13

SHEET METALWORKING

Unlike bulk deformation processes, sheet forming involves workpieces with a high ratio of surface area to thickness. Products made by sheet-forming processes range in shapes and sizes, from jewelry to cans. Sheet forming, also called pressworking, can be dated back to as early as 5000 B.C. Figure 13.1 illustrates the three basic sheet metalworking groups of operations.

punch punch work die a) die b) die c) punch work work

blank holder

Fig. 13.1 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) shearing , (b) bending, and (c) deep drawing.

Sheet metal is produced by a rolling process. If the sheet is thin, it is usually coiled; if thick, it is available as flat sheets or plates. Before a sheet-metal part is formed, a blank of suitable dimensions is first removed from a large sheet by a cutting process. There are also other methods for cutting sheets and plates, such as flame cutting, laser cutting, and friction sawing.

Cutting operations
Shearing There are various operations based on the cutting process. Shearing is a sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between two cutting edges (Fig. 13.2) by means of a power shear (Fig. 13.3).

shearing punch work

shearing punch

work die front view

die side view

Fig. 13.2 Shearing operation.

Fig. 13.3 3-m power shear for 6.5-mm steel.

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Sheet Metalworking

CASE STUDY

THE BEVERAGE CAN

roducing a beverage can is a multibillion dollar industry - in 2000, more than 100 billion drinks cans were produced in the United States only and around 33 billion more throughout Europe. They are made from either steel or aluminum using advanced engineering and sophisticated technology. The manufacturing of a can, starting from the metal strip coils through the process of sealing the filled can, is an excellent illustration of the sheet metalworking technologies. The development of the can was initially for packaging food. Today the two piece beverage can is a highly efficient, technically advanced, lightweight container for carbonated soft drinks and beer. anufacturing cans is a high precision process which includes a total of 25 major steps, some of the most important manufacturing steps illustrated in a simplified way in the figure:

f you want to see a schematics of a large metal beverage cans manufacturing facility, check the largest manufacturer of recyclable aluminum beverage cans in North America, The Ball Corporation poster at www.ball.com/bhome/images/inbev.pdf.
Sources: The Can Makers web site http://www.canmakers.co.uk; The Aluminum Association http://www.aluminum.org

Blanking and punching Blanking and punching are similar sheet metal cutting operations that involve cutting the sheet metal along a closed outline (called sometimes die cutting). If the part that is cut out is the desired product, the operation is called blanking and the product is called blank. If the remaining stock is the desired part, the operation is called punching. Both operations are illustrated with the example of producing a washer (Fig. 13.4).
Punch Starting stock produced by shearing operation from a big metal sheet Scrap Washer

Blank

Blanking

Punching

Fig. 13.4. Steps in production of a washer.

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Die cutting Die cutting consists of the following operations: Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces usually when the adjacent blanks do not have matching contours Notching: removing pieces or various shapes from the edges Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material. Parts produced by these processes have various uses, especially in assembly with other components. Fine blanking Fine blanking can produce very smooth and square edges. It uses V-shaped stingers, or impingements, to lock the sheet metal tightly in place to prevent the distortion. The fine blanking process involves clearances on the order of 1% of the sheet thickness. The operation is usually performed by a triple-action hydraulic press so that the punch, the pressure pad, and the die are controlled individually. This process usually involes parts having holes, which are punched simultaneously with blanking. Slitting Slitting is similar to opening cans; the operation is carried out with a pair of circular blades that follow either a straight line or a circular or curved path. A slit edge normally has a burr, and it may be removed by rolling. There are two types of slitting equipment; one is the driven type with powered blades, and the other is the pullthrough type where the strip is pulled through idling blades. Engineering analysis The shearing process involves cutting sheet metal by subjecting it to shear stresses, usually between a punch and a die. It is like a paper punch with different shapes. The major variable in the shearing process are the punch force, the speed of the punch, lubrication, edge condition and materials of the punch and die, their corner radii, and the clearance between punch and die. The overall features of typical sheared edges for the two sheared surfaces, the slug and the sheet, are shown in the Figure 13.5.
punch

clearance, c burnished dimension fracture depth

rollover burr die

breakout dimension

die

burr

The rough surface on the slug is caused by cracks formed due to the Smooth (burnished) ideal shape shearing force. The smooth, burnished surface is from the contact surface and rubbing of the sheared edge against the walls of the die. The Fig. 13.5. Shearing of sheet metal. ratio of the burnished to rough areas on the sheared edge increases with increasing ductility of the sheet metal, and it decreases with increasing material thickness and clearance. For instance, a brittle metal, or one that is highly cold worked, requires little travel of the punch to complete shearing. Therefore the sheared edge has less burnished areas.

