2.1 0.

Principles that define the biological level of analysis and how they are demonstrated in research

General learning outcomes

1 Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis. Principle 1: There are biological correlates of behaviour. This means that there are physiological origins of behaviour such as neurotransmitters, hormones, specialized brain areas, and genes. The biological level of analysis is based on reductionism, which is the attempt to explain complex behaviour in terms of simple causes. Within the biological level of analysis there is a focus on biological correlates of behaviour. This means that researchers study biological correlates such as neurotransmitters, hormones, brain localizations, or genes when they try to explain behaviour such as cognitive processes (for example memory) or abnormal behaviour (for example depression). Principle 1 demonstrated in
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2 Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (theories and studies). Principle 2: Animal research can provide insight into human behaviour. This means that researchers use animals to study physiological processes because it is assumed that most biological processes in non-human animals are the same as in humans. One important reason for using animals is that there is a lot of research where humans cannot be used for ethical reasons. This is, for example, the case in tests of new drugs, deprivation studies, or research that involves experimental lesions in the brain. Principle 2 demonstrated in
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Harlow (1848) performed a case study of Phineas Gage. After an accident which damaged his frontal lobes Gage changed personality and behaviour. The case study shows that there is a link between brain areas and behaviour as observed by the doctor who studied Gage, but the brain is complex and more brain areas may be involved in personality than the frontal lobes. Newcomer et al. (1999) performed an experiment on the role of the stress hormone cortisol on verbal declarative memory. Group 1 (high dose cortisol) had tablets containing 160 mg of cortisol for four days. Group 2 (low dose cortisol) had tablets with 40 mg of cortisol for four days. Group 3 (control) had placebo tablets. Participants listened to a prose paragraph and had to recall it as a test of verbal declarative memory. This memory system is often negatively affected by the increased level of cortisol under long-term stress. The results showed that group 1 showed the worst performance on the memory test compared to group 2 and 3. The experiment shows that an increase in cortisol over a period has a negative effect on memory.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) studied the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the formation of memory. The experiment was carried out on rats. Rats were trained to go through a maze to get food. Group 1 was injected with scopolamine (blocks acetylcholine receptors), which decreased available acetylcholine in the synaptic gap. Group 2 was injected with physostigmine (blocks clean-up of synaptic gap), which increased the level of acetylcholine in the synaptic gap. Group 3 was a control group. The results showed that group 1 was slower to find the food and group 2 was quicker than the control group. The experiment shows that acetylcholine plays an important role in formation of memory traces in the brain. Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972) performed an experiment to study the role of environmental factors on brain plasticity using rats as participants. Group 1 was placed in an enriched environment with lots of toys. Group 2 was placed in a deprived environment with no toys. The rats spent 30 or 60 days in their respective environments before being sacrificed. The brains of the rats in group 1 showed a thicker layer of neurons in the cortex compared to the deprived group. The study shows that the brain grows more neurons if stimulated. Hetherington and Ranson (1942) performed experimental lesions on rats in the ventromedial hypothalamus (the lower central part of the hypothalamus). This part is involved in regulation of appetite. The rats developed hyperphagia which means that they continued eating even when they were not hungry so that their normal body weight was doubled or even tripled. Research like this lead to the conclusion that the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in regulation of appetite and it is now known as the satiety center.

1 The biological 2 Chapter title level of analysis

Principle 3: Human behaviour is, to some extent, genetically based. This means that behaviour can, to some extent, be explained by genetic inheritance, although this is rarely the full explanation since genetic inheritance should be seen as a genetic predisposition which can be affected by environmental factors.
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Principle 3 demonstrated in
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Bouchard and McGue (1981) performed a meta-analysis of 111 studies on IQ correlations. The closer the kinship the higher the IQ correlation. This shows a link between genetic inheritance and intelligence. Bouchard et al. (1990) performed the Minnesota twin study, a longitudinal study investigating the relative role of genes in IQ. The participants were monozygotic twins reared apart (MZA) and monozygotic twins reared together (MZT). The researchers found that MZT had a concordance rate of IQ of 86% compared to MZA with a concordance rate of IQ of 76%. This shows a link between genetic inheritance and intelligence but it does not rule out the role of the environment. Holland et al. (1988) studied 34 pairs of twins and one set of triplets where one fromeach pair had been diagnosed with anorexia nervosa. There were 16 pairs of monozygotic twins and 14 pairs of dizygotic twins. The study was a longitudinal study as the researchers followed the twins over a period of time to see whether the other twin would develop anorexia. The results showed much higher concordance rates for the MZ twin (56%) than for DZ twin (7%) in developing anorexia over time. The study shows that there is a genetic basis for anorexia nervosa vulnerability but the study does not include the possible role of environmental factors. Nurnberger and Gershon (1982) reviewed 7 twin studies and found that the concordance rate for clinical depression was higher for MZ twins (65%) than for DZ twins (14%). This suggests that genetic inheritance could play a role in depression but it is known that environmental factors are also important .

