Geology - Index

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
GEOLOGY
EDITED BY
RICHARD C. SELLEY
L. ROBIN M. COCKS
IAN R. PLIMER
ELSEVIER
ACADEMIC
PRESS
Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford
Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo
CONTENTS xxvii
Contents
Volume 1
A
AFRICA
Pan-African Orogeny
A Krner, R J Stern
North African Phanerozoic
S Lning
Rift Valley
L Frostick
1
12
26
AGGREGATES
34
M A Eden, W J French
ALPS See EUROPE: The Alps

ANALYTICAL METHODS
Fission Track Analysis B W H Hendriks
Geochemical Analysis (Including X-ray)
R H Warden
Geochronological Techniques
E A Eide
Gravity
/ R Smallwood
Mineral Analysis
N G Ware
43
54
77
92
107
ANDES
118
S M Kay, C Mpodozis, V A Ramos
ANTARCTIC
132
B C Storey
ARABIA AND THE GULF
/ A Al-Jallal, A S Al-Sharhan
140
VA Ramos
153
ASIA
Central
S G Lucas
South-East / Metcalfe
164
169
ARGENTINA
ASTEROIDS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

ATMOSPHERE EVOLUTION
197
S J Mojzsis
AUSTRALIA
Proterozoic
/ M Tyler
Phanerozoic J J Veevers
Tasman Orogenic Belt
D R Gray, D A Foster
208
222
237
B
BIBLICAL GEOLOGY
BIODIVERSITY
E Byford
253
A W Owen
259
BIOLOGICAL RADIATIONS AND SPECIATION

BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS
BIOZONES
BRAZIL
P L Forey
266
M R Walter, A C Allwood
279
N MacLeod
F F Alkmim, M A Martins-Neto
BUILDING STONE
A W Hatheway
294
306
328
xxviii
CONTENTS
c
CALEDONIDE OROGENY See EUROPE: Caledonides Britain and Ireland; Scandinavian
Caledonides (with Greenland)
CARBON CYCLE
G A Shields
CHINA AND MONGOLIA

CLAY MINERALS
335
H Wang, Shihong Zhang, Guoqi He
/ M Huggett
CLAYS, ECONOMIC USES
345
358
Y Fuchs
366
COCCOLITHS See CALCAREOUS ALGAE

COLONIAL SURVEYS
A J Reedman
370
COMETS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

CONSERVATION OF GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS
CREATIONISM
L Cornish, G Comerford
E Scott
373
381
D
DELTAS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deltas
DENDROCHRONOLOGY
M Bridge
387
DESERTS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deserts

DIAGENESIS, OVERVIEW
R C Selley
393
DINOSAURS See FOSSIL VERTEBRATES: Dinosaurs
E
EARTH
Mantle
Crust
GJH McCall
397
GJHMcCall
403
Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles)

EARTH STRUCTURE AND ORIGINS
EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
H Palike
GJH McCall
R C Selley
410
421
430
EARTHQUAKES See ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Aspects of Earthquakes;

TECTONICS: Earthquakes
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
G R Davis
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Overview
M S Rosenbaum
Codes of Practice D Nor bury
Aspects of Earthquakes
A W Hatheway
Geological Maps / S Griffiths
Geomorphology
M Lee, J S Griffiths, P G Fookes
Geophysics
/ K Gascoyne, A S Eriksen
Seismology J J Bommer, D M Boore
Natural and Anthropogenic Geohazards
G J H McCall
Liquefaction
/ F Bird, R W Boulanger, IM Idriss
Made Ground
/ A Charles
434
444
448
456
463
474
482
499
515
525
535
CONTENTS xxix
Problematic Rocks
F G Bell
Problematic Soils
F G Bell
Rock Properties and Their Assessment
F G Bell
Site and Ground Investigation
/ R Greenwood
543
554
566
580
Volume 2
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Site Classification
A W Hatheway
Subsidence
A B Hawkins
Ground Water Monitoring at Solid Waste Landfills
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY
/ W Oneacre, D Figueras
W E Dubbin
P Doyle
1
9
14
21
25
EROSION See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian

Processes; Fluxes and Budgets
EUROPE
East European Craton
R G Garetsky, S V Bogdanova, R Gorbatschev
Timanides of Northern Russia
D G Gee
Caledonides of Britain and Ireland
R A Strachan , J F Dewey
Scandinavian Caledonides (with Greenland)
D G Gee
Variscan Orogeny
W Franke, P Matte, J Tait
The Urals
D Brown, H Echtler
Permian Basins
A Henk, M J Timmerman
Permian to Recent Evolution
PA Ziegler
The Alps O AP fiffner
Mediterranean Tectonics
Carminati, C Doglioni
Holocent
W Lemke, J HarffA
34
49
56
64
75
86
95
102
125
135
147
EVOLUTION
160
S Rigby, E MEharper
F
FAKEFOSSILS
D I Martill
FAMOUS GEOLOGISTS
Agassiz
D R Oldroyd
Cuvier
G Laurent
Darwin
D R Oldroyd
Du Toit
/ C Loock, D F Branagan
169
174
179
184
188
Hall R H Dott, Jr
194
Hutton
D R Oldroyd
Lyell
D R Oldroyd
Murchison
D R Oldroyd
Sedgwick
D R Oldroyd
Smith
D R Oldroyd
Steno
/ M Hansen
Suess
B Fritscher
Walther
I Seibold
Wegener
B Fritscher
200
206
210
216
221
226
233
242
246
FLUID INCLUSIONS
A H Rankin
253
xxx
CONTENTS
FORENSIC GEOLOGY
K Pye
261
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES
Arthropods
LI Anderson
Trilobites
A WA Rushton
Insects
E A Jarzembowski
Brachiopods
D AT Harper
Bryozoans
P D Taylor
Corals and Other Cnidaria
C T Scrutton
Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)
A B Smith
Crinoids
M / Simms
Echinoids
A B Smith
Graptolites
R B Richards
Molluscs Overview
N J Morris
Bivalves
E M Harper
Gastropods
/ Fry da
Cephalopods (Other Than Ammonites)
P Doyle
Ammonites
G E G Westermann
Porifera
/ K Rigby
274
281
295
301
310
321
334
342
350
357
367
369
378
389
396
408
FOSSIL PLANTS
Angiosperms
P Kenrick
Calcareous Algae
/ C Braga, R Riding
Fungi and Lichens
T N Taylor, M Krings
Gymnosperms
P Kenrick
418
428
436
443
FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
Jawless Fish-Like Vertebrates
D K Elliott
Fish
/ A Long
Palaeozoic Non-Amniote Tetrapods
/ A Clack
Reptiles Other Than Dinosaurs
R R Reisz
Dinosaurs
A M Yates
Birds
G / Dyke, L M Chiappe
Swimming Reptiles
G W Storrs
Flying Reptiles
D Naish, D M Martill
Mesozoic Amphibians and Other Non-Amniote Tetrapods
Cenozoic Amphibians
A R Milner
Mesozoic Mammals
Z-X Luo
Placental Mammals
D R Prothero
Hominids
L R M Cocks
454
462
468
479
490
497
502
508
516
523
527
535
541
A R Milner
Volume 3
G
GAIA
GJHMcCall
GEMSTONES
C Oldershaw
GEOARCHAEOLOGY
L Joyner
GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION
GEOLOGICAL CONSERVATION
GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
14
M Cameron
/ E Gordon
A K Turner
21
29
35
CONTENTS xxxi
GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING
P Canard
43
GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES
G L Merries Davies
GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS
65
G L Jones
73
S J Cribb
GEOLOGY OF WHISKY
53
60
P M Allen
GEOLOGY, THE PROFESSION

GEOLOGY OF BEER
A Maltman
78
S J Cribb
82
GEOLOGY OF WINE / M Hancock 85
85
GEOMORPHOLOGY
90
GEOMYTHOLOGY
P H Rahn
A Mayor
96
GEOPHYSICS See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles); EARTH

SYSTEM SCIENCE; ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Seismology;
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY; MOHO DISCONTINUITY; PALAEOMAGNETISM;
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY: Exploration; REMOTE SENSING: Active Sensors; CIS;
Passive Sensors; SEISMIC SURVEYS; TECTONICS: Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean
Ridges
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS
D P Giles
100
G J H McCall
105
GLACIERS See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Glaciers

GOLD
MAMcKibben
118
GONDWANALAND AND GONDWANA
J J Veevers
128
GRANITE See IGNEOUS ROCKS: Granite

GRENVILLIAN OROGENY
R P Tollo
155
H
HERCYNIAN OROGENY See EUROPE: Variscan Orogeny
HIMALAYAS See INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
HISTORY OF GEOLOGY UP TO 1780
O Puche-Riart
167
HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1780 TO 1835
D R Oldroyd
173
D R Oldroyd
179
D F Branagan
185
HISTORY OF GEOLOGY SINCE 1962
U B Marvin
197
IGNEOUS PROCESSES
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Carbonatites
K Bell
Granite
AIS Kemp
Deceased
P D Asimow
209
217
233
xxxii
CONTENTS
Kimberlite
Komatiite
Obsidian
GJH McCall
N TArndt, C M Lesher
G / H McCall
IMPACT STRUCTURES
247
260
267
RAF Grieve
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
277
A B Roy
285
J
JAPAN
/ Tazawa
297
JUPITER See SOLAR SYSTEM: Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons
L
LAGERSTTTEN
S E Gabbott
LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES

LAVA
307
M F Coffin, O Eldholm
N Geshi
315
323
M
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
S G Lucas
MANTLE PLUMES AND HOT SPOTS
331
D Suetsugu, T Kogiso, B Steinberger
335
MARS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Mars

MERCURY See SOLAR SYSTEM: Mercury
MESOZOIC
Triassic
S G Lucas, M J Orchard
Jurassic
K N Page
Cretaceous
N MacLeod
End Cretaceous Extinctions
N MacLeod
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Classification, Nomenclature and Formation
Facies and Zones
K Bucher
PTt-Paths
PJ O'Brien
344
352
360
372
G Hoinkes, C A Hauzenberger, R Schmid
386
402
409
METEORITES See SOLAR SYSTEM: Meteorites

MICROFOSSILS
Acritarchs
K J Doming
Chitinozoa
F Paris, J Verniers
Conodonts
R J Aldridge
Foraminifera
M A Kaminski
Ostracoda
D / Home
Palynology
P Coxon, G Clayton
418
428
440
448
453
464
MICROPALAEONTOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES I J Slipper 470
470
MILANKOVITCH CYCLES See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch

