Anatomy Semester 1 Final 1. Anatomy and Physiology: 1.

Anatomy - the study of the form and structure and body parts Latin for to cut 2. Physiology the study of body functions 2. Levels of Organization in humans: 1. Atoms => Molecules => Cells => tissue => organ => organ system => organisms 3. Homeostasis 1. a state of balance in which the body's internal environment remains in the normal range/ stable internal environment 1. Receptors provide information about specific conditions in the internal environment 2. A set point tells what a particular value should be (body temp at 98.6 F) 3. Effectors cause responses that alter conditions in the internal environment Negative Feedback: When effectors bring level back towards normal, and are then subsequently shut down; basically, when conditions turn back to normal 1. Example: when blood pressure rises, the heart slows down

4. 5. Body Cavities 1. Axial: 1. cranial cavity brain 2. vertebral canal spinal cord 3. thoracic cavity viscera (organs within thoracic cavity) 1. mediastinum separates thoracic cavity into two compartments, which contain the right and left lung 2. diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the lower abdominopelvic cavity 4. abdomino-pelvic cavity viscera (organs within abdomino-pelvic) 1. abdominal cavity stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, and most of the small and large intestines 2. pelvic cavity enclosed by hip bones; contains large intestines, the bladder, and the internal reproductive organs 5. Head Cavities: 1. Oral Cavities teeth and tongue 2. Nasal Nose; divided by the nasal spetum 3. Orbital Cavities eyes 4. Middle Ear Cavities ear

6. Membranes: 1. parietal refers to the membrane attached to the wall of a cavity 2. visceral refers to the membrane that is deeper toward the interior- that covers an internal organ 1. Pleural membranes (lungs)are separated by a thin film of water fluid which they secrete. No actual space normal exists between these membranes, the potential space between them is called the pleural cavity 2. Pericardial membranes the heart 3. Peritoneal abdominopelvic cavity 7. Basic Chemistry 1. Branch of science that considers the composition of matter, and how this composition changes 1. Matter - Anything that has weight and takes up space 2. Atomic weight of an atom of an element approximately equals the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleas; electrons have little weight 3. Atomic number is the number of protons in the atoms of a particular element 1. Isotopes same atomic number, different atomic weight 4. Bonds 1. Ionic Bond Opposites Attract Na +, Cl -; tend to form crystal structures 2. Covalent Bonding - Stability is achieved when electrons are shared between bonded atoms 5. Chemical Reactions: 1. Synthesis 1. A+B =>AB 2. repair damaged tissues 2. Decomposition 1. AB =>A+B 2. digestion of food molecules 3. Exchange Reaction 1. AB+CD => AC + BD 2. acid reacts with a base producing water and a salt 6. Macromolecules: 1. Lipids organic substances that are insoluble in water but soluble in certain organic solvents, such as ether and chloroform 1. fats used to store energy for cell activities 1. fatty acids and glycerol 1. saturated single carbon carbon bonds 2. unsaturated double bonds 2. phospholipid consists of a glycerol portion and fatty acid chains 3. steroids complex structures that include 4 connected rings of carbon atoms 2. Carbohydrates provide much of the energy that cells require 1. consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 1. sugars carbohydrates with shorter chains 2. monosaccharides simple sugars with 6 carbon atoms 1. include glucose, fructose, and galactose, ribose and deoxyribose 3. disaccharides double sugars; complex carbohydrate 1. sucrose and lactose 4. polysaccharides complex carbohydrate 1. plant starch, used to make glycogen 3. Proteins structural materials, energy sources, or hormones; antibodies detect and destroy foreign substances in the body 1. made up of amino acids

7. Cells

1. Cell Part Cell Membrane Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum Rough Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatu Mitochondria Lysosomes Microfilaments and microtubules Centrosome Structure Protein and lipid molecules Lacks ribosomes, membrane bound sacs and canals Function Maintains integrity of cell and controls passage of materials into/out of cell Lipid synthesis, absorption of fats, metabolism of drugs