Researchers interested in the genetic origin of behaviour often use twins so that they can compare one twin with the other on a variable such as intelligence, depression or anorexia nervosa. Twin designs are used to study the nature-nurture question, which means the relative importance of genetic inheritance and environmental factors. Identical twins (monozygotic twins - MZ) are 100% genetically identical as they have developed from the same egg. They therefore act as a control for each other. Fraternal twins (monozygotic twins - MZ) have developed from two different eggs and they share around 50% of their genes so they are no more similar than siblings. Twin research never shows a 100% concordance rate so it is believed that genes are a predisposing factor rather than the cause of behaviour. Therefore it is also important to consider what environmental factors could influence the expression of the genetic predisposition.
Acetylcholine Receptors

Transmitting Neuron

Receiving Neuron

Acetylcholinesterase
The interaction between genes and environmental factors is complex and there are many things scientists dont know.

2.2

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level ofanalysis
 3 Twin research and family studies: These methods are
used to study the relative role of genes in traits and behaviour. Genetic research has become more common after the Human Genome project and researchers are interested in finding specific gene codes for behaviour (for example depression) and how environmental factors may influence genetic predisposition. Example: Bouchard et al. 1990 The Minnesota Twin study, section 2.10 4 Neuroimaging methods (for example PET, MRI, and fMRI): Neuroimaging methods are used because they allow the researchers to study the structure and functioning of the active brain. Neuroscientists are interested in a number of areas such as:
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A variety of scientific methods are used within the biological level of analysis. Each method has its strengths and limitations (see chapter 1) and the researchers will choose the method which is considered to be most suitable for their particular research project. Factors which determine which research methods are most suitable include:
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Purpose of the research (for example, are the researchers interested in establishing cause-effect relationships; or are they studying a unique case because it can give them extraordinary insight into a phenomenon). Ethical considerations (should animals or humans be used?)

1 Experimental method: The experimental method is used at the biological level of analysis because this method allows researchers to establish a cause-effect relationship between biological factors and behaviour, for example how a specific neurotransmitter or a specific hormone relates to a specific behaviour. a Research at a micro level (for example, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structures) in order to determine how biological processes affect behaviour.

the role of the hippocampus in memory processessingthe role of the medial prefrontal cortex in decision making (neuroeconomics) the role of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens in pleasure seeking. Example: Ashtari et al. (2009) MRI study on possible brain damage as a result of abuse of marijuana in adolescents, section 2.9

b Often includes animal models because it is not possible to use humans for ethical reasons. Example: Martinez and Kesner 1991, section 2.5 2 Case study method: The case study method is used at the biological level of analysis because it allows in-depth investigation into how biological factors may influence behaviour. Case studies of people with brain damage can provide valuable information about the role of specific brain structures in normal brains.
Brain damage: normal functioning of the brain has

Include particular research studies to support arguments in SAQ and essays

Exam Tip

been disrupted due to factors such as infection, operation, stroke, alcohol abuse, or Alzheimers disease. Example: case study of H.M. section 2.4

2.3

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level ofanalysis
See section 2.9 for ethical considerations in neuroimaging (neuroethics).

Ethical considerations for human participants

When humans are used as participants in research they are always affected somehow. There are ethical principles for conducting research with human participants and researchers are obliged to observe these principles. Generally, it is important to treat human participants with respect in any research study.

Ethical considerations for the use of animals in research

Animals are used when humans cannot be used for ethical reasons and because animals are easy to get and easy to handle in research. It is assumed that biological processes in humans and animals have similarities In many research studies animals are put to sleep as a consequence of the study, for example when researchers want to observe changes in brain structures or the neurotransmitter system after a treatment.

Ethical guidelines for the use of human beings in research include:

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Informed consent: The participants have the right to be fully informed about the purpose of the study (for example, in drug research or genetic studies). Anonymity of participants and right to withdraw. No harm to participants.

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Ethical considerations in research with human participants could include:

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Ethical guidelines for the use of animals in research include:

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Protect animals from unnecessary stress and suffering. Minimize the use of animals and consider alternative methods. Researchers must have a licence to conduct animal research.

Is the study justified by the results? Are the results so important and beneficial to other humans that the procedures are justified? Were the participants harmed? For example, if they learned that they had a genetic predisposition to develop depression. Can data from neuroimaging be used to manipulate cognitions? For example in research on neuroeconomics? Can data from neuroscientific research, for example on addiction or psychological disorders, be misused? Can data from genetic research into criminal behaviour or psychological disorders be misused?

Ethical considerations in animal research could include:

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To what extent will the animal suffer during the experiment? Is the study justified by the benefit of the research?