Cycles)
MILITARY GEOLOGY
EPF Rose
MINERAL DEPOSITS AND THEIR GENESIS
475
G R Davis
488
CONTENTS xxxiii
MINERALS
Definition and Classification E H Nickel 498
Amphiboles
R A Howie
Arsenates K Hudson-Edwards 506
Borates
C Helvaci
Carbonates
B Jones
Chromates
PA Williams
Feldspars
R A Howie
Feldspathoids
M D Welch
Glauconites J M Huggett 542
Micas
R A Howie
Molybdates
P A Williams
Native Elements
P A Williams
Nitrates
PA Williams
Olivines
G Cressey, R A Howie
Other Silicates
R A Howie
Phosphates See SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Phosphates
Pyroxenes
R A Howie
Quartz
R A Howie
Sulphates
G Cressey
Sulphides
D J Vaughan
Tungstates
P A Williams
Vanadates
P A Williams
Zeolites
W S Wise
Zircons
G J H McCall
498
503
506
510
522
532
534
539
542
548
551
553
555
557
561
567
569
572
574
586
588
591
601
MINING GEOLOGY
Exploration Boreholes
M Vanecek
Exploration
N C White
Mineral Reserves
M Vanecek
Hydrothermal Ores
M A McKibben
Magmatic Ores
/ Mungall
609
613
623
628
637
MOHO DISCONTINUITY
645
P Giese
MOON See SOLAR SYSTEM: Moon
Volume 4
N
NEW ZEALAND N Mortimer
NORTH AMERICA
Precambrian Continental Nucleus
W Bleeker
Continental Interior
D F Merriam
Northern Cordillera J W H Monger, R A Price, W J Nokleberg 36
Southern Cordillera
AWSnoke
Ouachitas
K C Nielsen
Southern and Central Appalachians
R D Hatcher, Jr
Northern Appalachians
C R van Staal
Atlantic Margin
D R Hutchinson
8
21
36
48
61
72
81
92
xxxiv CONTENTS
o
OCEANIA (INCLUDING FIJI, PNG AND SOLOMONS)
I Smith, E Garaebiti, P Rodda
ORIGIN OF LIFE
H Davies, P Bani, P Black,
/ Bailey
109
123
p
PALAEOCLIMATES
B W Sellwood, P J Valdes
131
PALAEOECOLOGY E M Harper, S Rigby
140
PALAEOMAGNETISM
147
PALAEONTOLOGY
PALAEOPATHOLOGY
T H Torsvik
L R M Cocks
156
S G Lucas
160
PALAEOZOIC
Cambrian
N C Hughes, N A Heim
Ordovician
R A Fortey
Silurian
L R M Cocks
Devonian
G R McGhee
Carboniferous
A C Scott
Permian
P B Wignall
End Permian Extinctions
RJ Twitchett
163
175
184
194
200
214
219
PANGAEA
225
S G Lucas
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Overview
/ Gluyas
Chemical and Physical Properties
C Clayton
Gas Hydrates
M Hovland
The Petroleum System C Cornford 268
Exploration
/ R Parker
Production
KJ Weber, L C van Geuns
Reserves
R Arnott
PLATE TECTONICS
R C Searle
229
248
261
268
295
308
331
340
PRECAMBRIAN
Overview
L R M Cocks
Eukaryote Fossils
S Xiao
Prokaryote Fossils
M D Brasier
Vendian and Ediacaran MAS McMenamin 371
371
PSEUDOFOSSILS
D M Martill
382
PYROCLASTICS
R J Brown, E S Calder
386
350
354
363
Q
QUARRYING A W Hatheway
399
R
REEFS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Reefs ("Build-Ups")
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
A Feenstra, G Franz
407
CONTENTS xxxv
REMOTE SENSING
Active Sensors
G Wadge
CIS
P J Mason
Passive Sensors
/ G Liu
414
420
431
RIFT VALLEYS See AFRICA: Rift Valley

ROCK MECHANICS
JP Harrison
ROCKS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

RUSSIA
440
R C Selley
A S Yakubchuk, A M Nikishin
452
456
s
SATURN See SOLAR SYSTEM: Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons
SEAMOUNTS
S M White
475
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
Depositional Systems and Fades J Collinson
Alluvial Fans, Alluvial Sediments and Settings
K D Jger
Anoxic Environments
P B Wignall
Carbonate Shorelines and Shelves
D W J Bosence
Contourites
M Rebesco
Deltas
T Elliott
Deserts
N P Mountney
Lake Processes and Deposits
M R Talbot
Reefs ('Build-Ups')
B W Sellwood
Shoreline and Shoreface Deposits J How ell
Storms and Storm Deposits
P Myrow
485
492
495
501
513
528
539
550
562
570
580
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES
Erosional Sedimentary Structures J Collinson
Depositional Sedimentary Structures
/ Collinson
Post-Depositional Sedimentary Structures
/ Collinson
Aeolian Processes
N Lancaster
Catastrophic Floods
A J Russell
Deep Water Processes and Deposits
D J W Piper
Fluvial Geomorphology
/ Lewin, P A Brewer
Glaciers
M / Hambrey, N F Glasser
Karst and Palaeokarst
M J Simms
Landslides
S F Burns
587
593
602
612
628
641
650
663
678
687
Volume 5
Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes M Felix, W McCaffrey 1
Deposition from Suspension
IN McCave
Fluxes and Budgets
L Frostick
1
8
17
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Mineralogy and Classification
R C Selley
Banded Iron Formations
A Trendall
Chalk
/ R Ineson, L Stemmerik, F Surlyk
Chert
N H Trewin, S R Payers
25
37
42
51
xxxvi CONTENTS
Clays and Their Diagenesis

/ M Huggett
Deep Ocean Pelagic Oozes
R G Rothwell
Dolomites
H G Machel
Evaporites
A C Kendall
Ironstones
W E G Taylor
Limestones
R C Selley
Oceanic Manganese Deposits
D S Cronan
Phosphates
W D Birch
Rudaceous Rocks
/ McManus
Sandstones, Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution
SEISMIC SURVEYS
Gluyas
M Bacon
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
SHIELDS
62
70
79
94
97
107
113
120
129
141
151
P P Mclaughlin, Jr
K C Condie
159
173
SHOCK METAMORPHISM P S DeCarli
179
SOIL MECHANICS / Atkinson
184
SOILS
Modern
Palaeosols
194
203
G J Retallack
G J Retallack
SOLAR SYSTEM
The Sun
K R Lang
Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust
P Moore
Meteorites
G J H McCall
Mercury
G J H McCall
Venus
M A Ivanov, J W Head
Moon
P Moore
Mars
M R Walter, A J Brown, S A Chamberlain
Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons
P Moore
Neptune, Pluto and Uranus
P Moore
209
220
228
238
244
264
272
282
289
SPACE DUST See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust
STRATIGRAPHICAL PRINCIPLES
N MacLeod
295
STROMATOLITES See BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS

SUN See SOLAR SYSTEM: The Sun
T
TECTONICS
Convergent Plate Boundaries and Accretionary Wedges
G K Westbrook
Earthquakes
G J H McCall
Faults
S Stein
Folding
/ W Cosgrove
Fractures (Including Joints)
/ W Cosgrove
Hydrothermal Activity
R P Lowell, P A Rona
Mid-Ocean Ridges
K C Macdonald
Hydrothermal Vents At Mid-Ocean Ridges
R M Haymon
Propagating Rifts and Microplates At Mid-Ocean Ridges
R N Hey
Seismic Structure At Mid-Ocean Ridges
S M Carbotte
Mountain Building and Orogeny
M Searle
Neotectonics
I Stewart
307
318
330
339
352
362
372
388
396
405
417
425
CONTENTS xxxvii
Ocean Trenches
R J Stern
Rift Valleys
L Frostick
TEKTITES
428
437
G J H McCall
TERRANES OVERVIEW
443
L R M Cocks
TERTIARY TO PRESENT
Paleocene J J Hooker 459
Eocene
/ / Hooker
Oligocene
D R Prothero
Miocene J M Theodor 478
Pliocene
C Soligo
Pleistocene and The Ice Age
459
466
472
478
A Currant
THERMAL METAMORPHISM
TIME SCALE
TRACE FOSSILS
455
R Abart, R Milke
F M Gradstein, J G Ogg
486
493
499
503
P J Orr
520
u
ULTRA HIGH PRESSURE METAMORPHISM H-J Massonne 533
533
UNCONFORMITIES
541
A R Wyatt
UNIDIRECTIONAL AQUEOUS FLOW
/ Best
548
URALS See EUROPE: The Urals

URBAN GEOLOGY A W Hatheway 557
557
V
VENUS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Venus
VOLCANOES
G J H McCall
565
W
WEATHERING
Index
W B Whalley, P A Warke
5 81
591
Index
NOTE
Bold page number locators refer to complete articles on the various topics covered by this encyclopedia.
Illustrations and tables are indicated by italic page numbers.
Text is located by page numbers in normal print.
Cross references, prefixed by see and see also, are also listed at the end of each article.
A
a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:32 6 5:567-569,
S:571f
Aalenian stage 3:352t, 3:354f, 4:460-461
Atlantic Margin 4:104f
Global Standard Stratotype Sections and
Points (GSSPs) 5:506f
International Stratigraphic Chart (ICS)
5:517f
magnetostratigraphy 4:99f
Aar uplift 2:134f
Abathomphalus mayroensis 3:373
Abel, Othenio 2:235
Abereiddian stage 4:183 f
abernathyite 3:508f
Abitibi Belt, Canada 5:39
Absaroka sequence, North America 4:25,
4:26f, 4:27f9 4:28
absolute ages 1:77, 1:78, l:82t, 4:202f,
4:203
abyssal hills 5:384-386, 5:386f
Acadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:88, 4:90f,
4:91
Acanthodes 2:465
acanthodians 2:465
Acanthostega
cladogram 2:47Of
global distribution 2:472f
limbs 2:471f
physical appearance 2:467, 2:469
skeletal material 2:47If
Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429, 4:10f,
4:13f,4:15f, 4:350
accreted terranes
East European Craton 4:458f, 4:459f
New Zealand 4:5f
palaeoterranes 5:455
Russia 4:469f
southern Cordillera 4:53
Uralide orogeny 2:88, 2:89f
accretionary lapilli 4:387t, 4:390t
accretionary wedges 5:307-317
Annieopsquotch accretionary tract 4:82f,
4:85, 4:87f, 4:89
controlling factors 5:31 It
critical taper 5:309f
decollement 5:309, 5:309f, 5:310f,
5:311f95:315f,5:316f95:315f,5:316f95:315f,5:316f
East European Craton 4:459f
fluid flow 5:312, 5:313f
fluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f,

5:311f, 5:315, 5:316f
formation processes 5:307, 5:308f,
5:309, 5:310f, S:311f
methane hydrates 5:312, 5:314f
New Zealand 4:5f
obduction 5:315
oblique subduction 5:315, 5:316f
occurrences 5:307
ocean trenches 5:430?, 5:431-432, 5:435f
Ouachita Mountains 4:70-71
Russia 4:468, 4:469f
sediment thickness 5:311, 5:312f
seeps and vents 5:312
Siberian craton 4:462/", 4:463
stability 5:3 09f
subcretion 5.-309/", 5:314
tectonic erosion
background information 5:313
basement topography 5:314, 5:315f
fluid pressure effects 5:315, 5:316f
turbidites5:310f,5:311f
Acer trilobatum 2:419f
Acetabularia 2:433
achondrites 5:23It, 5:234f
acid rain 1:255, 3:383
Aconcagua 1:127, 1:153, l:155f
acritarchs 3:418-428
applications 3:427
biostratigraphy 3:425
Cambrian 4:169f
classification 3:422, 3:423f
clusters 3:420
colour changes 3:418-419, 3:419f
early Neoproterozoic 4:358-359
extraction methods 3:473
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361f
Mesoproterozoic 4:356/", 4:357
middle Neoproterozoic 4:360
morphology
excystment openings 3:420, 3:422f
flanges 3:419 f, 3:420
general discussion 3:419
microphotographs 3:421f
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f
wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
palaeoenvironmental distribution 3:426,
3:426f, 3:427f
Palaeoproterozoic 4:357
palaeotemperatures 3:419, 3:427
palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f

preservation 3:419
reef environments 3:427f
Silurian 3:426f, 4:191
Acropora palmata 4:506f, 4:507Acropora palmata 4:506f, 4:507
Actinoceras 2:391f, 2:392
Actinoceratids 2:391f, 2:392
actinolite 3:397,3:398 f, 3:401 f, 3:403,3:505
actinopterygians 2:466
active sensors 4:414
lidar 4:414, 4:415f
radar
altimetry 4:415
applications
earthquakes 4:418
ground motion measurements
4:417, 4:418f
roughness mapping 4:416
structural/geomorphological
mapping 4:416
subsidence 4:419
tectonic processes 4:418
volcanism 4:419, 4:419f
Doppler radar 4:415
imaging radars 4:415
operating geometries 4:415f
radar amplitude images 4:415, 4:417f
synthetic aperture radar systems
4:415t, 4:417, 4:418f
sensing techniques 4:414
sonar 4:414, 4:415f
active tectonics 5:425
Actonian substage 4:183 f
adakites 1:119-120, l:125f, 1:157-158,
1:350
Adamanian faunachron 3:345f
adamite 3:508t, 3:508f
Adelaidean stage 1:242
Adelaide Rift Complex l:215f, 1:220,
1:245, 1:248 f
adelite 3:508f
adelogyrinids 2:475
adenine 2:161, 2:162f
Adirondack Massif 3:155-156, 3:157f,
3:158f,3:159f,3:163f
Adriatic Sea 2:125, 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656
adularia 3:535
Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) 4:616
592
INDEX
Advanced Visible Infrared Image