Ribosomes, membrane bound sacs Protein synthesis and canals Group of flattened membrane sacs Packages protein molecules for transport and secretion Membranous sacs with inner partitions Membranous sacs Thin rods and tubules Nonmembranous structure composed of two rodlike centrioles Motile projections attached beneath the cell membrane Membranous sacs Double membrane that separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm Dense, nonmembranous body composed of protein and RNA Fibers composed of protein and DNA Release energy from nutrient molecules and change energy into usable form Digest worn cellular parts or substances that enter cells Support the cytoplasm and help move substances and organelles within the cytoplasm Help distribute chromosomes to new cells during cell division Cilia propel fluid over cellular surfaces and a flagellum enables a sperm cell to move Contain and transport various substances Maintains integrity of nucleus and controls passage of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm Site of ribosome synthesis Contains information for synthesizing proteins

Cilia and flagella Vesicles Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus Chromatin

2. Cell Membrane 1. selective permeability - only certain substances can enter or leave the cell 1. composed mainly of phospholipid bilayer

Process PASSIVE: Diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Filtration ACTIVE: Active transport Endocytosis => Pinocytosis => Phagocytosis Exocytosis:

Characteristic Molecules or ions move from regions of higher concentration toward regions of lower concentration Carrier molecules move molecules through a membrane from a region of higher concentration to one of a lower concentration Water molecules move from regions of higher concentration toward regions of lower concentration through a selective permeable membrane Molecules are forced from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure Carrier molecules move molecules or ions through membranes from regions of lower concentration toward regions of higher concentration Particles go in Membrane engulfs droplets of liquid from surroundings (cell drinking) Membrane engulfs particles from surroundings (Cell eating) Particles go out

8. Cell Metabolism 1. Anabolism 1. cellular process that use smaller molecules to build larger ones (requires energy) 1. provides materials needed for cell growth and repair 2. dehydration synthesis: a chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule 1. Anabolic reaction that results in a water molecule being formed 1. Used to make polysaccharides, lipids and proteins 2. Catabolism 1. breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones 1. opposite of anabolism 2. Hydrolisis: water is used to split substances, reversal of dehydration synthesis 1. used to decompose carbs, lipids and proteins 3. Enzyme: proteins that control each of the interrelated reactions of metabolism, as well as the steps of DNA replication and protein synthesis 1. lower activation energy 2. controls rates of reactions 3. substrate (reactant) specific 1. shape of active site determines the substrate 1. active site: part of the enzyme molecule that temporarily combines with portions of the substrate molecules, forming an enzyme- substrate complex. This distorts or strains certain chemical bonds within the substrate, altering its orientation so they require less energy to react. 4. not consumed in the reaction 1. Factors that alter enzymes: 1. heat 2. radiation 3. electricity 4. chemicals 5. changes in pH 4. Energy: the ability to do work: common forms: heat, sound, light, electrical/mechanical 1. Where is the energy held? 1. Bonds between atoms 2. Energy is released when the bonds are broken: 1. ATP => ADP 1. Oxidation burning of glucose molecules; requires a lot of energy input, most is released as heat 5. ATP: 1. Adenine molecule 2. ribose molecule 3. a chain of three phosphate molecules 1. third phosphate attached by high-energy bond 2. ADP becomes ATP through phosphorylation 1. Energy transferred and utilized by metabolic reactions when the phosphate bond is broken 2. Energy transferred from cell respiration and to reattach phosphate

6. Cell Respiration: 1. Produces: 1. Carbon Dioxide 2. Water 3. Heat 4. ATP

2. 3. Glycolysisseries of reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme 1. Event one: Phosphorylzation: 1. AnaerobicNO OXYGEN REQUIRED 2. requires ATP 3. 2 phosphates added to glucose 2. Event two: Splitting (Cleavage) 1. 1 glucose (6-carbon molecule) is broken down to 2 pyruvates (3 carbons each) 3. Event Three: Production of NADH and ATP: 1. hydrogen atoms released 2. atoms bond to NAD to produce NADH 3. ADP is phosphorlyated to become ATP 1. 2 molecules of pyrovic acid produced 2. 2 molecules of ATP generated 1. Anaerobic: If oxygen is not available: 1. Electron transport system cannot accept new electrons from NADH 2. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid 3. Glycolysis is inhibited 2. Aerobic: if oxygen is available 1. Pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA 1. Citric acid cycle begins 2. Electron transport system functions 1. Carbon dioxide and water are formed 2. 34 molecules of ATP are produced per each glucose molecule