dishing

sheet thickness

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Sheet Metalworking

Clearance Clearance, c, is the distance between the punch and die. The clearance is the major factor determining the shape and quality of the sheared edge. As c increases, the edge becomes rougher, the zone of deformation becomes larger, and burr height increases also. If c is too small, excessive shearing forces occur (Fig. 13.6). The height, shape, and size of the burr can significantly affect many subsequent forming operations because a burr can lead to cracks. In addition, the sheared edges can undergo severe cold working because of the high strains involved, which can also adversely affect the formability of the sheet. Thus in practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10 percent of the thickness of the sheet, c = at where a is the allowance, a = 0.075 for steels, a = 0.06 for aluminum alloys, and t is the sheet thickness. The calculated clearance value must be subtracted from the die punch diameter for blanking operations or must be added to die hole diameter for punching (Fig. 13.7). An angular clearance must also be provided for the die hole to allow parts to drop through it (Fig. 13.8).

Fig. 13.6. Effect of clearance: (Left) clearance too small causes less than optimal fracture, (Right) Clearance too large causes oversized burr.

Punch c Blanking D c Die

Straight portion (for resharpening) Die

Punching

Angular clearance 0.3...1.5 deg. on side

Fig. 13.7. Die diameter is enlarged with clearance c in punching. In blanking, the punch diameter is decreased to account for clearance. D is the nominal size of the final product.

Fig. 13.8. Angular clearance for the die opening in punching and blanking.

Another factor that affects the sheared surface is the punch speed. With increasing punch speed, the heat generated by plastic deformation is confined to a smaller zone, i.e. the deformation zone is smaller. As a result, less material is subjected to high shear strains, and the sheared surface is smoother. Cutting forces The cutting force in all shearing operations, F, is the product of the shear strength of the sheet metal and the cross-sectional area being sheared. However, friction between the punch and the workpiece can increase this force. To approximate the maximum punch force, Fmax, the following empirical formula can be used:

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PROBLEM 13.1. DIE FABRICATION The die and punch in a blanking sheet-metalworking operation will be produced by a Wire EDM operation. DETERMINE: What diameter wire will be needed in the Wire EDM process if the die is used to shear 5-mm thick aluminum sheet metal? SOLUTION It is assumed that the die and punch will be produced concurrently in the Wire EDM process. Therefore, the kerf must be equal to the die clearance, which is defined as c = at, for aluminum a = 0.045, therefore the clearance in this case is c = 0.225 mm. This must be equal to the kerf wight but not to the wire diameter because the overcut in Wire EDM makes the kerf larger than the wire diameter. The value of the overcut is typically in the range of 0.02 to 0.05 mm. Assuming an average value of 0.035 mm, the wire diameter will be given by D = Kerf - 2 overcut = 0.155 mm.

Fmax = 0.7 (UTS)(t)(L), where UTS = ultimate tensile strength of the sheet metal, t = thickness, L = total length of the sheared edge, (e.g. L = D for a round hole of diameter D).