Spectrometer (AVIRIS) 4:438, 4:438t
Aegean stage 3:34Sf
aegerine/aegirine 3:221t, 3:567
Aegir Ridge 1:101 f
Aegir Sea 4:155f, 4:155-156, 4:353f,
4:354, 5:455
aeolianites 4:134
aeolian systems 4:612-627
accumulation processes 4:623, 4:623f
aeolian deposits
desert pavement (reg) 4:626
loess l:528t, 1:555-556, l:556f, 3:94,
4:2^,4:616, 4:617f
sand dunes
aeolian placers 3:604
dune processes 4:620
lamination 4:599
linear trends 4:622f
liquefaction 1:5 28t
morphology 4:540, 4:541f, 4:619f
relict dune systems 4:625f
sedimentary structures 4:621^
4:622
sediment characteristics 4:622
wind variability 4:620f
sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,
4:622f
wind ripples 4:618
climatic effects 4:626
controlling factors 4:624f
dust deposition 4:626/", 4:627
Mojave Desert, United States 4:624f
preservation 4:623, 4:623f
sand dunes
general description 4:618
lamination 4:599
liquefaction l:528t
morphology 4:540, 4:541f, 4:619f
petroleum reservoirs 4:235t
sedimentary structures 4:621 f, 4:622
sea-level changes 4:626, 4:626f
wind
creep (reptation) 4:612-614, 4:613f
erosion processes
agricultural lands 4:614f
dust storms 4:616, 4:616f, 4:617f,
5:21, 5:273, 5:274/
landforms 4:615, 4:615f
Mars 5:273, 5:274f
particle size 4:613f
saltation 4:612-614, 4:613f
sediment transport 4:612
suspension processes 4:612-614,
4:613 f
transport modes 4:613 f

wind profiles 4:612f
wind shear velocity 4:613f
aerial photography
colonial surveys 1:372
engineering geomorphology 1:476
field mapping 3:44
geoarchaeology 3:16
mineral exploration 3:616t
passive sensors 4:432
Aeronian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f, 4:187f,
5:511f,5:517f
Aerosaurus 2:486-487
Aethocrinus moorei 2:346, 2:346f
Afar Triple Junction 5:481-482
Afghanistan 3:7t, 3:12, 3:344, 4:215-216
Africa
Carboniferous glaciation 4:208f
gemstones 3:7t
Gondwana 3:128
Homininae 5:49It
marine reptiles 2:504-505
Miocene
evaporites 1:24
mammals 5:484
Oligo-Miocene rifting 1:17
Namibia 4:164
North Africa 1:12-25
Atlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, l:16f,
1:17
black shales 1:21, l:22f
Cambrian l:14f, I:15f9 1:18, l:18f,
1:19 f
Carboniferous l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f,
1:21
Cretaceous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:22f,
l:23,l:23f,l:24f
depositional history
Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, l:18f,Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, l:18f,
l:19f,l:20fl:19f,l:20f
Campanian-Maastrichtian 1:22f,
1:23, 1:24, l:24f
Carboniferous l:19f, 1:21
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary
l:22f, 1:23
Cretaceous 1:19f, I:22f
1:23,1:23f,
9
1:24 f
Devonian l:19f, l:20f, 1:21, l:22f
Eocene 1:24, l:24f
evaporites 1:21, 1:24
Holocene 1:25
Infracambrian 1:17, 1:19 f
Jurassic 1:19f, 1:23, 1:23 f
Miocene 1:24
nummulitic limestones 1:24, 1:24f
Permo-Triassic l:19f, 1:21
Silurian 1:18, 1:19f, l:20f, l:22f
Devonian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,
l:21,l:22f
Eocene 1:24, l:24f
glaciation 1:18
Holocene 1:25
Jurassic l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f, 1:23,1:23f
Miocene 1:17, 1:24

Oligocene 1:17
Ordovician l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19f, 1:20 f
Permian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
petroleum reserves 1:12, l:14f, 1:24
Phanerozoic chronostratigraphy 1:14f
rift valleys 1:16, l:16f, 1:17
Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17,
1:23
sedimentary basins 1:13, l:13f
Silurian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,
l:20f, l:22f
structural evolution
Alpine Orogeny 1:17
Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, 1:16f
Infracambrian tectonic processes
1:13
Mesozoic extensional phase 1:16,
l:16f
post-Infracambrian/pre-Hercynian
tectonic map 1:15f
Tertiary I:14f9 l:15f9 l:15f
Triassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17
Oligocene 5:476
Pan-African orogeny 1:1-12
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3f,
l:4f, l:5f
belt distribution l:2f
Cambrian 4:165
central Africa 1:10, l:llf
Damara Belt I:2f9 1:7
Gariep Belt l:2f, 1:8
Gondwana correlations 1:11
Kaoko Belt l:2f, 1:9
LufilianArcL-2/;i:7, l:8f
Madagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7f
Mozambique Belt I:2f9 l:3f, 1:4, l:5f,
1:7f
north-eastern Africa 1:10
Phanerozoic 1:307-308, l:308f
Precambrian 4:378
pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3f
Rokelide Belt l:2f, 1:10
Saldania Belt l:2f, 1:8
Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, l:10f
ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks
5:53 6f
West Congo Belt l:2f, 1:9
Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, l:8f
Pliocene 5:49It
Agadir fault 2:97
agardite 3:508f
Agassiz, Louis 2:174-179
Buckland, William 2:177
catastrophism 2:177
Cuvier, Georges 2:174
Discours de Neuchdtel 2:176
early career 2:174
Etudes sur les Glaciers 2:176
INDEX 593
Agassiz, Louis (continued)

evolutionary theories 2:178
fossil fish research 2:175
glaciation 1:430, 2:209, 3:181, 4:663,
5:493
glaciation research 2:176, 2:177f
Great Lakes glaciation 2:178
Harvard career 2:175
Lepisosteus 2:176
Lyell, Charles 2:175, 2:177-178
major publications 2:176
Murchison, Roderick 2:177-178
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University 2:175
National Academy of Sciences 2:175
portrait 2:175f
publications 3:62
research publications 2:176
taxonomic classification system
2:175-176
tropical glaciation 2:178
Wollaston Medals 3:62
agates 3:13, 5:60-61
Agenian mammalian age 5:479f
aggregates 1:34-43
applications
bituminous construction materials
1:41
concrete 1:42
mortar 1:42
railway track ballasts 1:41
unbound pavement construction 1:42
background information 1:34, 4:399
classification 1:34, 1:36
grading process 1:36, 1:37f
investigation process 1:35
military geology 3:478
particle shape
elongation index (British Standard
812) 1:38
examples 1:3 8f
flakiness index (British Standard 812)
1:38
petrographic studies 1:38, 1:39f
sources 1:34, 1:35
testing procedures
abrasion value (British Standard 812)
1:40
chemical tests 1:41
concrete prism test 1:41
crushing value (British Standard 812)
1:40
density 1:39
Franklin point load strength 1:40,
1:575, L-576*, 1:577f
freeze-thaw test 1:40
impact value (British Standard 812)
1:39
Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM
C131/C535) 1:40
magnesium sulphate soundness test
(British Standard 812) 1:40
methylene blue absorption test 1:41

Micro Deval test 1:40
mortar bar test 1:41
polished stone value (British Standard
812, part 114) 1:40
Schmidt Rebound Hammer value 1:40
slake durability test 1:41, 1:577,
1:577f
10% fines value (British Standard 812)
1:40
water absorption 1:39
Aglaophyton major 2:438f, 2:439f
agnathan diversity 2:456, 2:462
Agricola 3:497, 3:500
Agulhas Ridge 3:316t
Aiken, Sarah 2:195
Ainiktozoon loganense 2:280f
Airy, George 1:98, 3:183
aistopods 2:473/", 2:475
Akidograptus acuminatus 4:176
akimotite 5:183t
Alabama, United States 4:72, 4:73f
alabandite (MnS) 3:575;
Alamo impact event 4:199
Alaska, United States 3:123, 3:237*, 4:8,
4:36-47, 5:466, 5:476
Alaunian stage 3:345f
Albanerpeton inexpectatum 2:526f
albanerpetontids 2:521f, 2:523, 2:525,
2:526f
Albania 3:237t
Albany Fraser Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211,
l:213f, l:214f, 1:219, l:239f, 3:164f,
4:352
albedo
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:320f
Mercury 5:239-240
soils 3:85-87
Albemarle canyon 4:106f
Alberti, Frederich August von 3:344
Albian-Cenomanian boundary 1:326,
3:147
Albian stage
anoxic events 3:363
Brazil l:322f, l:324f, 1:325f, 1:326
chronostratigraphy 3:361f
5:517f
marine invertebrates 3:367f, 3:380f
marine microfossils 3:378f
marine vertebrates 3:368f, 3:381f
protist families 3:366f
sea-level variations 3:364, 3:364f
terrestrial invertebrates 3:369/", 3:381f
terrestrial vertebrates 3:369f, 3:382f
vegetation 3:370f, 3:383f
albite 3:235*, 3:243f, 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535,albite 3:235*, 3:243f, 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535,
3:631-632, 5:533f
alchemy 3:168
Alcudian stage 4:167f
Aldan-Stanovoy Shield 4:461
alder flies 2:300*

aldermanite 5:126
Aldrin, E. 5:266*
Aleutian Islands 3:237*, 4:45
Aleutian Range 4:45
Aleutians Trench 5:430*, 5:43 Of
Aleutian-Wrangell magmatic arc 4:38
Alexander Island 3:154
Alexander terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46
alfisols 5:^96*, 5:199, 5:200
algae
applications 3:427
clusters 3:420
Mesoproterozoic 4:356f, 4:357
morphology
flanges 3:419f, 3:420
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422/
wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
palaeoenvironmental distribution
3:426, 3:426/, 3:427/
preservation 3:419
Silurian 3:426f
biokarst 4:680-681, 4:681f
calcareous algae 2:428-436
Archaeolithophyllum 2:435f
calcified cyanobacteria 2:434, 2:435f
carbonate sedimentation 3:524f, 3:529
Cayeuxia 2:435f
chlorophyta (green algae)
charophyceae 2:433, 2:434f
cyclocriniteae 2:433
dasycladales 2:432, 2:433f
Halimeda 2:432, 2:432f
halimedales 2:432
coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:431f
extraction methods 3:471, 3:472f
gymnocodiaceae 2:434
haptophyta 2:430, 2:431f
Landscape Marble, Bristol District,
England 4:382, 4:383^
Palaeocene 2:433/i 5:462
Phanerozoic 2:428, 2:428f
phylloid algae 2:434, 2:435f
reef environments 2:243, 2:244,
2:428, 2:429f
rhodophyta (red algae)
corallinales 2:428, 2:429f
Lithothamnion 2:429f
peyssonneliaceae 2:430, 2:430f
Polystrata 2:430f
594
INDEX
algae (continued]
solenoporaceae 2:429, 2:430f
Solenoporella 2:430f
shorelines and shelves 4:506
stratigraphic range 2:428f
Carboniferous 4:212
dinoflagellates 5:462
Doushantuo Formation, China 4:360,
4:361f
eukaryotes
early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:3S9f
green algae 4:358-359, 4:359f, 4:360
red algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:360, 4:361f
Jurassic 3:355, 3:356
lichens 2:441
Miocene 5:482
Oligocene 5:476
stramenopile algae 4:358, 4:360
Vendian 4:376
Algeria 1:12-25, 5:236
alkanes 4:248, 4:249f
allargentum 3:553, 3:553?
Alleghanian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:79,
4:88-89, 4:90f9 4:91
Allen, John 3:189
Allochthon Boundary Thrust 3:162
allochthonous (detrital) sediments
classification 5:26, 5:26t
conglomerates 5:26
sandstones 5:27, 5:2 7f
allocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490
allogromids 3:45Of
allophane 1:561
Allosaurus 2:493f
alloys 3:18, 3:19f, 3:553-554
alluvial environments 4:492-494
alluvial fans
deserts 4:540, 4:541f9 4:542
facies analysis 4:489f
occurrence 4:492
petroleum reservoirs 4:23St
rudaceous rocks 5:135, 5:138f
alluvions 4:492
alluvium
densities 5:321f
ground subsidence 2:13
physical properties l:483t
shock metamorphic effects 5:180t
anthropogenic impact 4:493
colluvial fans 4:492
composition factors 4:492
fluvial deposits 4:493
Holocene 4:493
Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP)
3:285, 3:296
nomenclature 4:492
riverine deposits 4:492
sequence stratigraphy 5:166-167
shorelines and shelves 4:57If
South-east Asia 1:178f
stratigraphic dating 4:492

