constriction or occlusion in the oral cavity. The consonants may be grouped according to how the sounds are produced. English then has six groups of consonant sounds: stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides (see Table 2.1).
Team Teaching : Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Table 2.1. Phonetic Representation of English Consonants

alveopalatal

labiodental

Manner

Voicing Voiceless Stop Voiced Fricatives Voiceless Voiced Affricates Voiceless Voiced Nasal Voiced Liquids Voiced Glides Voiced

p b f v

t d s z

k g r y h

m w

n l

Stops A stop is produced by completely blocking the breath stream, then releasing it abruptly. There are six stops, evenly divided among three places of articulation: the bilabials [p] and [b], the alveolar [t] and [d], and the velars [k] and [g]. The difference between the members of each of these pairs lies in the operation of the vocal cords, which are two elastic membranes that can be moved by muscles in the larynx. The position of the membranes can vary from completely closed to completely open. During the act of swallowing, the vocal cords close to prevent food or drink from going into the lungs; they are open as one breathes. During speech, the vocal cords usually are open in varying degrees. In the production of [p], for example, the vocal cords are completely open and air may pass freely through the larynx. For [b], on the other hand, the vocal cords are almost closed, leaving only a narrow slit. As the lungs force air through this slit, the membranes vibrate. This vibration is called voicing; it can be heard by putting two hands over your ears while saying a long, continuous [b] in which the light contact of both lips is maintained. Repeat the experiment, saying a continuous [p]. There will be no vibration; [p] is a voiceless consonant, and [b] is its voiced counterpart. The vocal cords are also in the relaxed position to produce sounds such as [s] and [f]. They are in the tensed position to produce [z] and [v], and since they are elastic, the air forced through the narrow glottal opening causes them to vibrate, producing a characteristic quality called voice. Sounds produced with the vocal cords vibrating are called voiced sounds; those produced without such vibration are voiceless. There are in English many pairs of sounds which differ only in that sound is voiceless and the other voiced.

Fricatives In producing fricative sounds, one of the articulators is brought close to one of the places of articulation, creating a narrow opening. When the air stream is forced through this opening, a turbulence or friction is created. Fricatives are therefore noisy sounds. They occur at four places of articulation: interdental [] and [], labio-dental [f] and [v], alveolar [s]and [z], and alveo-palatal [] and []. Notice that in one sense fricatives pattern with the stops: they both occur in voiced and voiceless pairs.
Team Teaching : Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

pharyngeal

interdental

alveolar

bilabial

palatal

velar

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

The last fricative [h], is voiceless and has no voiced counterpart. Strictly speaking, this sound does not meet the definition given for fricatives because [h] does not usually involve turbulence when [h] precedes certain vowels, as in a word like heal. In any case, may linguists have chosen to include [h] among fricatives. Affricate Affricates are complex sounds that merge two manners of articulation: a preceding stop and a following fricative. Affricates appear initially in chin and gin, and finally in itch and edge. In chin the affricate consists of the alveolar stop [t] closely followed by the alveo-palatal fricative []. Similarly, the affricate of gin consists of the stop [d] plus the fricative []. Although [] and [] are phonetically divisible, each functions as a single unit and thus is represented by one symbol rather than two. Nasals The velum serves two major functions in speech. It not only provides the place of articulation for the velar stops [k] and [g], but also contributes to the shaping of nasal consonants, or nasals. The velum can be raised and brought into contact with the pharyngeal wall, closing off the nasal cavity, or it can be lowered, opening the nasal cavity. When the velum is lowered, air resonates in the nasal as well as the oral cavities, and the air stream leaves the vocal tract through the nose rather than through the mouth. Since the action of the tongue and the velum are independent of one another, we have nasals at various places of articulation in the oral cavity. [m] is a bilabial nasal, [n] is an alveolar nasal, and [] is a velar nasal. All nasals are voiced. Liquid The liquids are [l] and [r]. The word liquid itself is not a descriptive term as stop or nasal are. Rather, it is cover term to group together two sounds which pattern similarly in many respects. [l] sometimes called a lateral, since the air flows around one or both sides of the tongue; and [r] is sometimes called a retroflex, since the tongue tip is turned back during its production. Both liquids are voiced. Glides (also called approximates or semi-vowels) Glides are sounds which provide transition to or from other sounds. They appear following true vowels and at the ends of such words as my, toy, now, and throw. My and toy end with a [y] glide; now and throw end with a [w] glide. [y] and [w] are sometimes called approximates because of the articulatory action taken in producing them. In articulating a glide, we bring one articulator near to a given point of articulation, but not near enough to produce friction. We approximate rather than attain a specific point of articulation. Since the approximation for [y] is in the palatal area, [y] is called palatal glide; [w] is formed with the back of the tongue All glides are voiced. Sibilants The fricatives [s], [z], [], and [] are particularly noisy. These are sibilants. Since affricates [] and [] each end in a sibilant fricative, they, too, are called sibilants. The sounds within these groups can be further classified according to the place of articulation, that is, the position of the lips or tongue as the sounds are made. For English consonants, there are seven primary points or places of articulation. From front to back, they are: 1. Bilabial (literally, two lips). Bilabial sounds are produced by pressing the lips together. Bilabial sounds are [p], [b], and [m].