PROBLEM 13.2. BLANKING A round disk of 150 mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip of 3.2 mm cold rolled steel whose UTS = 440 MPa. DETERMINE: a) The appropriate punch and die diameters; b) Blanking force. SOLUTION a) Punch and die diameters The clearance, c = at athe clearance allowance; for steel a = 0.075 tstock thickness, t = 3.2 mm Then, c = 0.075 3.2 = 0.24 mm The blank is to have a diameter = 150 mm, and the die size determines blank size. Therefore, Die opening diameter = 150.00 mm Punch diameter = blank diameter 2c = 150 2 0.24 = 149.52 mm b) Blanking force Fmax = 0.7 UTS t L UTS = 440106 Pa t = 3.210-3 m L is the length of cut, L = blank diameter = 471.2 mm After substitution, Fmax = 0.7(440106)( 3.210-3)( 471.210-3) = 464.4 KN (about 52 tons)

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Sheet Metalworking

Tools and dies for cutting operations The formability of the sheared part can be influenced by the quality of its sheared edges. Many types of dies have been designed to provide minimal clearance for a variety of sheet thickness, and in a process called shaving, the extra material from a rough edge is trimmed by cutting. Punch and die shapes When the surfaces of the punch and die are flat, the cutting force builds up rapidly during shearing because the entire thickness is sheared at the same time. By beveling the punch and die surfaces as in Figure 13.2, the area being sheared at any moment can be controlled. This geometry is particularly suitable for shearing thick blanks because it reduces the total shearing force and the operations noice level. Simple dies When the die is designed to perform a single operation (for example, cutting, blanking, or punching) with each stroke of the press, it is referred to as a simple die (Fig. 13.9). Multi-operational dies More complicated pressworking dies include: v Compound die With a compound die in one station, several operations on the same strip may be performed in one stroke (Fig. 13.10). They yield higher productivity, but these operations are limited to simple shearing because the compound dies are somewhat slow, and the dies are more expensive than simple dies. v Progressive die In progressive dies, multiple operations, such as punching, bending, and blanking, are performed at high production rates at the same station. The sheet metal is fed through a coil strip, and the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed (Fig. 13.11).

Fig. 13.9. The basic components of the simple blanking and punching dies

Fig. 13.10. Method of making a simple washer in a compound blanking and punching die

Fig. 13.11. Progressive blanking and punching die for making a washer

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Tool and die materials The materials for pressworking dies are generally tool steels, and for high production rates, carbides are used. Lubrication is very important for reducing tool and die wear and improving edge quality.

Bending operations
Processes Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge. It is one of the most common metal working operations. It is used to form parts such as flanges, curls, seams, and corrugations. It is also used to impart stiffness to the part by increasing its moment of inertia. Bending operations involve the processes of V-bending and edge bending (Fig. 13.12): v V-bendingsheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-shaped punch and die. v Edge bendingbending of the cantilever part of the sheet around the die edge.
punch punch pressure pad work die 2) 1) die 2)

work

die 1)

Fig. 13.12. (Left) V-bending, and (Right) edge bending; (1) before and (2) after bending

Minimum bend radius In bending, the outer layers of the material are in tension and the inner layers are in compression (Fig. 13.13). Theoretically, the engineering strain at the outer and inner layers, eo and ei respectively, are equal in magnitude and are given by the equation: eo = ei = 1 / [2R/t) + 1], where R = bend radius, t = sheet thickness. Experimental evidence indicates that this equation holds reasonably well for ei, however the actual value of eo is considerably higher than ei. The reason is the shifting of the neutral axis (where ei = eo = 0) toward the inner surface. The length of bend is smaller in the outer region than in the inner region, and the difference between the outer and inner strains increases with decreasing R/t ratio, i.e. sharper bends. As the R/t ratio decreases, the tensile strain at the outer fiber increases and the material may crack after a certain strain is reached. The radius R at which a crack appears on the outer surface of the bend is called

Fig. 13.13. Stress and strain in bending of sheet metal.

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Sheet Metalworking

the minimum bend radius. The minimum bend radius is usually expressed in terms of its thickness, i.e. 2t, 3t, 4t, and so on. The minimum bend radius for various materials has been determined experimentally and is available in various handbooks. Some typical results are shown in the table below:
Table 13.1. Minimum Bend Radius for Various Materials at Room Temperature
Material Aluminum alloys Beryllium copper Brass, low-leaded Magnesium Austenitic stainless steels Low-carbon, low-alloy steels Titanium Titanium alloys Soft 0 0 0 5t 0.5t 0.5t 0.7t 2.6t Hard 6t 4t 2t 13t 6t 4t 3t 4t

Source: Kalpakjian, Serope; Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Third edition, p.p. 397.