almandine 3:561
Alpha-Mendeleyev Ridge 3:316t
Alphonso X 3:168
Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,
4:471
Alportian subdivision 4:202f
Alps 2:125-135
alpine nappe structures
internal deformation 2:130, 2:13If,
2:132f
Suess, Eduard 2:241, 2:241f
thrust faults 2:130, 2:130f9 2:131f
Alpine-type mountain building 5:420,
5:42 If
Central Alps 2:117, 2:128f, 2:129,
2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:654, 3:655f
Eastern Alps 2:128f, 2:129, 2:133-135
gemstones 3:12
geomorphology 2:125, 2:126f
mountain-building processes
crystalline basement rocks 2:133'f
erogenic process 2:134f
subduction zones 2:133f
Suess, Eduard 2:235
Oligocene 5:477
orogenic events 2:136, 2:13 7f
palaeogeodynamics 2:138'f, 2:139f,
2:140f, 2:142f
palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:127f,
2:77f
Pliocene 5:488
rock types 2:127
structure 3:65Of
subsurface geological structure
Central Alps 2:128f, 2:129,
2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:655f
Eastern Alps 2:128f, 2:129,2:133-135
Western Alps 2:127, 2:128f,
2:133-135
tectonic units
Adriatic margin 2:125, 2:128f, 2:132,
2:132f
Eurasian plate 2:125
European margin 2:125, 2:128f,
2:132, 2:132f
Penninic nappes 2:126-127
tectonic map 2:126f
5:536f, 5:537
Variscides Orogeny 2:75
Western Alps 2:117, 2:133-135
Alquist-Priolo Act 1:458
Altaid Collage 4:458f, 4:465
Altai-Mongol domain 4:465, 4:466f
Altai Mountains 4:456
Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:122f, l:123f,
1:126, 1:153
Alto Paranaiba Arch, Brazil 1:309, 1:309f
Aluk Plate 5:462
aluminosilicates 3:562, 3:562f
aluminum (Al)
carbonatites 3:223?
crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174t
glauconite 3:542?
kimberlites 3:248t
mineral analysis l:108t
natural occurrences 3:553?, 3:554
obsidian 3:269?
oceanic manganese nodular deposits
5:114t
Venus 5:247?
alumotungstite ((W,A1)(O,OH)3) 3:557?
alunite 3:631-632
alvanite((Zn,Ni)Al4(VO3)2(OH)12-2H2O)
3:559?
alvikite 3:220-221
Amadeus Basin 3:139
amalgams 3:119?, 3:553-554
Amalthea 5:254?, 5:285
Amazonas basin l:316f, l:317f, 3:129
Amazon craton
banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:39
Cambrian 3:128
orogenic belts 3:164f
schematic map 1:311 f
suture zones 1:312f
tectonic map l:307f, 3:132f
Amazon River 4:651?, 5:19?, 5:20f
amber 2:172, 2:274-275, 2:275 f
Ambulararia 2:335
ameghinite (NaB3O5-2H2O) 3:513?
American Association for the Advancement
of Science 2:195, 3:64
American Association of Geologists 2:195
American Association of Petroleum
Geologists 3:190-192, 3:41, 3:64
American Institute of Professional
Geologists 3:75, 3:77?
Ames impact structure, Iowa, United States
3:284
Amgan stage 4:167f
amicite 3:593?
amino acids 4:127
ammodiscana 3:45If
ammonia 3:629?
ammonioleucite 3:593?
ammonites 2:396-407
aptychi 2:398, 2:399f
architecture 2:396
bathymetry 2:404, 2:405f
black shales 4:497, 4:499/r
buoyancy 2:402, 2:403f
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary
3:379, 3:380f
feeding habits 2:404
growth stages 2:399
habitat 2:404, 2:406f
hydrostatics/hydrodynamics 2:402,
2:403f, 2:40Sf
Jurassic 3:307-308, 3:352, 3:357
longevity 2:399
Maastrichtian-Danian boundary 3:375f
INDEX 595
ammonites (continued]
migration 2:404
morphology 2:396, 2:397f
organism reconstruction 2:402, 2:403f
phylogenetic relationships 2:398, 2:400f
poise 2:402, 2:403f
post-mortem drift 2:404
predators 2:404
pyritized fossils l:377f, 3:312
septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401
sexual dimorphism 2:400-401, 2:401f
stability 2:403f
sutures 2:398, 2:399f, 2:401
ammonoids 3:348f, 3:349
amniotes
Carboniferous 4:211-212
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:478
phylogenetic relationships 2:480f
synapsids 2:479
tetrapods 2:468
See also reptiles (Reptilia)
Ampferer, Otto 2:251-252, 3:193
amphibians
albanerpetontids 2:521/", 2:523, 2:525,
2:526f
caecilians 2:521/", 2:522, 2:525
Cenozoic 2:523-526
albanerpetontids 2:525, 2:526f
assemblages 2:523
caecilians 2:525
2:523
frogs
Latonia gigantea 2:524
Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524,
2:524f
Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525f
salamanders
Andrias scheuchzeri 2:525f
Piceoerpeton 2:524-525
Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369f
end-Permian extinctions 2:516
frogs 2:521, 2:521/", 2:524, 2:524f,
2:525f
Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:521 f, 2:523
caecilians 2:521f9 2:522
Celtedens ibericus 2:521 f
Eocaecilia micropodia 2:521 f
frogs 2:521, 2:S21f
general discussion 2:516, 2:521
Karaurus sharovi 2:521 f
salamanders 2:52If, 2:522
Shomronella jordanica 2:521 f
Triadobatrachus massinoti 2:521 f
Valdotriton gracilis 2:522f
Mesozoic 2:516-523
Chroniosuchians 2:520
fossil assemblages 2:516

Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:521 f, 2:523
caecilians 2:521 f, 2:522
frogs 2:521f
salamanders 2:521f, 2:522
temnospondyls
Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:520f
Capitosauroidea 2:518, 2:519f
Chigutisauridae 2:519, 2:519f
Jurassic 2:520
Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520^
Plagiosauridae 2:519, 2:519f
Rhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:517f
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f,
2:518f
Trematosauroidea 2:517, 2:518f
origins 2:468
Pleistocene glaciations 2:526
Rhytidosteroidea 2:517f
salamanders 2:521f, 2:522, 2:524,
2:525f
temnospondyls
Aphaneramma rostratum 2:517f
Batrachosuchus haughtoni 2:520f
Benthosuchus sushkini 2:518f
Buettneria perfecta 2:518f
Cyclotosaurus robustus 2:517f
Gerrothorax rhaeticus 2:519f
Jurassic 2:520
Lyrocephaliscus euri 2:517f
Mastodonsaurus 2:517f
Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520f
Paracyclotosaurus davidi 2:519f
Peltostega erici 2:517f
Sideropskehli2:519f
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f
Thabanchuia oomie 2:520f
amphiboles 3:503-506
carbonatites 3:221t
chemical variations 3:505f
crystal structure 3:503, 3:504f
element substitution 3:503-504
granites 3:235?, 3:242
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256t, 3:257f
melting processes 3:21 If
radiometric dating 3:504
spectral data 1:111 f
See also hornblende
amphibolite facies
Appalachians 4:74f
composition 3:403
continental collision tectonics 3:404f
definition 3:387t
mineral assemblages 3:397f, 3:398f,
3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401f
Paris Basin 2:84
pressure-temperature conditions 3:403f
regional metamorphism 3:396f, 4:409,

4:409f, 4:410,4:413
temperature-depth diagram 3:412f
volatile components 3:407f
Amsbergian subdivision 4:202f
Amurian Plate 4:471, 4:472f
Anabar Shield 4:461
Anadarko Basin 4:32f
anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 f
analcime 3:593t
anapaite 5:122
anapsids 2:479
anaspids 2:458, 2:462
Anatolepis 2:455
Anatolia 2:144
Ancestral Rocky Mountains orogeny 4:52
Anchicodium 2:434
Anchitherium 5:484
ancient landslides 4:690f, 4:691
Ancylus Lake 2:150-151, 2:153f
andalusite 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241 f,
3:243f, 3:562, 3:562f
Andaman Sea 4:53-54
Andean Orogen 1:238f
andesine 3:534f, 3:535
andesites
Altiplano-Puna Plateau l:123f, 1:126
Andes Mountains 1:128, 1:157
explosive eruption characteristics 4:3871
geotechnical properties 1:545t
lava/lava flows 3:325, 3:325f, 3:327
Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:98
Pyrenees 2:99
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:24If
tridymite 3:571
Andes Mountains 1:118-131
Argentina
fold-and-thrust belts
Cordillera Principal belt 1:158
Fueguian fold-and-thrust belt 1:159
Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt
l:125f, 1:128, 1:158
Santa Barbara fold-and-thrust belt
1:127, 1:158
Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158
sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt
1:127, 1:158
geochemical analysis 1:157f
geological settings 1:153
volcanism 1:157
characteristics 1:118
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes
3:246
Cretaceous 1:128
Eocene 1:127, 1:128, 1:130
fore-arc basins 1:118, 1:125, 1:126
foreland basins 1:118-131
Jurassic 1:128
Miocene 1:126, 1:128, 1:130, 5:481
morphology
central Andes
Aconcagua 1:127, 1:153, l:155f
Altiplano-Puna Plateau segment
l:122f, l:123f, 1:126, 1:153
596
INDEX
Andes Mountains (continued]