Examples of animal research at the biological level of analysis

Martinez and Kesner (1991) used rats to investigate the role of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine on learning and memory. The researchers manipulated the level of the neurotransmitter to see how this affected the rats performance in a maze. Hethering and Ranson (1942) performed lesions in the ventromedial hypothalamus in the brain of rats to study how this affected the rats regulation of food intake. Olds and Milner (1954) implanted electrodes in the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center) of rats and trained them to press a lever to give a small electrical stimulus to that brain structure. The rats preferred this stimulation to food, drink, and sex.

Examples of research at the biological level of analysis with human participants

The case study of H.M. H.M. was used for memory research for over 50 years. Because of the damage to his brain he did not remember that he had met the researchers but he did not seem to mind. The case study was a major contribution to understanding memory processes so the study was justified. Newcomer et al. (1999) studied the role of cortisol on verbal declarative memory. There were three conditions. Participants were given either (1) a high dosage, (2) a low dosage, or (3) placebo over 4 days. The participants in the high dosage group showed memory impairment but performance returned to normal when the cortisol was discontinued. The participants had signed informed consent before the experiment. The results were so important in understanding the role of stress in memory so the research was justified.

See also section 2.12 on ethical considerations related to research into genetic influences on behaviour.

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2.4
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Examine one study related to localization of function in the brain

the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, was removed on both sides of his brain. After the operation H.M. suffered from amnesia . He could not create new episodic and semantic memories, but he was able to learn a few procedural memories. His personality remained unchanged and there was no general intellectual impairment. This case study shows that the hippocampus is important in memory processing and particularly in the storage of new memories. H.M. participated in research studies until his death in 2008, and his brain was donated to science.

The case study of H.M.

The case study of H.M. is important because it provided evidence that there are different memory systems in the brain (see section 3.5). Brenda Milner (1957) was the first to report the case of H.M. and the profound effects on memory functioning, following an operation which removed the hippocampus and adjacent areas in H.M.s brain. Corkin et al. (1997) did a MRI scan of H.Ms brain. Brain imaging was used because it allowed the researchers to get a precise picture of the brain damage. They discovered that parts of the temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and the amygdala, were missing, but also that the damage was not as extensive as previously believed.

H.M. suffered from epileptic seizures after he fell off a bike, aged 7. It was assumed that the seizures were connected to the accident and he became increasingly incapacitated. At the age of 27 the neurosurgeon, William Scoville, performed experimental surgery in order to stop the seizures. Tissue from

The hippocampus

What can be learned about localization of function in the brain in relation to memory from the case study of H.M?
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H.M. could learn a few new procedural memories so this indicates that such memories are not stored via the hippocampus. The fact that H.M. (and other persons with amnesia) had deficits in one part of the memory system but not in others is evidence that the brain has several memory systems and that these are supported by distinct brain regions. The study shows that memory processes are much more complex than originally believed. Although the hippocampus is very important in the storage of new memories it is not the only structure involved in the process.

The memory system in the brain constitutes a highly specialized and complex system. The hippocampus and the areas around the hippocampus play a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term memory (contemporary store) to long-term memory (permanent store). H.M. could retain memories of what had happened before the surgery. This indicates that the hippocampus is a temporary memory store rather than a permanent store.

Evaluation of the case study of H.M.

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Cortical areas are important for long-term memory, for

The operation was based on the assumption that H.Ms seizures would stop and it was successful in this respect, but the brain damage caused other problems that had not been anticipated. It was not known at the time that the operation would cause memory problems. H.M. participated in research for more than 50 years but he was never able to recognize the researchers around him. He participated in many kinds of tests and research, for example cognitive tests, observations, and neuroimaging studies. This longitudinal case study has contributed enormously to the knowledge of how memory processes are related to specific brain areas, for example:
The medial temporal lobes are important for the

facts and events (semantic and episodic memories), and the use of that information in daily life.
Procedural memories are not processed by the

hippocampus.
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There are ethical considerations in this case study. Since H.M. was not able to remember all the times he participated in research it could be argued that it was unethical. However, the findings of the study are very important and this justifies it. It is not usually possible to use the findings from a single case study to generalize about a larger population, but since the findings from other case studies of people with brain damage like H.M. tend to support those from this case study, it may be possible to generalize to some extent.

forming, organization, consolidation, and retrieval ofmemories.