Studies have also been conducted to establish a relationship between the minimum R/t ratio and a given mechanical property of the material. One such analysis yields an equation given by minimum R/t = (50/r) -1, where r = percent reduction of area in a tension test. From the equation, the R/t ratio approaches zero (complete bendability; i.e. the material can be folded over itself ) at a tensile reduction of area of 50%.
Bend allowance
BA1 A1 L1 L2 BA2 L3 A2

This is the stretching length that occurs during bending. It must be accounted to determine the length of the blank, Lb (Fig. 13.14), L b L BA

where L are the lengths of the straight parts of the blank, and BA are the bend allowances, A BA 2 ( R K ba t ) Fig. 13.14. Calculation of bend allowance 360 where A is the bend angle, t is the sheet thickness, R is the bend radius, Kba is a factor to estimate stretching, defined as follows: for R < 2t Kba = 0.33 for R 2t Kba = 0.50 Springback Because all materials have a finite modulus of elasticity, plastic deformation is followed by elastic recovery upon removal of the load. This recovery is known as springback in bending (Fig.13.15). Due to springback, the final bend angle is smaller and the final bend radius is larger. Springback occurs not only in flat sheets or plates, but also in bars, rods, and wires of any cross-section.

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PROBLEM 13.3. BENDING

A sheet-metal blank is to be bent in a V-bending operation as shown in the figure.

DETERMINE:

The starting blank size

SOLUTION
3 The starting length of the blank, L = L + BA Lthe length of the straight parts, L = 30 + 20 = 50 mm BAthe bending allowance given by BA = 2A(R + Kbat)/360 A is the bend angle, A = 90o Rbend radius, R = 5 mm tstock thickness, t = 3 mm Since R < 2t, Kba = 0.33 BA = 2 90 (5 + 0.33 3)/360 = 9.4 mm Therefore, L = 50 + 9.4 = 59.4 mm

30

R=5 20

A quantity characterizing springback is the springback factor, Ks, which is defined as: Ks = [(2Ri / t) + 1] / [(2Rf / t) + 1], where Ri and Rf are the initial and final bend radii respectively. Note that the springback factor depends only on the R/t ratio. A springback factor of 1 indicates no springback, and a springback factor of 0 indicates complete elastic recovery. Because the amount of springback depends on the stress level and the modulus of elasticity, E, of the material, springback increases with the stress level and with decreasing E. An approximate formula to estimate springback is: Ri /Rf = 4(RiY/Et)3 - 3(RfY/Et) + 1, where Y = yield stress of the material at 0.2 percent offset. To compensate for springback two methods are commonly used (Fig.13.16): Overbendingthe punch angle and radius are smaller than the final ones. Bottomingsqueezing the part at the end of the stroke.

Fig. 13.15. Springback in bending

Fig. 13.16. Compensation of springback by: (a) and (b) overbending; (c) and (d) bottoming

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Sheet Metalworking

Bending forces Bending forces can be estimated by assuming that the process is the simple bending of a rectangular beam. Excluding friction, the general expression for the maximum bending force, F, is: F = Kbf UTSwt2/D where Kbf is the constant that depends on the process, Kbf ranges from 1.2 to 1.33 for V-bending and from 0.25 and 2 for edge bending; UTS is the ultimate tensile strength; w is the width of bending; D is the die opening dimension as shown in Figure 13.17. This equation applies well to situations where the punch radius and sheet Fig. 13.17. Die opening dimension D, thickness are small compared to the die opening. The bending force (a) V-bending, (b) edge bending is also a function of punch travel. It increases from zero to a maximum and may decrease as the bend is completed. The force then increases sharply as the punch bottoms in the case of V-bending. Bending Operations Here are some common bending operations; some are performed on discrete sheet-metal parts and some are done continuously. Press brake forming Sheet metal or plate can be bent easily with simple fixtures using a press (Figs. 13.18). Long and relatively narrow pieces are usually bent in a press brake. This machine utilizes long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press and is suitable for small production runs. The tooling is simple and adaptable to a wide variety of shapes. Die materials may range from hardwood, for low-strength materials and small production runs, to carbides. For most applications, carbon-steel or gray-iron dies are used. Other bending operations Sheet metal may be bent by a variety of processes. Bending in a 4-slide machine allows making tubular parts,