Chilean flat slab segment l:122f,
1:127
digital elevation map 1:119 f, 1:122f
Peruvian flat slab segment l:122f,
1:125
volcanic zones l:122f, l:123f, 1:126
Nazca Plate 1:119, l:120f, l:125f,
1:130
northern Andes
Colombian Andes I:121f9 1:123
digital elevation map l:119f, 1:121 f
Ecuadorian Andes l:121f, 1:123
Venezuelan Andes 1:121, l:121f
sedimentary basins 1:123
southern Andes
Chile triple junction l:124f, 1:125f,
1:128, 1:130-131
digital elevation map 1:119f, 1:124f
fore-arc volcanism l:125f, 1:128
Liquine-Ofqui fault system l:124f,
1:127
magmatism 1:128
volcanic zones l:124f, 1:125'f,
1:127, 1:128
subducting oceanic plates 1:119,
l:119f, l:120f
volcanic zones 1:119, l:120f, l:121f,
l:122f, l:124f, l:125f, l:155f
mountain-building processes 5:419,
5:419f
Neogene 1:126, 1:130
Oligocene 5:477
Palaeocene 1:130
Palaeogene 1:126, 1:130
Pliocene 1:126, 1:130,5:488
tectonic evolution
basin formation 1:129
batholiths 1:129-130
extensional arc systems 1:128
fold-and-thrust belts 1:121, 1:126,
1:127, 1:130, 1:158
Miocene 5:481
Neogene 1:130
rifting events 1:128
Tertiary 1:125
Triassic 1:128
andisolization 5:199
andisols 5:196t, 5:199, 5:200
andosols 1:561
andradite 3:561
Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525, 2:525f
anemones 2:324
Angara
See Siberia
Angaraland 2:238, 2:240f
Angaran flora 4:206f9 4:217
Angayucham terrane 4:40f, 4:42,
4:46-47
angel insects 2:300t
Angelosaurus 2:485-486
angiosperms 2:418-427
Archaefructus liaoningensis 2:423f,
2:423-424
Carboniferous 2:422/", 2:423
cell structure 2:420f
Cenozoic 2:422f, 2:424
characteristics 2:418, 2:419f
Cretaceous 3:370
diversification 2:424, 2:426f
floral diversity 2:419f
Jurassic 2:422f, 2:423
magnoliids2:418, 2:419f
Mesozoic2:418, 2:422f
Miocene
P orana oeningensis 2:420 f
Quercus 2:420f
Oligocene 2:420f
origins 2:420, 2:422f
palaeolatitudes 2:426f
Palaeozoic 2:422f, 2:423
Palmoxylon 2:420f
Permian 2:422f
pollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424f, 2:426f
pollen-feeding insects 2:426, 2:427f
P orana oeningensis 2:420 f
Quercus 2:420f
Triassic 2:422f, 2:423
water lily 2:42 5'f
Anglaspis 2:464f
anglesite (PbSO4) 3:630*
Anglian stage 5:496f
Angola 3:7*
angrites 5:23It
Anbanguera 2:515
anhydrite
classification 5:26*
densities 5:321f
geotechnical properties 1:552
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632,
5:394*
hydrothermal vents 5:391
occurrence 5:32f
porosity 1:5 52t
anilite (Cu7S4) 3:575*
Anisian stage 3:345,3:345f, 3:347f, 3:349f,
4:219f, 4:221f9 5:506f, 5:517f
ankerite (Ca(MgFe)(CO 3 ) 2 )
carbonatites 3:221t
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:631-632
ironstones 5:99
limestones 5:108, 5:108t
metamorphic facies 3:401f
occurrence 5:108t
ankylosaurs 2:493
annabergite 3:508f, 3:509*
Annamia 5:455, 5:457f
Annieopsquotch accretionary tract 4:82f,
4:85, 4:87f, 4:89
Anning, M. 2:509
Anomalocaris 4:379
anorthite 3:398f, 3:534f, 3:535
anorthoclase 3:534/~, 3:534-535

anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite
(AMCG) suite 3:155-156, 3:159f,
3:160, 3:161f
anoxic environments 4:495-501
Cretaceous 1:23, 3:363, 3:370-371,
4:497_499
crinoids 2:349
dysaerobic assemblages 4:497, 4:498f
early Earth 1:201
euxinic environments 4:495-496
formation processes 4:499
identification process
biofacies 4:497, 4:499f
black shales 4:496-497
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
pyrite framboids 4:495-496, 4:497f
Jurassic 3:355
lakes 4:550-551
modern environments 4:495
North Africa 1:23
oceanic anoxic events 4:497
oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ) 4:495,
4:496f
sapropels 4:500-501
silled basins 4:495, 4:496f
Silurian 4:193
superanoxic event 4:499
upwelling zones 4:495, 4:496f
Ansted, D. T. 3:476-477
Antarctica 1:132-140
Antarctic Peninsula I:133f9 l:134f, 1:137
Carboniferous 4:208f
East Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135,1:136
Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:238f
Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,
l:133f, l:134f, 1:136
Eocene 5:467/i 5:468, 5:470
geological map 1:134f
glaciation 1:139, 4:208f
Gondwana 3:128
Gondwana breakup event 1:138, 1:138f
Marie Byrd Land l:133f, l:134f, 1:137
meteorites 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236, 5:236f,
5:237f
Oligocene 5:474
Palaeocene 5:460
palaeoclimate 1:139
palaeosols 5:206f
Permian 4:215, 4:218f
Permian-Triassic boundary 4:222
sharks 2:463-465
Silurian 3:129
Suess,Eduard 2:238, 2:240f
supercontinents 1:132, 1:133 f
Thurston Island l:133f, l:134f, 1:137
topography 1:132, l:133f
Transantarctic Mountains
Reason Supergrooup 1:135
geological map l:134f
mafic sills l:136f
INDEX 597
Antarctica (continued)
Ross Orogeny 1:135
Theron Mountains l:136f
topography 1:132, 1:133 f
Triassic 3:344
tree ferns 4:218f
Triassic 3:344, 3:350
vegetation 1:136, 1:139
volcanism 1:139
West Antarctica
HaagNunataks l:134f, 1:136
rift system l:134f, 1:139
Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663;, 4:664/", 4:664,
4:664;, 4:665f, 5:473-474
Antarctic Plate l:119f, 1:119-120, 1:153
anthoinite (WA1(O,OH) 3 (?)) 3:587t
anthophyllite 3:397f, 3:398f, 3:504-505
anthophyte hypothesis 2:444-445, 2:445'f
Anthozoa
anatomy 2:324f
classification 2:321
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:323
anthracite 4:28
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
physical appearance 2:474-475
skeletal material 2:474f, 2:476f
anthrosolization 5:200
anticlines
anticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238 f, 4:240f,
4:241f, 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301f
Bashkirian anticline 2:51, 2:90
deltas 4:535
fold geometry 5:339f
hangingwall anticlines 4:535
Kamennogorsk anticline 2:51
Kvarkush anticline 2:51, 2:55, 2:90
Nemaha anticline 4:34f
North American continental interior
4:34f
remote sensing 4:298f
rollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f, 4:240f,
4:537-539
Anticosti Island, Canada 4:187f, 4:190
antidunes 4:597
antigorite 3:397f, 3:559, 3:566, 3:566f
antimony (Sb)
hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394t
mineral classification systems 3:501t,
3:502t
natural occurrences 3:553;, 3:554
soil concentrations 2:22;
toxicity 2:22*
world production rates 1:438t
Antler orogeny 4:50
ants 2:297f, 2:300t
Apachean faunachron 3:345f
Apateon 2:476f
apatite (Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F) 5:120-128
carbonatites 3:221;, 3:221-222
fission track analysis
age determination 1:47, l:48f, 1:49f
alpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:52f

annealing process 1:45, l:46f, 5:127
etch pits 1:46, 1:47f
fission track length 1:48, 1:48f
fission tracks 1:45f, 1:46f
fossil partial annealing zone 1:45,
l:46f
thermal history modelling 1:49, l:50f,
l:51f
uranium-thorium/helium (U-Th)/He
dating method 1:50, l:52f, 5:127
fluorapatite 5:123, 5:124f
kimberlites 3:254
Lagerstatten 3:312, 3:312f
vine nourishment 3:88
apatite-pyromorphite 3:508f
Apectodinium 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
Apedolepis 2:462
Apennines 2:125, 2:135-146, 2:235-237
Apex Chert, Pilbara region, Western
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
Apidium 2:433
Apollo 11 5:266;
Apollo 12 5:266;
Apollo 13 5:266-267
Apollo 14 5:266t
Apollo 15 5:266
Apollo 16 5:266?
Apollo 17 5:266;, 5:2 70f
Appalachians
Cambrian 4:76
Carboniferous 4:78
Devonian 4:78
Gondwana 4:72, 4:79
granitic rocks 3:237;
Laurentia 4:72, 4:73, 4:79
Northern Appalachians 4:81-92
Annieopsquotch accretionary tract
4:82f, 4:85, 4:89
Avalon tectonostratigraphical zone
4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
Dunnage tectonostratigraphical zone
4:82f, 4:84, 4:87f
Exploits tectonostratigraphical
subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f
Gander tectonostratigraphical zone
4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
glossary information 4:91
granitic rocks 3:236
Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:83-84
Humber tectonostratigraphical zone
4:82f, 4:83, 4:84f
Meguma tectonostratigraphical zone
4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
Notre Dame tectonostratigraphical
subzone 4:82f, 4:84f9 4:85, 4:87f
orogenesis 4:83
Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
Precambrian basement 4:12
tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57f, 4:89,
4:90f
tectonostratigraphical zones 4:81,
4:82f
tectonostratigraphic relationships
4:84f
Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin
4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
Ordovician 4:76
Pangaea 4:74/", 4:79
Permian 4:216
physiography 4:22f
Rodinia 4:72, 4:73
Silurian 4:78
Southern/Central Appalachians 4:72-81
Alleghanian orogeny 4:79
Carolina terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:78
Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:75f, 4:77
Gondwana-Laurentia collision 4:79,
4:80f
igneous processes 4:73, 4:75f
magnetostratigraphy 4:7'6f
Neoacadian orogeny 4:78
occurrence 4:72
origins 4:72
passive margin development 4:76,
4:76f
physiographic provinces 4:7'3 f
Pine Mountain terrane 4:77
sedimentary depositional processes
4:73
superterranes 4:7'4f, 4:75f
Suwannee terrane 4:72, 4:80
Taconic orogeny 4:77
tectonic evolution 4:74f, 4:75f
Tugaloo terrane 4:78
tectonic map 4:23f
Wilson Cycle 4:72, 4:74f
apparent polar wander paths 1:85f, 4:153,
4:153 f
Appenines 2:126f, 3:650f, 3:654, 3:655f
Appinite 3:237;
applied geology
geological conservation 3:29-35
Earth heritage conservation 3:29
geodiversity
environmental impacts 3:31
geomorphology 3:30-31
geotourism 3:30
human impact 3:33
importance 3:30
public awareness 3:34
soils 3:31
site management
site assessment 3:31
site management techniques 3:33
sustainable management 3:33
geology as a profession 3:73-78
academic education 3:74
disciplinary specialties 3:74
employment areas
academia 3:75
government 3:75
industry 3:75-76
historical background 3:73
598
INDEX
applied geology (continued)

learned societies 3:60, 3:75
professional organizations 3:75, 3:77t
professional qualification system
academic qualifications 3:73f
codes of ethics 3:73f, 3:76
continuing education 3:73f
experience 3:73f
standards 3:76
websites 3:77t
regulations and licensing 3:78
military geology 3:475-487
engineering geology
dugout construction map 3:483f
tunnelling 3:481, 3:482f
World War II 3:481
German military geologists
engineering geology 3:481
quarrying activities 3:478, 3:479f,
3:484f
terrain analysis 3:483, 3:484f
water supply 3:479, 3:481f
present-day activities 3:486-487
3:480f, 3:484f
remote sensing 3:486-487
specialty geological maps 3:483,
3:483 f, 3:484f, 3:485f, 3:486f
water supply 3:479, 3:479f, 3:481f,
3:482f
Apsaravis 2:499, 2:501f
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
Aptian extinction event 3:370
Aptian stage
anoxic events 3:363
bolide impact craters 3:363t
Brazil l:322f, l:324f, 1:325, 1:325f
environmental zones 3:365f
5:517f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363^
sea-level variations 3:364f
vegetation 3:37Of, 3:383f
aquamarines 3:7t
aquifers 5:48, 5:112
Aquitaine Basin 3:654f
Aquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Arabia 1:140-152
Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5lOf
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:140
carbonate shorelines and shelves 4:509,