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2.5
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Using one or more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour
tyrosine neuron releasing dopamine L-dopa dopamine broken down by monoamine oxydase autoreceptors

Neurotransmitters are the bodys natural chemical messengers. They are involved in behaviour as diverse as movement, learning and memory, motivation, mood, pleasure seeking, sexual activity or addictive behaviour. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of the neuron, the neuron fires and neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap where they travel to the neuron at the other side of the synaptic gap. If the neurotransmitter is not absorbed it can be re-uptaken, diffused out or destroyed. The neurotransmitter then binds to specific receptors at the other side. If a neurotransmitter is blocked or replaced (for example, because another chemical interferes) then the messages change. This affects the physiological system, cognition, mood or behaviour. Drugs and substances such as nicotine, cannabis and alcohol can interfere with neurotransmission. Two important neurotransmitters are dopamine and acetylcholine.

recaptured dopamine released dopamine G protein

Synaptic transmission

receptor

target neuron

Dopamine
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in goal-directed behaviour (motivation) such as pleasure seeking, control of movement, emotional response, and addictive behaviour. Dopamine is released in the brains reward system. Animal research shows an increase in dopamine levels in the reward system when animals are engaged in pleasurable activities such as eating. If dopamine release is blocked the animal looses the desire to eat.

Berridge and Kringelbach (2009) on dopamine in pleasure seeking

Used fMRI scans to study brain areas involved in the subjective experience of pleasure. They found that the orbitofrontal cortex was active when people reported feeling pleasure. The researchers concluded that: I Dopamine and the nucleus accumbens is perhaps rather involved in pleasure seeking. This could explain addictive behaviour, e.g. nicotine addiction leads to craving. The orbitofrontal cortex and natural opiods (endorphins) are perhaps linked to the subjective experience of pleasure.

Dopamine and addictive behaviour

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Dopamine is released in the brains reward system and has been associated with pleasure seeking and addictive behaviour. Addictive drugs or substances increase the amount of dopamine in the reward system. Dopamine can be relased by environmental triggers (for example, the sight of a cigarette package, food or a gambling machine) because this is associated with pleasure (reward). Nicotine is the psychoactive ingredient in tobacco, which increases the level of dopamine in the brains reward circuit causing feelings of pleasure and relaxation. When the effect of nicotine wears off the addicted person is motivated to smoke again to maintain the pleasurable effects of nicotine and avoid withdrawal symptoms. Experiments with rats show that if dopamine release is blocked (for example with a drug or destroying the neurotransmission system in the reward circuit) the rat will stop seeking pleasurable experiences such as eating. Therefore it is now suggested that dopamine is perhaps rather related to wanting something (desire) than individual experience of pleasure.

Fisher (2004) on dopamine in addiction to love

This is an evolutionary explanation of behaviour. According to this theory, attraction to another person involves adrenaline, dopamine and serotonin. Being in love has similarities with being addicted according to Fisher. I Dopamine increases desire and reward by triggering the same emotional rush of pleasure when you see or think of the loved one as if you were taking a drug like cocaine. Dopamine drives animals and humans to seek rewards (for example, food and sex) and is essential to the pleasure experienced when the goals are achieved.
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Dopamine can explain the highs of romantic passion (high levels of dopamine) and the lows of rejection (low levels of dopamine).

Passionate desire caused by high levels of dopamine first attracts parents to each other but passion does not last. Attachment (brought about by the hormones oxytocin and vasopresion) between parents replace passion to help them cooperate in child rearing.

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2 The biological level of analysis

Acethylcholine (ACh) on memory

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Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter which has been linked to synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and it seems to play an important role in learning and short-term memory via the cholinergic system (Shinoe et al. 2005). The cholinergic system is a system of nerve cells that uses acetylcholine in transmitting nerve signals. Memory processing and higher cognitive functioning are dependent on the cholinergic system. ACh is released into the synaptic gap and absorbed by specific receptors. Then it is broken down by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase and can now be used again. It is the cholinergic system that degenerates in Alzheimers disease. This casuses a decline in acetylcholine levels, which affects cognitive functioning negatively. The degeneration is particular visible in the cortex and hippocampus, areas involved in cognition and memory. The decrease in ACh neurotransmission is believed to cause the cognitive (e.g. memory) deficits observed in Alzheimers disease.

Results: Group 1 had problems finding their way through the maze and made more mistakes.

Group 2 ran quickly through the maze and did few mistakes. The group was quicker than the control group.

Discussion of results: The study shows that acetylcholine is important in memory since the rats showed different memory capacity as a result of the level of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Since the work was a controlled lab experiment, it can be concluded that levels of acetylcholine is one factor that affects memory but the neurobiology of memory is very complex.
Genetics

Physiology
alcohol metabolism, craving,reward, tolerance, withdrawal

Development
social/emotional competence, brain maturation puberty

Behavior
personality/temperament, externalizing/internalizing disorders

Martinez and Kesner (1991) acetylcholine in memory formation

Aim: investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation Procedure: Experimental study using rats. They were trained to run a maze. They were divided into 3 groups. I Group 1: received injection with scopolamine (blocks acetylcholine receptor sites so available acetylcholine is reduced).
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Environment
peer influence, stress, availability

Group 2: received injection with physostigmine (blocks production of cholinesterase (enzyme) which cleans up acetylcholine from the synapses) leading to more available acetylcholine. Group 3: Control group.