Fig. 13.18. (Left) Press brake with CNC gauging system, (Right) Close-up view of press brake dies

Fig. 13.19. Dies and stages in the press brake forming of a roll bead

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such as bushings of various sizes. Bending of sheet metals can also be carried out with a pair of rolls, the larger one of which is flexible and made of polyurethane. The upper roll pushes the sheet into the flexible lower roll and imparts a curvature to the sheet, the shape of which depends on the degree of indentation into the flexible roll. Plates are bent by the roll-bending process. Adjusting the distance between the three rolls produces various curvatures. Beading In beading, the edge of the sheet metal is bent into the cavity of a die (Fig. 13.19). The bead gives stiffness, improves the appearance of the part and eliminates exposed sharp edges. Hemming Hemming, also called flattening, is the process in which the edge of the sheet is folded over itself. Hemming increases the stiffness of the part, improves its appearance, and eliminates sharp edges. Seaming involves joining two edges of sheet metal by hemming. Double seams are made by a similar process, using specially shaped rollers, for watertight and airtight joints, such as food and beverage containers.

Deep drawing

punch

Deep drawing is a sheet-metal operation to make blank hollow-shaped parts from a sheet blank. It was holder first developed in the 1700s, and it has become an work important metalworking process. In deep drawing, a flat sheet-metal blank is formed into a cylindridie cal or box-shaped part by means of a punch that presses the blank into the die cavity. The basic Fig. 13.20. Deep drawing of a cup-shaped part: (Left) start of the operation before punch contacts blank, and (Right) end of stroke operation produces both deep and shallow parts, and typical parts are beverage cans, pots and pans, containers of all shapes and sizes, sinks, and automobile panels. Figure 13.20 is a schematic illustration of A the process. At an intermediate stage during the deep drawing operation, the workpiece is subjected to the states of stress shown in Figure 13.21. On element A, the radial tensile stress is due to the blank being pulled into the cavity, and the compressive stress normal to the element is due to the blankholder pressure. With a free-body diagram of the blank along its diameter, the radial tensile stresses lead to compressive hoop stresses because of the reduction in the circumferential direction. These hoop stresses tend to cause the flange to wrinkle during drawing, thus requiring a blankholder under a certain force. The cup wall, like element B, is subjected principally to a longitudinal tensile stress. The punch transmits the drawing force through the walls of the

Fig. 13.21. States of stress in deep drawing.

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Sheet Metalworking

cup and to the flange that is being drawn into the cavity. The tensile hoop stress is caused by the cup being held tightly on the punch, and element B tends to elongate in the longitudinal direction with no change in its width, because it is constrained by the rigid punch. An important aspect of this operation is to determine how much stretching and how much pure drawing is taking place. The deformation of the sheet metal takes place mainly under the punch and the sheet begins to stretch, eventually resulting in necking and tearing. If the thickness of the sheet as it enters the die cavity is greater than the clearance between the punch and the die, the thickness will be reduced. This effect is known as ironing; it produces a cup with constant wall thickness. Thus the smaller the clearance, the greater the ironing, and the longer the cup (volume conservation). Blank holding force The blank holding force is selected so that the blankholder pressure is generally 0.7 to 1.0 % of the sum of the yield and ultimate tensile strength of the sheet metal. The improper application of the holding force can cause severe defects in the drawn parts such as (Fig. 13.22): (a) flange wrinkling or (b) wall wrinkling if the holding force is too small, and (c) tearing if the folding force is overestimated.

Fig. 13.22. Defects in deep drawing caused by inproper selection of the blank holding force.

Measures of drawing Two measures of the severity of a deep drawing operation are used, The limiting drawing ratio, LDR LDR is defined as the maximum ratio of blank diameter to punch diameter that can be drawn without failure, LDR = Db/Dp Here Db is the blank diameter and Dp is the punch diameter. LDR must be less than 2.0 for a feasible operation. If it is more than 2.0, the progressive deep drawing should be applied (Fig. 13.23). Thickness-to-diameter ratio t/Db To avoid wrinkling, the ratio of thickness to blank diameter is desirable to be greater than 1%.