4:509f, 4:5 lOf
Carboniferous glaciation 4:208 f
economic geology 1:152
geological column 1:142 f9 1:144 f
geological mapping 1:141
Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:511f
granitic rocks 3:237t
meteorites 5:236
Ordovician 3:129
Persian Gulf 4:509, 4:509 f, 4:5 lOf
stratigraphy
Carboniferous I:142f9 I:144f9 1:145
Cretaceous 1:142 f9 1:144 f, 1:146,
1:147
Eocene 1:147
Infracambrian 1:141, l:142f, l:144f
Jurassic l:142f, 1:144f, 1:146
Miocene 1:148
Neogene 1:148
Palaeozoic 1:141, l:142f, l:144f
Permian l:142f, l:144f, 1:145
Pliocene 1:148
Triassic l:142f, l:144f, 1:145
structural geology 1:148, l:149f, l:150f
Triassic 5:506f
volcanism 1:151
Arabian-Nubian Shield
Gondwana l:238f
orogenic events 1 :2f
Pan-African orogeny 1:2, 1:3 f, l:4f, 1:5 f
Pliocene 5:488
structural elements 1:148, 1:1 5 Of
tectonic map 1:149 f
Arabian Plate 1:148, 1:149f, 1:1 50f
Arachnida4:211
Aracuai Belt, Brazil 1:3 lOf
Aracuai orogenic event 1:313 f, 1:315
Araeoscelis 2:482-483
aragonite (CaCO3
bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371, 2:372f
chemical diagenesis 1:394
gastropod shells 2:380, 2:383f
ironstones 5:99
lacustrine deposits 4:558
non-marine environments 3:530-531
occurrence 3:523-524, 5:1 08t
oolitic sands 4:510-511
5:533f
Araguaia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:319
Aral Sea 1:166, l:166f, 2:86, 2:87f, 5:451
Arandaspis 2:462, 2:464f
Araucaria heterophylla 2:449-450
Araucaria mirabilis 2:45 Of
Araucarioxylon 2:439f, 2:448f, 2:449
Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:287f,
3:288, 3:291t, 3:291f
Arbuckle Mountains 4:62f, 4:64f
Archaea l:203f, 4:125f, 4:365f, 4:365-366
Archaean
Antarctica 1:132, l:134f
Archaean stromatolites
attributes I:286f9 l:289t
biosediments
domical stromatolites 1:291 f
columnar stromatolites 1:291 f
conical stromatolites 1:29If
geographic distribution 1:280f
photograph 4:367f
stromatolite-like structures 1:287
atmospheric composition 4:351
Australia 1:208, 1:209 f
banded ironstone formations (BIFs) 5:40
biodiversity 1:261
chert 4:351, 4:368
Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone 4:19f
crustal aggregation 4:12, 4:14f
Earth origins 4:3 64f
Baltic Shield 4:456-457
crustal provinces 4:459f
crustal segments 2:38, 2:42 f, 2:43f,
2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47f
Volga-Ural Basin 2:47f
Eoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517f
eukaryotes 4:357
Points (GSSPs) 5:511 f
Hearne craton 4:16, 4:17f
Indian Sub-Continent 3:287
5:517f
komatiites 3:261, 3:266
Mesoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517f
microorganisms l:280f
Neoarchean Era 5:51 If, 5:517f
4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23f
Paleoarchean Era 5:511f, 5:517f
planetary comparisons 1:427f
prokaryotes 4:368
Rae craton 4:16
Siberian craton 4:462/", 4:463
Slave craton 4:16, 4:18f
stromatolites
attributes l:289t
biosediments 1:285, 1:287
conical stromatolites 1:29If
early biosphere 4:367, 4:367f
physical properties l:286f
supercontinents 4:12, 4:14f
Superior craton 4:llf, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:17f,
4:19 f
tektites 5:454
Wyoming craton 4:16
2:423-424
archaeobacteria 4:355f
INDEX 599
Archaeocidaris 2:355
archaeocyathans 4:565
Archaeoellipsoides 4:368
Archaeolithophyllum 2:434, 2:435f
archaeological geology
See geoarchaeology
Archaeopteris 4:195
Archaeopteris bibernica 2:445, 2:445f
Archaeopteryx 2:497, 3:358-359
Archaeopteryx lithographica 2:172
Archaeoscillatoriopsis disciformis 4:3 69f
Archaeothyris 2:487
Archeria crassidisca 2:476-477
arches 4:579f
archosauromorphs 2:484
arc magmatism
Andes Mountains 1:118-131
granitic rocks 3:237*
Grenville orogeny 3:155-156, 3:157
Notre Dame arc 4:85, 4:87f
Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:#2/", 4:57/1,
4:89
Victoria arc 4:82f
northern Cordillera 4:44
ocean trenches 5:431
Arctic Caledonides 2:71f, 2:72f
Arctic Sea 2:108
Arctic Shelf 4:464, 4:464f
Ardennes 2:75, 2:81f, 2:83-84
Ardipithecus 2:541
Ardipithecus ramidus 5:49It
Ardmore Basin 4:32/", 4:66f
Arduino, Giovanni 3:170
Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico
5:244-245
Arenicolites 4:224
Arenigian subdivision 4:84f, 4:87f,
4:175-176, 4:177, 4:177f, 4:178-179
aretes 4:670, 4:672^
Areyongia 2:462
arfvedsonite 3:505-506
Argand, Emile 2:240, 2:252, 3:193
Argentina 1:153-163
Andes Mountains
fold-and-thrust belts
Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt
l:125f, 1:128, 1:158
Santa Barbara fold-and-thrust belt
1:127,1:158
Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158
sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt
1:127, 1:158
geochemical analysis 1:157f
volcanism 1:157
borate deposits 3:513t
Cambrian l:156f
Cenozoic l:156f
flying reptiles 2:514
geological settings
Aconcagua 1:153, l:155f

Andes Mountains 1:153
central segment 1:153
digital elevation map 1:154f
fold-and-thrust belts 1:156
morphology 1:155f
Nazca Plate 1:155f
northern segment 1:153
southernmost segment 1:157
southern segment 1:156
volcanism 1:153, 1:156
Gondwana 3:128
Grenville orogeny l:156f, 1:161-163
Mesozoic
Choiyoi Province 1:161
Chon Aike Province 1:161
rift systems 1:162f
Palaeozoic
Chilenial:160/", 1:163
Cuyanial:160/", 1:161
orogenic belts l:156f
Pampial:160/, 1:163
Patagonia l:160f, 1:163
terranes 1:161
Proterozoic l:156f
Silurian 3:136f
stable platform
cratons 1:160 f
sedimentary basins
Chaco-Parana basin 1:159
Colorado basin 1:159
Salado basin 1:159
San Jorge basin 1:161
terranes 1:160 f
uplift areas 1:159
Triassic 3:345-346
wine geology 2:87f
argentite (Ag2S) 3:575*, 3:582f, 3:630t
argentopyrite 3:575*
argillaceous sediments
See clays
Argo Basin 3:316t
Argo Land 3:147
argon (Ar)
atmospheric concentrations 1:1971,
1:198, 1.-199/", 3:553
mantle sources 3:228
natural occurrences 3:553*
radiometric dating
absolute dating techniques 1:88t
Carboniferous stratigraphy 4:202f
geoarchaeology 3:20
geological time-scale 5:518
glauconite 3:547
sedimentary rocks 5:146, 5:147/, 5:69
Venus 5:246*
Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505f
aridisols 5:196*, 5:200
arid regions
See deserts
Ariel 5:290-291, 5:291*

Arikareean stage 5:473/", 5:478, 5:479f
aristarainite (Na2MgB12O2o- 8H2O)
3:513*
Aristarchus (lunar crater) 5:271
Aristotle 3:168
Arizona, United States 4:48-50, 4:55-56,
5:207f, 5:476-477
Arkansas, United States 4:61-71
Arkoma Basin 4:64f, 4:66f, 4:67, 4:68f
Arkona Basin 2:156f
arkoses 5:27*, 5:29f
Armenia 4:215-216
Armorica
Armorican Massif
Anisian-Ladnian/Muschelkalk
palaeogeography 2:110f
Aptian-Albian palaeogeography
2:116f
Baj ocian-Bathonian palaeogeography
2:112f
Berriasian-Valanginian
Kimmeridgian-Tithonian
Oligocene2:121/"
Palaeocene2:119/"
Rhaetian-Hettangian
palaeogeography 2:111 f
Scythian-Bundsandstein
Senonian-Danian palaeogeography
2:118f
Armorican Terrane Assemblage 2:75-85,
5:455
Caledonian Orogeny 2:59
Central Armorican Basin 2:96
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Ordovician 2:78
4:155f, 4:155-156, 4:353f
Silurian 2:78
tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,
2:82f, 2:83f
terranes 2:75-85, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
Armstrong, N. 5:266*
arrojadite 5:125-126
arsenic (As)
arsenates 3:506-510
alteration 3:508
crystal structure 3:506
nomenclature 3:506
occurrence 3:509
physical properties 3:506, 3:508f
solubility 3:508
stability 3:506
hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394*
mineral classification systems 3:501*,
3:502*
natural occurrences 3:553*, 3:554
soil concentrations 2:22*
toxicity 2:22*
arsenoclasite 3:508f
arsenocrandallite 3:508f
600
INDEX
arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:575t, 3:576f,

3:582-583, 3:583f, 3:585t, 3:630t
arsentsumebite 3:508t
arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-281
amber 2:274-275, 2:275f
chitin 2:274-275
classification 2:275f
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367f, 3:368,
3:369f
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Devonian 4:196
ecdysis 2:275
exoskeletons 2:274-275
feeding strategies 2:278
flight ability 2:277
fossil record 2:276
horseshoe crabs 2:277f, 2:280
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
arthropod relationships 2:297f
biodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:296f,
2:298f
Carboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,
2:299f, 4:210-211
classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
collection methods 2:298
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299/",
4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
extinctions 2:296-298, 2:298f
geological history 2:296, 2:300t
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
palaeodiversity 2:297f
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:298f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
taxonomy 2:2951
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
3:350
morphology 2:274
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:453-463
applications 3:462
Carboniferous 3:461, 4:210-211
Cretaceous 3:460f, 3:461
Devonian 3:459, 3:460f
ecological structures l:262t
ecology 3:457, 3:460f
evolutionary history 3:459
geological history 3:459
growth stages 3:456-457
habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f9 3:461
life cycle 3:457
morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,