Team Teaching :

Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

2. Labio-dental . Labio-dental sounds are made by bringing the lower lip into contact with the upper teeth. They are [f], and [v]. 3. Interdental. Interdental sounds are made by placing the tongue tip between the teeth. There are two interdental sounds, both are spelled th, one as in thin and the other as in then. The th of thin symbolized with [] (the Greek theta). The symbol for the first sound of then is []. 4. Alveolar. The alveolar ridge is the bony protuberance (swelling) located where the upper teeth join the palate. Six sounds are made in the alveolar area: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], and [l]. 5. Alveo-palatal (or palato-alveolar). The front, hard part of the roof of the mouth is the palate, and the soft back part is the velum. Four sounds are articulated at the extreme forward of area of the palate, near to alveolar ridge. For this reason they are called alveo-palatals. They are [], [], [], [], and [r]. Four of this symbols need an explanation: [] represents both the first and last sounds of church, [] represents the first and last sounds of judge, [] represents the first sound of shut and the final sound of mush, and [] represents the medial sound of measure, azure, and pleasure. 6. Palatal. One English sound is articulated in the palatal area. This is [y], as in yet and yes. It is articulated by bringing the front of the tongue near the palate. 7. Velar. The velum is the soft, fleshy are directly behind the palate. Velar sounds are articulated by bringing the back of the tongue into contact with the velum. There are three velars: [k], as in kit, cat, and chimerical; [g], as in give, egg, and ghost; and [], which occurs as the final sound of sing and tongue. The consonant symbols of the phonetic alphabet, along with some key words illustrating their sounds values, are given below: Phonetic Symbol Example Bilabial p pit, tip b bat, tab m mitt, ham, smoke Labio-dental f fig, gift, muff v vat, save Interdental thin, bath thus, bathe Alveolar t tip, put, stick d dip, pad n know, pan, snow s sun, bus z zoom, fuzz l lit, till, slit Alveo-palatal chew, hitch gem, badge show, bush --, treasures* r Right, tire, shrimp Palatal y you, yew Velar k catch, back, skin g give, plague thing, tongue
*[] does not usually occur at the beginning of an English word. For some speakers, the sound occurs finally in words such as garage, massage, and rouge. Other speakers have [] in these words.
Team Teaching : Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Vowels Vowels are voiced continuous sounds involving no interruption in the flow of air through the oral cavity. Different vowel sounds result from changing the shape of the mouth; each vowel is associated with a different configuration of the tongue and lips. For example, to say ee represented phonetically as [i], the lips are somewhat pulled back and the tongue is arched up toward the palate. To say oo as in woo and Sue, represented as [u], the tongue is raised toward the back of the mouth and the lips are rounded and pushed forward. For ah as in father and cot, represented as [a], the tongue is flattened and lowered. Like consonants, each vowel is associated with a phonetic symbol. Vowel and consonants are produced in fundamentally different ways. While consonants are made with some kind of obstruction in the oral cavity, vowels are made with a relatively free flow of air. Vowels are open sounds made by shaping rather than blocking the vocal tract. The location and extent of this shaping give each vowel its particular quality. Traditionally, vowel has been described along two dimensions: tongue height and the frontedness or backness of the tongue. Table 2.2, which is commonly called a vowel chart, shows the spatial relationship among vowels in terms of these two dimensions. Figure 2.1 Traditional Representation of Standard English Vowels Front Central Back High i Mid e Low a

u o

Vowels are described according to the position of the body of the tongue as they are being articulated. Basically, the tongue body can move along two dimensions: high to low, and front to back. A vowel made with the tongue body relatively forward is a front vowel, one made with the tongue body relatively high is a high vowel, and so forth. Vowels made with the tongue body neither high nor low are called mid vowels, and those made with the tongue body neither front nor back are called central vowels. The exact number of vowels in American English is difficult to determine, since there is a great deal of variation from one language group to another, and even from one speaker to another. Since there is so much variation in both the number and the phonetic quality of vowels, use the key words below with caution. The vowels of English are either monophthongal or diphthongal; that is, they are made up of either a single sound or two sounds in sequence . The major diphthongs of English are [ay], [aw], and [y], as in the words ride, house, and boy (these are not shown in table above). Most linguists treat the English vowels [i], [e], [o], and [u] as diphthongs as well, because most speakers typically pronounce them with following glides. It is not uncommon to find these vowels represented phonetically as [iy], [ey], [ow], and [uw], respectively. Examples of words containing the English vowels are given in the following table.