4. 5. Citric Acid Cyclealso called Krebs Cycle 1. Acetate group of acetyl coenzyme A combines with a 4-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate 2. This forms a 6-carbon molecule, citrate 3. As the cycle proceeds, citrate is recycled to oxaloacetate 4. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste product 5. ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are produced 6. Electron Transport Chain: a series of electron carriers located in the cristae of the mitochondria 1. NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to transport system 2. energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase 3. water is formed Cell Respiration type: What? What is produced: Glycolysis Beginning pathway for aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Glucose molecule is broken down through a series of reactions Two molecules of ATP, NADH and pyruvate

Kreb's Cycle

Energy producing reaction that occurs in the matrix of 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 the mitochondria. Pyruvate is broken down into H2O and ATP CO2 Passes electrons on during the process of chemiosmosis to regenerate NAD+ to form ATP; the energy level system drops each time (AD+> ATP) 32 ATP

Electron Transport Chain

Range: 36 38 molecules formed from cellular respiration 7. Carbohydrate Storage 1. Carboyhdrate molecules from food can enter: 1. catabolic pathways for energy production 2. anabolic pathways for storage 2. excess glucose stored as: 1. glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells) 2. fat 3. converted into amino acids

9. Tissues Type Function Epithelial Protection, secretion, absorption,

Location Cover body surface, cover and line internal organs, glands

Characteristic Lack blood vessels, readily divide; tightly packed; basement membrane: a thin sheet of fibers that underlines the epithelium Good supply of blood; cells are farther apart

Connective Muscle

Bind, support, protect; fill spaces; Widely distributed store fat; produce blood cells Movement

Attached to bones; walls Able to contract in response to of hollow internal specific stimuli organs; heart Cells communicate with eachother and other body parts

Nervous

Transmit impulses for Brain, spinal cord, coordination, regulation, nerves integration and sensory reception Epithelial tissues

Type Simple squamous

Function

Location

Picture:

Filtration,diffu Air sacs of the lungs, sion, osmosis, walls of the cappilaries, covers surface blood and lymph vessels

Simple cuboidal

Secretion, absorption

Ovaries, kidney tubules, ducts of certain glands

Simple columnar Absorption, secretion, protection

Linings of uterus, stomach and intestines

Pseudostratified squamous

Protection, secretion, movement of muscles

Lining of respiratory passages have goblet cells

Stratified squamous

Protection

Outer layer of skin; oral cavity; throat; vagina; anal

Stratified cuboidal Stratified columnar Transitional

Protection

Mammary glands; sweat It looks like stacked cuboidal glands; saliva and pancreas Male urethra and pharynx Urinary bladder; ureter and urethra Looks like stacked columnar

Protection; secretion Protection;; stackable; blocks diffusion

Connective Tissue: most abundant tissue in the body binds structures together provides support, protectino, framework, space, fat, produces blood cells, fights infection, helps repair has good blood supply Collagenous aka white fibers Made up of collagen (protein); grouped into long bundles; very flexible; Elastic aka yellow fibers Reticular Made up of elastin; branched structure; weaker, but stretchier than collagen Thin, collagenous fibers