3:457/i 3:458f, 3:4S9f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454t, 3:457,
3:458 f, 3:460f
Ordovician 3:459, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa
ecology 3:457
living examples 3:454f
morphology 3:455f, 3:456f
shell morphology 3:457f, 3:458f,
3:459f
stratigraphic ranges 3:460f
Quaternary 3:460f, 3:462
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,
4:191
stratigraphic correlation 3:460f
Tertiary 3:461
Triassic 3:348f, 3:460f
podomeres 2:274, 2:275
relevance 2:279
reproduction 2:278
respiration 2:277
Silurian 4:191
terrestrialization 2:276-277
trace fossils 2:279
visual systems 2:279, 2:280f
arthurite 3:508f
Arthur's Seat 2:96f
Artinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215t,
S:511f, 5:517f
artiodactyls 2:536-537, 2:539
Arumberia 4:377
Arundian subdivision 4:202f
Arvenian land mammal age 5:473f
asbestos 1:43 8t
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
aseismic ridges 4:476-477, 4:482
ash 4:387t, 4:390t
ash clouds 5:571, 5:574f, 5:576?, 5:576f
Ashe formation, Appalachians 4:76-77
Ashgillian stage
Appalachians 4:74, 4:84f, 4:87f
biozones4:187f
fauna 4:180-181
general discussion 4:175-176
Ordovician 4:179f
Asia
Central Asia 1:164-169
geologic history 1:168
Kazakhstan
Cambrian 1:173 f
Carboniferous 4:201
geology 1:164
Global Standard Stratotype Sections
and Points (GSSPs) 5:511 f
Kokchetav Massif 5:533,
5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537
Ordovician 1:173 f
Permian 5:Sllf
Silurian 1:173f, 4:191-192

tektites 5:451
terranes 3:130f
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165f
Triassic 3:344
Uralide orogeny 2:86
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Tadzhikistan 1:168, 1:518 f
terrains l:165f
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, l:165f,
1:167
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uzbekistan 1:167
Japan 3:297-305
accretion terranes 3:297, 3:300-302
arc-trench system 3:297, 3:298f
biota 3:302
earthquakes 3:298, 3:300f
geology 3:300, 3:301f
Hidaka Metamorphic Belt, Japan
3:240-241
palaeogeographic reconstruction
3:304f
Permian-Triassic boundary 4:221-222
strike-slip fault systems 3:304f
subduction zones 3:297, 3:298f,
3:303-304
tectonic processes
pre-Neogene terrains 3:300, 3:302f
tectonic evolution 3:302, 3:303f
topography 3:297, 3:299f
volcanism 3:297, 3:299/", 3:300f
massifs l:346f
South-east Asia 1:169-196
accretion terranes
amalgamation 1:176, 1:17 6t
constraining factors l:176t, l:179t
distribution l:170f, l:172f, I:182f9
1:184f
origins 1:171, 1:17 6t
rifting and separation events 1:174,
1:175, 1:175, l:175f,l:176t
sutures 1:1791
alluvial diamond deposits 1:178f
background information
accretion terranes 1:17'Of\ 1:171,
I:172f9 1:173 f
Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169,
l:170f
plate tectonics 1:169, 1:17Of,
1:171 f, l:172f
strike-slip fault systems 1:169,
l:170f
Wallace's Line 1:169, l:171f,
l:172f
brachiopods 1:173 f, 1:177f
energy resources
coal and lignite deposits 1:195
epigenetic deposits 1:195
hydrocarbon basins 1:190, l:194f
iron ore deposits 1:195
magmatic arcs 1:190
mineral deposits 1:190, l:195f
INDEX 601
Asia (continued)
non-volcanic epithermal deposits
1:190
oil and gas 1:187, l:194f
ophiolites 1:190
tin deposits 1:194
tungsten deposits 1:190
faunal assemblages 1:171, 1:178-182,
1:183 f , 1:185 f
floral provinces 1:178-182, l:186f

gemstones 1:196
geological evolution
Cambrian 1:178
Carboniferous 1:178, 1:181*,
1:182f, 1:184f
Cenozoic 1:187
Cretaceous I:181t9 1:187, l:188f
Devonian 1:178, l:181t, l:182f
Eocene 1:181*, l:188f, l:190f
Jurassic 1:181*, 1:186, l:188f
Miocene 1:181*, I:192f9 1:193f
Oligocene l:181t, l:191f, l:193f
Ordovician 1:178
Permian 1:181t, 1:182, 1:184f
Phanerozoic 1:177
Pliocene 1:193 f
Proterozoicl:174/; 1:177
Silurian 1:178
Triassic 1:181*, 1:184, l:184f
glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174,
l:178f, 1:182
granitoid belts l:187f
palaeoclimate 1:183/, l:185f
Rodinial:174/"
stratigraphic correlation l:183f,
1:185 f
tectonic evolution 1:177
subduction zones l:346f
See also China; Indian Sub-Continent;
Mongolia
Askeptosaurus 2:504
Askja volcano, Iceland 4:3871
asphaltenes 4:250
Asselian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215t,
5:511f,5:517f
Astaracian mammalian age 5:479f
astatine (At) 3:553t
ASTER 4:420-421, 4:434*, 4:436, 4:437
asteroids
Asteroid 433 Eros 5:234f
asteroid bombardment 1:199, 5:220-221
beyond the Main Belt 5:223
characteristics 5:221, 5:221*, 5:223f
closer than the Main Belt 5:222
discovery 5:221
distribution 5:220, 5:220f
meteorites 5:233, 5:234f
orbits 5:221, 5:221*, 5:222f
origins 5:221
rotation 5:223f
sizes 5:222f
types 5:221, 5:222, 5:222*, 5:223, 5:223t
Asteroxylon 2:437-438
asthenosphere
description 1:403
melting processes 3:210, 3:211 f

Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:656
plate tectonics theory l:440f, 4:340,
4:343f
thermal gradients 3:411f
Aston, Francis 3:604-605
Aston, Frederick 3:186
Astrapanoteen land mammal age 5:473f
Astraspis 2:457f, 2:457
Astrid Ridge 3:316*
astrobiology 4:363
astronauts, lunar 5:266t
astronomical calendars 1:77, I:78f9 l:81t
astronomically calibrated time-scales
1:82-83, l:83f, 1:90, 1:90, l:90f,
5:506f
astrorhizana 3:45If
astrorhizata 3:45If
astrorhizids 3:45Of
Atacama Desert 3:555
atacamite 5:394t
Atalanta Planitia, Venus 5:257f
Atchafalaya River delta 4:531, 4:532f
Atdabanian stage 4:167f
Ateleaspis 2:464f
Athens Plateau 4:65
Atlantic Margin 4:92-108
carbonate shorelines and shelves 4:102,
4:103 f
crustal stretching 4:100, 4:101f
crustal transition zone 4:100
deposition centres 4:104f, 4:104-105
East Coast Magnetic Anomaly (ECMA)
4:95, 4:96f, 4:99f
energy resources 4:105, 4:106f
groundwater 4:105-106, 4:107f
impact structures 4:95, 4:98f
mineral deposits 4:105
morphology
bathymetric map 4:93f
landslides 4:94/", 4:94-95
submarine canyons 4:93-94, 4:94f
palaeoenvironments 4:102, 4:103f,
4:104f
passive margin structure 4:95, 4:9 6/i
4:99f
placer deposits 4:105
postrift unconformity 4:98, 4:99f,
4:101f
research issues 4:106
salt diapirs 4:102
salt tectonism 4:102, 4:102f
seamounts 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95
sedimentary history 4:102
tectonic evolution 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f
Atlantic Ocean 3:362f
Atlantic Shield l:306f
Atlantis Seamount 3:315'/", 3:316t
Atlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, l:16f, 1:17,
5:488
atmosphere
Archaean composition 4:351
biogeochemical cycles 1:431
Cretaceous 3:360
Devonian 4:196, 4:196^
Earth 1:197-207
asteroid bombardment 1:199
carbon dioxide concentrations
abundances l:197t
anthropogenic sources 1:343 f,
l:344f, 1:345 f
changes 1:2 06^
end-Permian extinctions 4:223,
4:223f
geological evolution 1:340, 1:34If,
l:342f
glacial/interglacial periods l:342f,
1:343 f
Oligocene 5:475
chemical composition l:197t
condensation 1:199
evolution
anoxic environments 1:201
living organisms 1:202, 1:203
mass-independent fractionation
1:201-202
metabolic energy 1:202
oxygen concentrations 1:202, 1:203
planetary formation effects 1:197
snowball Earth events 1:204
sulphur isotopes 1:201
nuclide binding energy 1:198, 1:198f
outgassing 1:199
Phanerozoic atmosphere
atmospheric changes 1:204
1:206, l:206f
oxygen concentrations 1:206,1:206f
temperature history l:205f
primary atmosphere 1:198
secondary atmosphere 1:200
solar luminosity 1.-197/", 1:197-198
temperature-pressure profile 1:201 f
terrestrial volcanic-gas compositions
1:200*
earth system science 1:430
Gaia hypothesis 3:1-6
gaseous elements 3:553
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:320,
3:320f
long-term carbon cycle l:336f, l:338f,
1:339 f
Mars 1:197*, 5:273
Miocene 5:482
Neptune 5:291-292
ozone layer 5:217f
physical characteristics 5:217f
short-term carbon cycle 1:335, I:336f9
1:337f
solar radiation 5:215, 5:219
temperature variations 5:215
Uranus 5:289
Venus 1:197*
weathering effects 5:589
Atoka formation, Ouachita Mountains
4:63, 4:66f
Atokian stage 4:209f
602
INDEX
atolls 4:481, 4:564

attapulgite
See palygorskite
Atterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186, 5:187t
aubrites 5:23^
Auburn Arch, Australia 1:247f
augelite 5:125-126
augen, definition of 3:390t
augen mylonite 3:388t
augite3:22Jf, 3:242, 3:567
Augustasaurus 2:506
Aulechinus 2:352-353, 2:353f
Aulunian stage 4:202f
Aurelucian stage 4:183 f
auroras 5:218, 5:219f
aurostibite 3:119t
austenite 3:508f
Australasian tektites 5:445t, 5:445f, 5:446
Australia
Archaean 1:208, 1:209 f
Bega Batholith, Australia 3:243f
Cambrian 4:164, 4:167f
Carboniferous 3:139
cratons
Curnamona Craton 1:217-218
Gawler Craton l:209f, l:210f, 1:215,
1:239 f
Kimberley Craton l:210f, 1:212,
1:239 f
Lucas Craton 1:210f, 1:213
North Australia Craton 1:208, 1:209f,
1:211, l:211f, 3:128, 3:132f
Pilbara craton
microorganisms 1:280 f
origin of life 4:123
origins 1:429
orogenic events 1:208, 1:21 Of
Precambrian outcrops 1:209f
South Australian Craton 1:208,
I:209f9 l:211f, 1:215
West Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209 f,
l:210f
Yilgarn craton 1:208, I:209f9 I:210f9
1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39
fish 2:462
gemstones 3:7^, 3:12, 3:13
Points (GSSPs) 5:Sllf
Gondwana 3:128
mammals 5:484
meteorites 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:232f, 5:236
migmatites 3:238f
Miocene I:230f9 1:236, 5:484
Neoproterozoic 1:220, 1:225, 1:225 f,
5:511f
opal 3:13
palaeogeography 1:23 Of, 1:236
peraluminous granites 3:241f
Phanerozoic 1:222-237
Bowen Basin I:239f9 1:241 f

glaciation I:226f9 1:234
morphology I:232f9 1:236
orogenic events
Delamerian Orogeny l:239f, 1:240,
l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f
Lachlan Orogeny. See Lachlan
Orogeny
New England Orogeny 1:239 f,
l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f,
1:250, 4:202f
Ross Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245,
1:248 f
Thomson Orogeny I:240t9 1:241 f,
1:242
palaeogeography
Cambrian, early 1:225, 1:225f
Cambrian, early-middle 1:225f,
1:226
Cambrian, late 1:225f, 1:227
Carboniferous 1:226 f9 1:234
Cenomanian 1:229>/", 1:236
Devonian, early l:226f, 1:230
Devonian, middle-late l:226f, 1:230
Eocene I:230f9 1:236
Jurassic, early-middle 1:229 f, 1:235
Jurassic, late 1:229 f, 1:235
Miocene l:230f, 1:236
Neocomian-Aptian 1:229 f, 1:235
Neoproterozoic 1:225, 1:225 f
Ordovician 1:225 f, 1:227
Permian, early 1:227f, 1:234
Permian, late 1:227f, 1:234
Permo-Carboniferous l:227f, 1:234
Pleistocene l:230f, 1:236
Silurian l:226f, 1:229
Triassic, early 1:228f, 1:235
Triassic, early-middle 1:228 f, 1:235
Triassic, late 1:228f9 1:235
Triassic, middle I:228f9 1:235
plate velocities 1:233 f, 1:237
stratitectonic regimes I:224f9 l:233t
Sydney Basin l:239f, 1:241 f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:223f, 1:224f,
1:225-226
tectonic processes 1:231 f, 1:236
phosphorites 5:126
Proterozoic 1:208-222
Adelaide Rift Complex 1:215f, 1:220
Arunta Inlier 1:214, 1:239f
basin formation 1:208, 1:211, 1:215f,
1:220
Birrindudu Basin 1:219
Calvert Superbasin l:212f, 1:215
Centralian Superbasin 1:215f, 1:220
Georgetown Inlier 1:215
Granites-Tanami Complex l:210f,
1:211
Hamersley Basin 1:208-209, 1:209f,
l:210f, 1:221
Isa Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215
Kimberley Basin I:209f9 I:211f9
1:219, 1:221, 1:239 f
Laurentia 1:213 f, 1:21 Sf