Fig. 13.23. Blanked and drawn parts showing progression of drawing operation

Superplastic Forming The superplastic behavior of fine-grained alloys are obtained at certain temperatures and low strain rates. These alloys (Zn-Al and Ti) can be formed into complex shapes with common metalworking techniques. However, these materials must not be superplastic at service temperatures. Because their extreme strain-rate sensitivity, superplastic materials must be formed at sufficiently low strain rates (10-4 to 10-2). Forming times range from a

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few seconds to several hours, making this a batch-forming process due to its relatively long cycle time. The part shown in Figure 13.24 was made by superplastic forming. Die design considerations Clearance in deep drawing, c, is defined as usual as the distance between the punch and die. Clearances generally are 7 - 14% greater than the original sheet thickness. The choice of clearance depends on the thickening of the cup wall. If the clearance is too small, the blank may simply be pierced and sheared by the punch. The corner radius of the punch and the die are important. If they Fig. 13.24. Part produced by superplastic are too small they can cause fracture at the corners. If they are forming. too large, the unsupported area wrinkles. The most common tool materials for deep drawing are toll steels and alloyed cast iron. Other materials, such as carbides and plastics, may also be used depending on the application. Lubrication is important in lowering forces, increasing drawability, reducing tooling wear, and reducing part defects. Drawing forces The drawing force F required to perform a deep drawing operation is estimated roughly by the formula F = tDp UTS(DR -0.7) where DR = Db/Dp. The holding force Fh is defined as Fh = 0.015Y[Db2 - (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2] where Y is the yield strength of the material. Blank size determination The blank diameter can be calculated by setting the initial blank volume equal to the final volume of the part and solving the resulting equation for diameter Db.

Other sheet-metal forming operations

pad container

Rubber forming rubber pad The rubber forming process involves the use of work thick flexible material, such as rubber or polyureform block thane pad to form sheet metal over a positive form tooling plate press table block (Fig. 13.25). Polyurethanes are used because of their resistance to abrasion, resistance to cutting by burrs or sharp edges of the sheet metal, Fig. 13.25. The rubber forming process: (Left) start of the operation and long fatigue life. Because the outer surface before rubber pad contacts sheet, and (Right) end of stroke. of the sheet is not on contact with a hard metal surface during forming, it is protected from damage or scratches. The pressures used are usually on the order of 10 MPa (1500 psi). When selected properly, rubber forming can offer low tooling cost, flexibility and ease

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Sheet Metalworking

of operation, low die wear, no damage to the surface of the sheet, and capability to form complex shapes. Parts can also be formed with laminated sheets of various nonmetallic materials or coatings with this process. Advantages: small cost of tooling Limitations: for relatively shallow shapes Area of application: small-quantity production Hydroforming A process similar to rubber forming called hydroform or fluid-forming process controls the pressure over the rubber membrane throughout the forming cycle (Fig. 13.26). The maximum pressure can be up to 100 MPa (15,000 psi). This process allows close control of the part during forming to prevent wrinkling or tearing.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Fig. 13.26. Hydroform process: (1) start-up, no fluid in the cavity; (2) press closed, cavity pressurized with hydraulic fluid; (3) punch pressed into work to form part.