After signalling, acetylcholine is released from receptors and broken down by acetylcholinesterase to be recycled in a continuous process.

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2.6
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Explain, using examples, the function of two hormones on human behaviour

Endocrine System Hypothalamus

Most hormones are secreted by an endocrine gland in the endocrine system into the blood flow. Hormones regulate a number of physiological processes in the body such as growth, sexual development, sleep, hunger, and stress responses. Hormones are powerful messenger and even in small amounts they can cause changes in cells or in the body. Too much of a hormone (or too little) can cause serious problems. For example, too much cortisol over a prolonged period can affect memory functioning negatively. Blood, urine or saliva samples can measure hormone levels in the blood. Some hormones can also act as a neurotransmitter, e.g. oxytocin.
male

Pineal Body

Pituitary Thymus Thyroid and Parathyroids Heart Adrenal Gland Kidney Pancreas Testis Ovary female

Endocrine system

Cortisol and memory

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Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in response to stress and to restore homeostasis (the bodys normal balance). The function of cortisol is to increase glucose (blood sugar) levels, suppress the immune system and increase fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism. This is part of the fight or flight response. Chronic stress may result in prolonged cortisol secretion and this can lead to physiological changes such as damaged immune system and impairment of learning and memory. This is because high amounts of cortisol results in atrophy of the hippocampus (Sapolsky, 1996).

Placebo (tablet of no active ingredient). Participants were asked to listen to and recall a

prose paragraph to test verbal declarative memory. They were also tested in other cognitive tasks (for example recognition and attention).
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Results: The high level group performed worse on the verbal declarative memory test than the low level group. They performed below placebo levels already after day1. The low level group (mild stress) showed no memory decrease. There was no difference in performance in the other cognitive tests.

Newcomer et al. (1999) experiment on cortisol andmemory

Aim: To investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory. Procedure: I A self-selected sample (recruited through advertisement) of 51 normal and healthy participants aged 18-30 years.
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Discussion of results I Several days of exposure to cortisol, at doses associated with physical and psychological stress in humans, can decrease verbal declarative memory in healthy humans.
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The effect is reversible if the stressor is removed. Increased cortisol levels during periods of extended stress decreases the performance of memory through encoding and retrieval processes but mild stress does not.

Randomized, controlled, double-blind experiment running for 4 days. All participants gave informed consent. 3 experimental conditions: High level of cortisol (tablet of 160 mg per day), equivalent to cortisol levels in the blood as a consequence of a major stressful event.
Low level of cortisol (tablet of 40 mg per day),

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Evaluation I This was a controlled randomized experiment so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between levels of cortisol and scores on a verbal declarative memory test.
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equivalent to cortisol levels in the blood as a consequence of a minor stressful event.

Ethical issues were observed with informed consent. The negative effect of taking high dosages of cortisol was reversible so no harm was done.

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2 The biological level of analysis

Oxytocin and trust

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The hormone oxytocin is secreted by the hypothalamus and released (1) into the blood stream via the pituitary gland or (2) into the brain and spinal cord where it binds to oxytocin receptors. Oxytocin acts primarily as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Oxytocin has a function in birth and breastfeeding as well as in sex and bonding. It is sometimes called the love hormone for that reason. Oxytocin has been linked to trusting other people. Experimental manipulation of oxytocin levels has shown increase in trust. According to evolutionary psychologists trust is an important social tool in the relationship between humans. Trust is an adaptive mechanism as it helps humans to form meaningful relationships at a personal and professional level. Betrayal disrupts bonds of trust and may result in avoidance of the person who has betrayedyou. Learning whom to trust and whom to avoid is important for survival and the well-being of an individual. Humans should also be able to move on after experiences of breaching trust if long-term relationships and mental well-being should be preserved. This is where oxytocin may play a role.

receptors. The caudate nucleus is associated with learning and memory and plays a role in reward-related responses and learning to trust.
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Oxytocin only made a difference if the participants played against other humans, not if they played against computers.

Discussion of results I Oxytocin could play a role in reducing fear reactions via the amygdala that may arise as a consequence ofbetrayal.
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Humans rely on feedback (learning) via the caudate nucleus to make future decisions. Oxytocin could help individuals to ignore negative feedback and facilitate trust in spite of betrayal as a way to lower defense mechanisms associated with social risk. Normally negative feedback helps us to avoid cheaters, so it is an adaptive mechanism. We feel a need to belong but it is also important to be protected against potential harm. Oxytocin could explain why people are able to restore trust and forgive in long-term relationships. The results are perhaps relevant in understanding psychological disorders like social phobia (lack of trust following betrayal and avoidance of people).