Common types of Connective tissue: 1. mast cells (prevent blood clots) 1. fixed; 2. releases herapin and histamine 2. macrophages (phagocytic) 1. wandering 2. originate as white blood cells 3. fibroblasts (most abundant, produce fibers) 1. fixed 2. produce fibers by secreting protein Loose Connective tissue proper: a) Loose vs Areolar tissue => binds skin to underlying organs and organs to organs, space between muscles, throughout body b) adipose tissue aka FAT; beneath skin, around kidneys and eyeballs, abdominal membranes; functions: protective cushion, insulation to preserve body heat, stores energy, cells called adipocytes c) Fibrous connective tissue dense connective tissue, closely packed, thick collagenous fibers and fine of elastic fibers; few cells, poor blood supply = > slow healing 1. tendons connect muscles to bones 2. ligaments connect bones to bones Cartilage: condrocyte: cell found in cartilage; condroblast Hyaline Cartilage white collagenous fibers most common covers ends of bones, joingts, nose, respiratory passages Elastic Cartilage more flexible and elastic, external ear and larynx Fibrocartilage very tough, large numerous collagenous fibers, inevertebral disks, menisci Adipose layer beneath skin Areolar binds skin to internal organs Bone tissue osseus tissue, rigid due to mineral salts, skeleton Blood tissue circulates throughout body Reticuloendothelial liver, spleen, lymphatic organs Nervous tissue: found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves neurons transmit signals neuroglia protection, support

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Muscle tissue: a) Skeletal voluntary (Striated) skeletal muscles b) smooth in hollow organs, stomach involuntary (smooth) c) cardiac' wall of heart mix of striated and smooth 10. Skeletal System Bone Physiology: 206 bones Functions: protection, framework, movement, storage of calcium/bone cells Shapes Long Short Flat Irregular Femur, tibia Carpals, tarsals Scapula, sternum Mandible, sacrum

Sesamoid Patella (knee) Ossification: the process of forming bone; fetal development; Bone progenitor cells: Osteoblasts => build Osteoclasts => break down (c is for kill - Collins) Osteocytes => mature osteoblasts

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Bone Growth and Development: All bones start as connective tissue during fetal development, connective tissue is replaced by bone tissue stem cells => osteogenital => osteoblasts => osteocytes Intramembranous Not fully developed; start off as Flat bones of skull layers of connective tissue; Endochondral Masses of cartilage; center of bone; All other bones primary ossification

Ephiphysis ends of bones Hyaline Cartilage Proximal/distal helps to articulate with other bones Diaphysis shaft encloses the bone covered by periosteum thin layer of tissue Compact bone found in diaphysis osteon tightly packed tissue primary ossification (forms first) Spongy bone found in epithesis same amount of support as compact, less weight secondary ossification Medullary cavity hollow chamber filled with marrow red: blood yellow: fat lined by endosteum

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Bone Homeostasis: osteoclasts break down bone matrix and osteoblasts deposit bone matrix to continually remodel bone; the total mass of bone remains nearly constant bones store calcium in the extracellular matrix of bone tissue, which contains large quantities of calcium phosphatee when blood calcium is low, osteoclasts break down bone, releasing calcium salts. When blood calsium is high, osteoblasts form bone tissue and store calcium salts bone stores small amounts of magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate ions. Haversian canals: In compact bone, the osteocytes cluster around a central canal to form a cylinder shaped unit called an osteon osteons together form compact bone each central canal contains capillaries and nerve fibers surrounded by loose connective tissue

Skeletal Organization: axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage the appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, lower limbs Superior/ Inferior Superior = above Inferior = below Anterior/Posterior Medial/ Lateral Bilateral Proximal/Distal Superficial/ Deep Anterior = toward the front Posterior = toward back Medial = toward middle Lateral = toward side Paired structure; one on each side i.e. lungs Proximal = closer to point of attachment to trunk than other part Distal = further from point of attachment to the trunk Superficial = near surface Deep = further from surface

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Skull (22 bones) 1. Cranium: 1. encloses and protects the brain 2. include frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bone

3. 2. Facial: 1. include maxillae, palatine, zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal, vomer, inferior nasal conchae, and mandible

2.