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Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Table 2.2 English Vowels Illustrated by Examples [i] beat, key, fee [] bit, inch [e] bait, gay, fate [] bet, end, head [] bat, and [a] calm, father [] bought, crawl [o] boat, snow, hoe, though [] book, put [u] boot, through, suit [] butter, rough [] about, system, easily [ay] bite, fight [aw] how, about [y] boy, hoist

Vowels are the most sonorant, or intense, and the most audible sounds in speech. They usually function as syllable nuclei, and the consonants that surround them often depend on the vowel for their audibility. For example, in the word pop, neither [p] has much sound of its own; the [p]s are heard mainly because of the way they affect the beginning and end of the vowel sound. Vowel are sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract, so they do not have a consonant like point of articulation or manner of articulation, and they are almost always voiced. Vocal fold vibration is the sound source for vowels. The vocal tract above the glottis acts as a resonator affecting the sound made by the vocal folds. The shape of this resonator determines the quality of the vowel [i] vs. [u] vs. [a], for example. There are several ways in which speakers can change the shape of the vocal tract, and thus change vowel quality. They do this by: 1. raising or lowering the body of the tongue, 2. advancing or retracting the body of the tongue, 3. rounding or not rounding the lips, 4. making these movements with a tense or a lax gesture. Therefore, when describing a vowel it is necessary to provide information about these four aspects of the articulation of the vowel. Refer to Table 2.2 above as each of these is discussed.

Tongue Height If you repeat to yourself the vowel sounds of seat, set, sat transcribed [i], [], [] you will find that you open your mouth a little wider as you change from [i] to [], and then a little wider still as you change from [] to []. These varying degrees of openness correspond to different degrees of tongue height: high for [i], mid for [], and low for []. High vowels like [i] are made with the front of the mouth less open because the tongue body is raised, or high. The high vowels of English are [i, I, u, ], as in leak, lick, Luke, look. Conversely, low vowels like the [] in sat are pronounced with the front of the mouth open and the tongue lowered. [, a], as in cat and cot, are the low vowels of English. Mid vowels like the [] of set are produced with an intermediate tongue height; in English, these mid vowels are [e, , , , o] as in bait, bet, but, bought, boat. In many American dialects, words like caught and cot, or dawn and Don, are pronounced differently, with an [] and [a] respectively. In other American dialects, however, these words are pronounced the same. If you say these pairs the same, you probably use the unrounded vowel [a] in these words. For most speakers of English, however, the vowel [] appears in words such as hall, ball, and tall.
Team Teaching : Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Tongue Advancement Besides being held high or mid or low, the tongue can also be pushed forward or pulled back within the oral cavity. For example, in the high front vowel [i] as in beat, the body of the tongue is raised and pushed forward so it is just under the hard palate. The high back vowel [u] of boot, on the other hand, is made by raising the body of the tongue in the back of the mouth, toward the velum. The tongue is advanced or pushed forward for all the front vowels, [i, I, e, , ], as in seek, sick, sake, sec, sack, and retracted or pulled back for the back vowels [u, , o, , a], as in ooze, look, road, paw, dot. The central vowel [] as in luck requires neither fronting nor retraction of the tongue. Lip Rounding Vowel quality also depends on lip position. When you say the [u] in two, your lips are rounded. For the [i] in tea, they are unrounded. English has four rounded vowels: [u, , o, ], as in loop, foot, soap, fall. All other vowels in English are unrounded. In the vowel chart, the rounded vowels are enclosed in a dotted line rectangle. Tenseness Vowels that are called tense are produced with an extra degree of muscular effort. Lax vowels this extra effort. For example, tense front vowels are made with a stronger (i. e., longer and more extreme) tongue fronting gesture than lax front vowels, which are produced with a weaker fronting movement: compare tense [i] in meet with lax [I] in mitt, or tense [e] in late with lax [] in let. Tense rounded vowels are also made with stronger or tighter lip rounding than their counterparts. Compare tense [u] in boot with lax [U] in put. Now we can consider some sample descriptions of English vowels: [i], as in beat, is high, front, unrounded, and tense. [], as in caught, is mid, back, rounded, and lax. [a], as in cot, is low, back, unrounded, and lax. [], as in cut, is mid, central, unrounded, and lax. (Note that central and mid do not refer to the same thing) [e], as in cake, is mid, front, unrounded, and tense. Diphthongs At this point, we still have not described the vowel sounds of some English words such as hide, loud, and coin. Unlike the simple vowels described above, the vowels of these words are diphthongs, two-part vowel sounds consisting of a vowel and a glide in the same syllable. If you say eye slowly, concentrating on how you make this vowel, you should find that your tongue starts out in the position for [a] and moves toward the position for the vowel [i] or the corresponding palatal glide [y]. (If you have a hard time perceiving this as two sounds, try laying a finger on your tongue and saying eye. This should help you feel the upward tongue movement). This diphthong, which consists of two articulations and the two corresponding sounds, is written with two symbols: [ay], as in [hayd] hide. To make the vowel of loud, the tongue and the lips start in position for [a] and move toward the position for [u] or [w], so this diphthong is written [aw], as in [lawd] loud. (For some speakers, the vowel part of this diphthong will be closer to []). In the vowel of coin, the movement is from the [o] position toward the position for [i] or [y], so the vowel of coin is written [oy] as in [koyn]. Place of Articulation Place of articulation is defined in terms of the articulators involved in the speech gesture. It is common to refer to a speech gesture in terms of an active articulator and a passive articulator.
Team Teaching : Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Active Articulators An active articulator is the articulator that does all or most of the moving during a speech gesture. The active articulator is usually the lower lip or some part of the tongue. These active articulators are attached to the jaw which is relatively free to move when compared to parts of the vocal tract connected directly to the greater mass of the skull. Passive Articulators A passive articulator is the articulator that makes little or no movement during a speech gesture. The active articulator moves towards the relatively immobile passive articulator. Passive articulators are often directly connected to the skull. Passive articulators include the upper lip, the upper teeth, the various parts of the upper surface of the oral cavity, and the back wall of the pharynx. Naming Place of Articulation The place of articulation of a consonant is generally named for the passive articulator. Sometimes the active articulator is also explicitly included in the name of a place of articulation by use of the prefixes "apico-" and "lamino-".