Stretch forming In stretch forming, the sheet metal is clamped around its edges and stretched over a die or form block, which moves upward, downward, or sideways, depending on the particular machine (Fig. 13.27). This process is primarily used to make aircraft wingskin panels, (1) (2) automobile door panels, and window frames. Fig. 13.27. Stretch forming: (1) start of the process; (2) form die is Even though this process is generally used for pressed into the work causing it to stretched and bent over the form. low-volume productions, it is very versatile Symbols: v - velocity, F - applied and economical. In most operations, the sheet is rectangular and is clamped along its narrower edges and stretched lengthwise, allowing shrinkage in width. To avoid tearing, the amount of stretching must be controlled carefully. In addition, stretching forming can not produce parts with sharp contours or re-entrant corners (depressions of the surface of the die). Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts Limitations: simple shapes Area of application: small-quantity production Spinning The spinning process utilizes rigid tools or rollers to form axisymmetric parts over a rotating mandrel. There are three basic spinning processes: conventional (or mandrel), shear, and tube spinning. The equipment for all these processes consists of a lathe with special features. In conventional spinning, a circular blank sheet metal is held against a rotation mandrel while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the material over the mandrel (Fig. 13.28). These tools may be controlled manually or by hydraulic mechanisms . This process is particularly suitable for conical or curvilinear shapes. Part diameters can be as large as 20 feet. Most spinnings are performed at

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room temperature. However, Chuck Blank Mandrel thick parts and metals with Follow block low ductility or high strength require elevated temperatures. Center Shear spinning (also known as power spinning, flow turning, hydrospinning, or spin forgSpinning ing) forms conical or curvitool linear shapes by keeping the Fig. 13.28. In conventional spinning operation, flat circular blanks are often formed into diameter of the part constant. hollow shapes such as photographic reflectors. In a lathe, tool is forced again a rotating disk, gradually forcing the metal over the chuck to conform to its shape. Typical parts made by this process are rocket-motor casings and missile nose cones . One roller can be used, but two are desirable to balance the radial forces on the mandrel. Parts with diameters up to 10 feet can be spun to close tolerances by shear spinning. When spun at room temperature, the part has a higher yield strength than the original material but lower ductility and toughness. Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts (up to 5 m or more) Limitations: only axially symmetric parts Area of application: small-quantity production

High-energy-rate Forming (HERF)

These are metal forming processes in which large amount of energy is applied in a very short time. Some of the most important HREF operations include, Explosive forming The most common explosive forming process consists of a workpiece clamped over a die. The air in the die cavity is evacuated and the workpiece is lowered into a tank of water. An explosive is place at a certain height in the tank and detonated. The shockwave generated exerts a pressure high enough to form the metal. A variety of

(1)

(2)

(3)

Fig. 13.29. Explosive forming: (1) set-up; (2) explosive is detonated; (3) shock wave forms part.

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Sheet Metalworking

shapes can be formed explosively, provided that the material is sufficiently ductile at high strain rates. Dies may be made of aluminum alloys, steel, ductile iron, zinc alloys, reinforced concrete, wood, plastics, or composites, depending on the number of parts to be formed. Figure 13.29 shows this process. With these explosive forming processes, safety becomes a very important consideration. Advantages: small cost of tooling, large parts Limitations: skilled and experienced labor Area of application: small-quantity production runs of large parts Electrohydraulic forming This is a HREF process, also called underwater-spark or electric-discharge forming, in which the source of energy is a spark from electrodes connected with a thin wire, as shown in Figure 13.30. Energy is stored in a bank of condensers charged with direct current. The rapid discharge of this energy through the electrodes generates a shock wave, which then forms the part. This process is essentially similar to explosive forming, except that it utilizes a lower level of energy and is used with smaller workpieces. Also, it is a safer Fig. 13.30. Setup of electrohydraulic forming. alternative. Magnetic-pulse forming In the magnetic-pulse forming process, the energy stored in a capacitor bank is discharged rapidly through a magnetic coil. The magnetic field produced by the coil crosses the metal tube, generating eddy currents in the tube. This current, in turn, produces its own magnetic field. The forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other, generating a repelling force between the coil and the tube. The forces generated collapse the tube over the inner piece (Fig. 13.31). The (1) (2) higher electrical conductivity of the workpiece, Fig. 13.31. Electromagnetic forming: (1) set-up in which coil is inserted into tubular workpiece surrounded by die, (2) formed part. the higher the magnetic force. Magnetic-pulse forming is used for a variety of operations, such as swaging of thin-walled tubes over rods, cables, plugs, etc., and for bulging and flaring. Advantages: can produce shapes, which cannot be produced easily by the other processes Limitations: suitable for magnetic materials Area of application: most widely used HERF process to form tubular parts