Baumgartner et al. (2008) on the role of oxytocin in trust in economic behaviour

Aim: to investigate the role of oxytocin following breaches of trust in a trust game. Procedure: I The participants played a trust game used by economists and neuroscientists to study social interaction. The investor (player 1) receives a sum of money and must decide whether to keep it or share it with a trustee (player 2). If the sum is shared the sum is tripled. Then player 2 must decide if this sum should be shared (trust) or kept (violation of trust).
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Evaluation I Scanner research may indicate localized activity in the brain and correlate this to behaviour but the results are correlational.
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Scanner research is merely mapping brain activity but nothing definite can be said about what it really means at this point in science. Giving oxytocin like this in an experiment may not reflect natural physiological processes. The function of oxytocin is very complex and it is too simplistic to say that it is "the trust hormone".

An fMRI scanner was used in this study. Fourty-nine participants were placed in the scanner. They received either oxytocin or placebo via a nasal spray. The participants played against different trustees in the trust game and against a computer in a risk game. In 50% of the games their trust was broken. The participants received feedback on this from the experimenters during the games.

This study can also be used to discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour (section 2.9). It could also be used to examine evolutionary explanations (section 2.11).

Exam Tip

Results I Participants in the placebo group were likely to show less trust after feedback on betrayal. They invested less.
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Participants in the oxytocin group continued to invest at similar rates after receiving feedback on a breach oftrust. The fMRI scans showed decreases in responses in the amygdala and the caudate nucleus. The amygdala is involved in emotional processing and has many oxytocin

Exam Tip The learning outcome is explain so you

just need to link a specic hormone with a specic function and give examples from the research studies mentioned in this chapter.

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2.7
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Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

positive or negative. Brain plasticity refers to the brains ability to develop and form new connections as a result of experiences. Stimulation (or the lack of it) is known to influence number of neurons in the brain (dendritic branching) in the developing brain.
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Two effects of the environment could be (1) environmental effects on dendritic branching (development of connections between neurons in the brain), and (2) the role of environmental stress on the hippocampus in prolonged stress (PTSD). The environment (e.g. access to toys or the company of other humans) provides opportunities and challenges to the brain. The brain is formed by all experiences, whether

Environmental stressors may influence the bodys stress system and contribute to structural changes in the hippocampus, e.g. in relation with PTSD.

Effect 1: Environmental effects on dendritic branching (brain plasticity)

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Environmental stimulation refers to the way the environment provides stimulation in the form of social interaction and learning opportunities for animals and humans. Experiences are processed in the brains nervous system, and stimulating environments will result in increased numbers of synapses (brain plasticity). Gopnick et al. (1999) describe neurons as growing telephone wires that communicates with each other. An enriched environment is characterized by multiple opportunities to learn new things. Researchers have used animal models to study synaptic changes in the brain because it is not possible to use humans in deprivation experiments. Instead researchers use case studies of children who have grown up in total neglect, i.e. little or no experience of language, touch and interaction with other humans. This is observed in children who were adopted from Romanian orphanages in the early 1990s. The brains of neglected children are often smaller and there is scientific evidence of altered brain function (e.g. in intelligence and emotions).

Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond (1972) on the role of environmental stimulation on brain plasticity.
Aim: Investigate if environmental factors such as a rich or an impoverished environment affect development of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Procedure: I Rats were placed in either an enriched environment (EC) or an impoverished condition (IC).
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Enriched condition: 10-12 rats in cage provided with different stimulus objects to explore and play with. This group also received maze training. Impoverished condition: Each rat in individual cages (isolation and no stimulation). The rats typically spent 30 to 60 days in their respective environments before they were put down so the researchers could study changes in brain anatomy.

Results: I The anatomy of the brain was different in the EC and the IC.
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3 Year Old Children

The brains of EC rats had (1) increased thickness and higher weight of the cortex in EC rats. (2) EC rats had developed more acetylcholine receptors the cerebral cortex (important neurotransmiter in learning and memory).

Discussion of results: I Thickness of the cortex increased as a result of enriched experience and it appeared that brain weight could change. The research challenged the belief that brain weight cannot change. This was an important finding.
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Normal

Extreme Neglect
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Follow-up of this research indicated that just 2 hours a day in an enriched environment produced same plastic changes in the brain as in rats that had been constantly in the EC condition. This shows that the brain can change and adapt to new situations. Since brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattern in animals and humans the implications of the study are that the human brain will also be affected by environmental factors such as intellectual and social stimulation.

Brain scans of brains of 3-year old children: normal brain and brain with signs of extreme neglect in a child (Perry 1997).

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2 The biological level of analysis

Evaluation: I The experiment was a rigorously controlled laboratory experiment so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship.
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The experiment used animal models and therefore it may be difficult to generalize to humans unless research with humans provides the same results. The research results have been replicated many times so it is now a well-established fact that an enriched environment provides a much better background for brain development than a poor environment.