Illustrations of Place of Articulation in English The following links lead to diagrams that illustrate place of articulation in English. These diagrams are applicable to most dialects of English. The possible exception is the diagram for /r/ which may be articulated differently in some dialects of English. 1. Oral Stop Articulation 2. Nasal Stop Articulation 3. Fricative Articulation 4. Approximant Articulation The following table makes a distinction between articulations that are actually used contrastively in the world's languages, articulations that are not used but are possible, and articulations that are impossible. In some cases, articulations marked with "***" are actually physically impossible and in some cases "***" marks articulations that are too difficult to be considered serious possibilities for linguistic use. Table 2.2. Possible and Impossible Articulations Passive Active Articulator Articulator Lower Tongue Tongue Lip Tip Blade Upper bilabial ----Lip Upper Front labio(apico-) (lamino-) Teeth dental dental dental Alveolar
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Front of Back of Root Tongue Tongue Tongue *** *** *** --*** ***

of Vocal Folds *** ***

---

(apico-)

(lamino-)

---

***

***

***

Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.

Course material of english phonetics and phonology (meeting 2)

Ridge Hard Palate Soft Palate Uvula

*** *** ***

alveolar retroflex *** ***

alveolar palatoalveolar *** ***

palatal --*** *** ***

*** velar uvular *** ***

*** *** *** pharyngeal ***

*** *** *** *** glottal

Pharynx *** *** *** Wall Vocal *** *** *** Folds In the above table:*** means not a possible articulation --- means not found in any language (so far)

From the above table, it can be seen that places of articulation are completely specified by both the active and the passive articulator. Some common articulatory distinctions are not completely captured by specification of the passive articulator alone.

For example: Labiodental articulations cannot be fully specified by just the passive articulator (front upper teeth) as this would fail to distinguish such articulations from dentals. Dentals can be either apico-dentals or lamino-dentals (and in some languages these can contrast). It is essential that the active articulator is specified to separate them. Note that, with the exception of the lower lip and the vocal folds, the majority of active articulators are different parts of the tongue. Refer to this figure from lecture 1 for the location of these different parts of the tongue. Summary Speech sounds may be classified in several ways, voiced or voiceless in one way. Another way is by the point or articulationwhere the articulation occurs in the vocal tract. For English consonants, there are seven primary points or places of articulations. From front to back, they are: bilabial, labio-dental, interdental, alveolar, palatal, and velar. Besides places of articulation and the condition of the glottis (whether the sound is voiced or voiceless), we must refer to a third characteristic in order to uniquely describe a speech sound. This is the manner of articulationthe action of the vocal apparatus as a sound is being produced. In English there are seven manners of articulation: stops, fricatives, nasals, liquids, affricates, glides, and sibilants.

Team Teaching :

Moh. Syamsurizal, S.s., M.Pd. Jefriyanto Saud, S.Pd., M.A.