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Vertebral Column 1. a typical vertebra 1. surrounds spiral cord 2. notches on the upper lower surface provide intebertebral foramina through which spianal nerves pass 2. Cervical Vertebra (7) 1. transverse processes bear transverse foramina 2. atlas (first vertebra) supports and balances the head 3. dens of axis (second vertebra) provides a pivot for the axis when the head is turned from side to side 3. Thoracic vertebra (12) 1. larger than cervical 2. facet on the sides articulate with ribs 4. Lumbar vertebrae (5) 1. the vertebral bodies are large and strong 2. support most weight 5. sacrum 1. five fused vertebrae 6. coccyx 1. composed of four fused vertebrae, shock absorber

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Thoracic cage (ribs, thoracic vertebrae, sternum, costal cartilage) 1. Ribs 1. twelve pairs of rib attach to the 12 thoracic vertebrae 2. costal cartilages of the true ribs join the sternum directly. Those of the false ribs join it indirectly or not at all 3. a typical rib has a shaft, head, and tubercles that articulate with the vertebrae 2. sternum 1. consists of a manubrium, body, and xiphid process 2. articulates with clavicles

Pectoral Girdle 1. clavicles 1. rodlike bones located between the manubrium and the scapulae 2. hold shoulders in place and provide attachment for muscles 2. Scapulae 1. articulate with the humerus of each upper limb and provide attachments for muscles

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Upper limbs 1. Humerus 1. extends from scapula to elbow 2. articulates with radius and ulna at elbow 2. Radius 1. located on the thumb side of the forearm between the elbow and the wrist 2. articulates with humerus, ulna, wrist 3. Ulna 1. longer than radius and overlaps with humerus posteriorly 2. articulates with the radius laterally with a disc of fibrocartilage inferiorly 4. Hand 1. wrist is composed of 8 carpal bones form carpus 2. palm of metacarpus includes 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges compose fingers

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Pelvic Girdle 1. sacrum, coccyx, and pelvic girdle form the pelvis 2. hip bone consists of fused region of the acetabulum 1. ilium 1. largest portion of the hip bone 2. joins the sacrum at the sacroiliac joint 2. ischium 1. lowest portion of hip bone 2. supports body weight when sitting 3. pubis 1. anterior portion of the hip bone 2. fused anteriorly at the symphysis pubis

Lower limb 1. Femur 1. extends from hip to knee 2. patella articulates with the femur's anterior surface 2. Tibia 1. located on medial side of leg 2. articulates proximally with femur and distally with talus 3. fibula 1. located on lateral side of tibia 2. articulates with ankle, does not bear body weight 4. foot 1. ankle consists of tarsus formed by talus and six other tarsal bones 2. instep or metatarsus 5 metatarsals and 14 phalanges of toes 3.

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11. Muscle structure

layers of fibrous connective tissue called fascia separate an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent muscles layers of connective tissue that closely surround a skeletal muscle is called epimysium fascicle bundle of skeletal muscles endomysium layer of connective tissue that bundle fascicles myofibrils lie parallel in sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of cell) Actin protein filaments troponin and tropomiosin are also part of the actin filament Myosin thick protein filaments Sacromeres striations of actin and myosin form a repeating pattern Neuromuscular junction: motor neurons stimulate muscle fibers to contract in response to a nerve impulse, the end of a motor neuron axon secretes a neurotransmitter, which stimulates the muscle fiber to contraction Role of actin and myosin: a) Cross-bridges of myosin filaments form linkages with actin filaments reaction between actin and myosin filaments of generates the force of contraction Stimulus of contraction: Acetocholine released from the distal end of a motor neuron axon stimulates a skeletal muscle fiber ACh causes the muscle fiber to conduct an impulse over the surface of the fiber that reaches deep within the fiber through the transverse tubules a muscle impulse signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions linkages form between actin and myosin, the myosin cross-bridges pull on actin filaments, shortening the fiber the muscle fiber relaxes when the cross bridges release from the actin (ATP is needed, not broken down though) and when calcium ions are actively transported (ATP breakdown) back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum Acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine ATP supplies energy, Creatine phosphate stores energy aerobic respiration threshold stimulus is the minimal stimulus required to elicit a muscular contraction twitch short contraction reflecting stimulation

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