Combat veterans and survivors of childhood sexual abuse who suffer from PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) tend to have a number of stress related problems such as forgetfulness and difficulty learning. In such patients stress-related physiological changes have been observed in the brain, especially in the hippocampus, which play an important role in integrating different aspects of a memory at the time of recollection.
Hippocampus Prefrontal Cortex

There are ethical issues in the use of animals in research like this. The rats in the IC were perhaps suffering from boredom but they were not harmed. The rats were killed after the test period in order to study changes in the brain. Since the results contributed to a much better understanding of the role of environmental factors in brain plasticity it can be argued that the research was justified in spite of the ethicalissues.

Amygdala

Bremner et al. (2003) on stress, PTSD and memory problems related to reduction of hippocampal volume.
Aim: I measure the volume of the hippocampus based on the theory that prolonged stress may reduce the volume of the hippocampus due to increased cortisol levels. Procedure: I MRI scans of the brains of the participants and memory tests (e.g. remembering a story of a list of words).
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Effect 2: Environmental stressors and hippocampal damage in PTSD patients

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A stressor is any event that threatens to disrupt the bodys normal balance and starts a stress response such as secretion of stress hormones and activation of the fear sensor in the brain, the amygdala. The atrophy hypothesis (McNally 2003) suggests that increased levels of cortisol in the brain cause hippocampal damage and problems in memory. A stressor may be an acute stressor (e.g. being assaulted, accident or violence) or it could be a chronic stressor (e.g. anticipation of violence or worrying). The fight or flight response (coping mechanism) is a pattern of physiological responses that prepares the body to deal with emergency. Robert Sapolsky (1996) has shown in animal studies that longterm stress and a prolonged flow of cortisol can influence the size of the hippocampus, which plays a major role in memory. Bremner et al (2005) performed a meta-analysis of nine studies on PTSD and size of the hippocampus. They found significantly smaller volume of the hippocampus in combats veterans who suffered from PTSD than in combat veterans who did not suffer from PTSD.

The participants were veterans and female adults who had experienced early childhood sexual abuse. Some had developed PTSD but not all.

Results: I The researchers found that there were deficits in short term memory The researchers then performed MRI scans of the participants brains.
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They found that the hippocampus was smaller in PTSD patients than in a control group. The veterans with most memory problems also had the smallest hippocampus. Adult surviviors of abuse with a diagnosis of PTSD had even smaller hippocampal volume than those without PTSD.

Discussion of results I The findings showed a clear correlation between number of years of abuse as measured by a trauma test, memory problems and hippocampal volume.
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People suffering from PTSD often suffer from other psychological disorders, e.g. depression, which could perhaps also play a role in the observed changes in the brain.

Trauma and PTSD

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Traumatic episodes (i.e. frightening situations from which a person cannot escape) produce intense fear. In about 5% of the population this may lead to PTSD with effects that can last for a brief period or a lifetime. Stuations that remind the indiviudal of the stressful events can trigger excessive release of stress hormones and over-activation of the amygdala and further release of stress hormones. The symptoms of PTSD are emotional distress, racing thoughts, anger and hyper arousal.

Evaluation: I The sample was very small so it is difficult to say anything definite about the relationship between trauma and hippocampal volume.
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There could be alternative explanations to differences in hippocampal volume, e.g. that people who suffer from PTSD often suffers from depression as well. Depression is also associated with reduction of the hippocampus. However, the findings of a large reduction of hippocampal volume in combat-related PTSD has been replicated many times.

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Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour

investigated how cognition and physiological processes may interact in people who meditate.
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In psychology cognition is described as the mental processes of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, attention, perception, memory, thinking and reasoning but the term can also relate to beliefs. Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of biological correlates of mental processes (cognition). This area of research investigates how various brain areas are involved in cognitive processes (e.g. how brain damage affects memory), but in recent years researchers have also

A number of neuroscientists have begun to examine how meditation or Mindfulness (MBSR) may influence brain functions, for example the effect of mindfulness meditation on attention, emotional reactivity and stress. The scientific study of Mindfulness includes research on self-regulation of attention and the physiological benefits of using the technique, for example in stress reduction, pain, emotion and immune response.

Davidson et al. (2004) Brain waves and compassion meditation.

Aim: I Investigate if meditation can change brain activity. The researchers were particularly interested in gamma waves (the fastest of the brainwave frequencies and associated with the highest concentration). Procedure: I 8 monks who had practiced meditation for many years and a control group of 10 students who had one week of training participated in the study.
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Evaluation: I The results support the idea that attention and affective processes are skills that can be trained but more research is needed to establish if the change in brain waves is caused by hours of training and not individual differences before training. Not all neuroscientists agree that gamma waves can explain the potential benefits of meditation so more research is needed to see if there is such a link.

Cognitive activities (including meditation) produce electrical activity when the neurons fire. This was recorded by the EEG (electroencephalograph which records electrical activity as brain waves). The participants were asked to meditate on unconditional compassion, i.e. instead opens the mind for feelings of love and compassion for short periods. The control participants participated in a training session where they were asked to think of someone they cared about and to let their mind be invaded by love and compassion. After initial training the participants were asked to generate an objective feeling of compassion without focusing at anyone in particular.

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Gamma waves

Vestergaard-Poulsen et al. (2009) found that extensive practice of meditation involving sustained attention could lead to changes in brain structure. The study found evidence of structural changes in the lower brain stem of participants engaged in long-term practice of meditation compared with age-matched non-meditators. I MRI scans of two groups of participants - meditators and non-mediators.
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Results: I The EEG of the monks brains showed greater activation as well as better organization and coordination of gamma waves. There was a positive correlation between hours of practice and level of gamma waves. Monks who had spent most time meditating had the highest level of gamma waves.
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Found structural changes in brain stem regions concerned with control of respiration and cardiac rhythm (autonomic nervous system). The connection of neurons in this area seemed to be more complex in people who meditated. This could explain some of the beneficial effects found in research on stress reduction techniques as MBSR (mindfulness) because cortisol levels are reduced and the cardiac and breathing rhythm slow down. Meditative practices have already been applied in health psychology, for example Davidson et al. (2003) found that Mindfulness meditation could increase positive emotion and immune responses. Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) has also been found to alleviate pain (Grant et al. 2010)

The brain of controls showed a slight increase in gamma wave activity during meditation.

Discussion of results: I The empirical support the idea that a trained mind is physically different from the untrained mind and the results could be used to explore the potentials of meditation in physical and mental health.
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Other studies show that gamma waves during meditation may be linked to feelings of heightened self-consciousness, happiness and concentration after meditation.

See more on the application of MBSR in section 7.5.

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Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour
factors and behaviour, but so far scanning can merely register structures and activity in the brain. It is not possible to determine cause-effect relationships at this point inscience.
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Brain-imaging techniques are used in neuroscience to investigate the relationship between behaviour and brain structures, for example after brain damage or to find out which areas of the brain are involved in which cognitive activities (cognitive neuroscience). Brain-imaging technology is a promising field in the investigation of a possible relationship between biological

Brain-imaging is a very expensive technique to use in research and this limits its use. PET, MRI and fMRI are some of the brain-imaging technologies in use in research.

PET scan: positron emission tomography

PET scans are used in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of diseases in medicine and neuroscience. When the brain is active it uses energy in the form of glucose (sugar) and oxygen. Before the PET scan the body is injected with glucose that contains small amounts of radioactivity (called a tracer).The PET scanner then registers the positrons that are emitted from the radioactive glucose and this can be seen on the screen. The scan produces coloured maps of brain activity. Strengths: I Shows where biochemical processes take place in the active brain.
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MRI scan: magnetic resonance imaging

MRI scans can give detailed pictures of internal structures in the body. The body consists, to a large extent, of water molecules. In the MRI scanner a radio frequency transmitter is turned on and it produces an electromagnetic field. Strengths I Particularly useful to show how the blood flows in the brain and can be used to identify problems with blood circulation. Can be used for the early detection of Alzheimers disease.
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Safe to use since no radioactive material is used.

Can be used to identify abnormalities in the brain.

Limitations I Very expensive to use.

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Limitations: I PET scans are expensive and often used in combinations with other scans (for example, MRI).
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Movement may affect the pictures. Ashtari et al (2009) did a MRI study to investigate if substance abuse (marijuana) can damage the developing brain in adolescents and young adults. I The researchers scanned the brains of 14 young men with a history of heavy marijuana abuse over a longer period. 14 healthy young men were used as controls.
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Difficult to localize specific areas with precision.

Frey et al. (2009) used PET scanning to find out whether patients who suffered from mild dementia or mild cognitive impairment should be diagnosed with Alzheimers disease or other kinds of dementia. I 66 patients were evaluated through standard neurological testing and anatomic brain imaging. Three clinical experts looked at the data to make a diagnosis. Then all patients underwent PET scans.
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After the PET scans the diagnosis was changed in 25% of the time. The PET scans provided more important signals for dementia than other examinations, for example, the deposits of amyloid plaque, which is a common indicator of Alzheimers disease was more often identified with the PET scan. Accurate diagnosis of dementia is critical for providing the best treatment in the beginning of the disease. PET scanning seems to be an efficient diagnostic tool as well as research tool in dealing with impairment in cognitive functioning that is related to changes in the brain.

The results of the scan indicated that there were brain abnormalities in the frontal, parietal and temporal regions of the brain. The researchers noticed that it was the development of white matter (myelin) which was affected and that this could explain slow information processing in the brain. They concluded that early marijuana use can affect brain development negatively but since the study gave correlational data more research is needed.

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