Leichhardt Superbasin 1:21 If,
1:214-215
McArthur Basin l:209f, 1:214-215,
1:239 f
Mesoproterozoic 1:218
mineral deposits 1:218f, 1:221
Mount Isa Inlier 1:214, 1:239f
Neoproterozoic 1:220
orogenic events
Albany Fraser Orogeny 1:209f,
1:210-211, l:213f, l:214f,
1:219, l:239f, 4:352
Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, l:211f,
4:352
Capricorn Orogeny l:209f,
1:209-210, l:211f, l:212f,
1:239 f
Chewings Orogeny l:212f, 1:215
Edmundian Orogeny 1:214f
Ewamin Orogeny l:213f,
1:218-219
Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:21 Of
Hall's Creek Orogeny 1:21 If,
1:212-213, l:239f
Hooper Orogeny I:211f9 1:212
Isan Orogeny 1:213f, 1:218-219
Kararan Orogeny l:212f, 1:213 f9
1:217-218
Kimban Orogeny 1:209 f, 1:211 f,
I:212f9 1:215-216
King Leopold Orogeny 1:211,
l:215f,l:239f,3:132f
Olarian Orogeny 1:213 f, 1:218-219
Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209,
l:210f
Paterson Orogeny 1:215f, 1:220,
1:239 f
Petermann Orogeny 1:215f, 3:132f
Pine Creek Orogeny 1:209f, l:210f,
a
Pinjarra Orogeny 1:209f, 1:210-211
reactivation 1:214 f, 1:219-220
Sleafordian Orogeny l:210f, 4:352
Strangways Orogeny 1:211 f,
1:214-215
Tanami Orogeny l:211f, 1:213
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f
Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211,
4:16, 4.-J9/", 4:352
Wickham Orogeny 1:21 Sf
Yapungku Orogeny 1:211 f,
1:214-215
Pine Creek Inlier 1:239f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:223 f, I:224f9
1:225-226
Tennant Creek Inlier l:211f, 1:214
Victoria River Basin 1:209 f, l:214f,
l:215f, 1:219
Ross Orogeny 1:248f
sharks 2:463-465
Silurian 3:129, 4:191-192
South Australia 4:164
Tasmanides 1:208, 1:209 f9 1:239 f
INDEX 603
Australia (continued)
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:237-251
cross-sections l:224f
deformation processes 1:242, 1:245f
Delamerian Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240,
1:240;, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f
fault traces l:243f, 1:245f, 1:246f
geochronology l:244f
geological map 1:238 f9 1:239f, 1:241 f,
I:244f9 1:245 f
granite intrusives 1:247f, 1:249f
Orogeny
lithofacies 1:240;, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243 f
mafic rocks 1:243f
magmatism 1:244, 1:247f, 1:249 f
metamorphism 1:242, 1:246 f
New England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240;,
1:241 f, 1:242, I:249f9 1:250
ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247
orogenic events l:240t
I:248f9l:249f
Proterozoic 1:223 f9 l:224f, 1:225-226
Ross Orogeny 1:245
subprovinces l:240t
tectonic evolution
Andean-type mountain building
1:250
arc-continent collisions 1:250
back-arc basin formation 1:247,
1:248 f9 1:249
basin inversion 1:245
orogenic events 1:245, 1:247,
1:248 f, 1:249, 1:249 f
Rodinia breakup 1:245
volcanism 1:250
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240;,
1:241 f, 1:242
timetable of events 1:223f
turbidites l:240t, I:241f9 1:242,
1:243-244
ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f
tektites 5:443, 5:445*, 5:445f, 5:446,
5:448 f9 5:449f, 5:450f
Triassic 3:344
wine geology 3:84
See also Gondwana
Australian Geological Survey 3:68
Australian Plate 4:109
australites 5:445f, 5:446, 5:448f, 5:449f,
5:450f
Australo-Antarctic Discordance 4:349
Australopithecus 2:541, 2:542f
Australopithecus afarensis 5:49It,
5:491-492
Australopithecus africanus 5:49It
Australopithecus anamensis 5:49It,
5:491-492
Australopithecus bahrelghazali 5:491t
Australopithecus garhi 5:491t
Australosphenida 2:528f
Austral Seamounts 3:316t

Austria
See Suess, Eduard; tektites
Austriadactylus 2:510
Austroalpine nappe 2:126f
Austroalpine nappes 2:125, 2:1 34 f
autochthonous sediments
carbonate grain analysis 5:30
classification 5:26, 5:26;
autocyclic processes 4:487, 4:490
Autunian stage 2:9 6f, 2:98
autunite 3:508f9 5:123f
Avalonia
Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63
Cambrian 3:133 f9 4:1 69 f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:436
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Gondwana 3:129
Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:83 f9
4:87f
Ordovician
Ordovician, early 2:78
Ordovician, late 2:78
palaeogeography 4:182
terrane migration 4:1 82 f
palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77 f,
4:15Sf9 4:155-156, 4:353f, 4:83f
Silurian 2:78, 4:191,4:192
tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,
2:82f9 2:83f
terranes 3:133f9 5:455, 5:457f
Trans-European Suture Zone (TESZ)
5:455
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:293
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88, 4:90f
Aveley interglacial stage 5:496f
avenevite (Cu5 <O2(VO4)2n{Cu,Cs,K}Cl}
3:589t
Aves
See birds (Aves)
AVHRR
See Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR)
Avicenna3:168, 3:500
axial neovolcanic zone 5:380
axinite 3:512f
Azerbaijan 3:344
Azores 3:315f,3:316t
B
Baas-Becking, Lourens 3:192

Babington, William 3:60-61
back-arc basins 2:135-146
Canada 3:157-160, 3:159f
Caucasus-Black Sea region 4:471
East European Craton 3:648, 3:650
Mascarene-La Poile back-arc basin 4:88,
4:91
Mediterranean region 3:654
plate tectonics theory 1:440f
sediment accumulation 3:597
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247, l:248f,
1:249

4:82f9 4:87, 4:87f
Bacteria 1:203 f9 4:12Sf9 4:365f, 4:365-366
baddeleyite 3:221;, 3:601, 3:606f
badlands
See deserts
Baffin Island 4:11-12
bafflestone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:563f
Bagnold, Ralph 3:188
Baie Verte-Brompton-Cameron line 4:82f,
4:85
Baie Verte Oceanic Tract 4:82f9 4:84f, 4:85,
4:89
Baikalide Orogeny 4:463, 4:464, 4:464f
Bailey, Edward Battersby 3:62
Baja California, Mexico 4:48, 4:60, 5:475
bajadas 4:542
Bajocian stage 3:352;, 3:354f
5:517f
Baker, George 3:195
bakerite (Ca8BioSi6O35-5H2O) 3:513;
Baker terrane 4:54
Balanerpeton 2:473f
Balanerpeton woodi 2:473f, 2:474-475
Baldwin, Ralph 3:195
Balearics 5:466-468
Balkans 2:237f
ballast 1:483;, 1:488, 1:491*
ball clay 1:366-367
Balleny Islands 3:315f, 3:316;
Baltica
apparent polar wander paths 4:153 f
Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64-74
Cambrian 1:173 f, 4:164, 4:170f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:434-436,
3:437/", 3:439
continental margin 2:65f, 2:67, 3:648
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Ordovician
accretion terranes 1:173 f
palaeogeography 4:181-182
4:152f9 4:152-153, 4:155f9
4:155-156, 4:353/", 4:354
palaeolatitudes 4:154, 4:154f
Silurian 1.-173/", 2:78, 4:191, 4:192
terranes 3:130f9 5:455, 5:457f
Timanide Orogeny 2:50, 2:50f
5:455
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:291, 2:293
Baltic Basin 2:149-150, 4:456
Baltic Ice Lake 2:150
Baltic Sea 2:96f9 2:149-150, 2:152f9
2:153f9 2:155-159, 2:156f9 2:159;
604
INDEX
Baltic Shield
Cambrian 4:169f
crustal segments 2:41 f
crustal thickness 3:649f, 3:656, 3:657f,
3:658
East European Craton 4:456
geographic location 2:3 5'f
structural features 3:650, 3:651f
Suess, Eduard 2:238
3:652f
Baltimore Canyon trough 4:96f, 4:98-100,
4:99f, 4:101f, 4:103, 4:104 f, 4:107f
Baltimore Gneiss antiforms 3:157f
Baltoscandian Platform
See Scandinavia
band/banding, definition of 3:390t
banded iron formations (BIFs) 5:37-42
ancient sedimentary rock associations
3:494-495
Archaean 4:351, 5:40
banding 5:38, 5:38f
banding continuity 5:39
Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:289f
classification 5:37
definition 5:37
economic deposits 1:438-439
future research 5:41
global distribution 5:39
Indian Sub-Continent 3:286, 3:287
lithologic associations 5:40
metamorphism 5:39
mineralogy 5:38
nomenclature 5:37
occurrence 5:33-34
origins 5:40
temporal distribution 5:39
Vendian 4:372
weathering processes 3:489
Bangiomorpha pubescens 4:356f, 4:358
Banian stage 4:169f
Banks, Sir Joseph 3:61, 5:229
bannermanite (Na0.7(V6O15)) 3:589t
Bannock seamount 4:482
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
skeletal material 2:474f
Baraboo Range, Wisconsin, United States
4:21
Barbados 5:444, 5:445*, 5:445f, 5:448-449
barbosalite 5:124-125
barchan dunes 4:600, 4:618-620, 4:619f,
4:620f
Barents Sea 2:49, 2:52/j 4:214-215
Barents Shelf 2.-50/", 2:53, 2:64, 2:64 f, 2:70
Barents Trough 4:464f
bariandite (Al0.6(V8O2o)-18H2O) 3:559*
baricite 5:125-126
barium (Ba)
barite (BaSO4) 3:573, 5:394*

carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:224*
crustal composition 5:174*
hydrothermal fluids 3:629*
lava/lava flows 3:224f
5:114t
as organic proxy 4:500
bark lice 2:300*
barnesite ((Na,Ca)(V6Oi6)-3H2O) 3:589*
Baron, J G 3:203
Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:21 If,
4:352
Barrande, Joachim 2:195, 3:180
barred coastline 4:574/", 4:575
Barreirinhas basin l:326f
Barrell, Joseph 3:186, 3:195
Barremanian stage
Brazil 1.-322/; 1:325*"
5:517f
barrerite 3:593*
barrier islands 4:577, 4:577/", 4.-57S*"
barrier reefs 4:564
Barrovian-type metamorphic complex,
Naxos, Greece 4:410, 4:411 f, 4:412*
Barrow, George 3:184-185
Barruelian subdivision 4:202f
Barstovian stage 5:478, 5:479f
Bartholin, Thomas 2:227
Bartonian stage 1:322*", 1:325f, 5:466,
5:467*", 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:506f
5:517f
basalts
continental flood basalts
Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315f,
3:316*, 5:480
3:318,3:322
mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:339
Deccan Traps
Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:291f
Devonian 4:198-199
Dharwar Craton 3:288f
flood basalts 3:315f, 3:316*, 3:317,
3:328, 3:363*
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:383

mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:317,
3:335-336
mass extinctions 3:383, 4:198-199
Palaeocene 5:462
zeolites 3:598
Emeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316*, 4:215*",
4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222,
4:227
Ethiopian Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316*,
5:474
explosive eruption characteristics 4:387't
geotechnical properties 1:545*, l:546f,
3:102*
komatiites 3:260-267
Archaean deposits 3:261, 3:266
cerium content 3:264f
composition 3:264, 3:265f
definition 3:260
eruption characteristics 3:262
Fennoscandian Shield 2:39
flow characteristics 3:263, 3:264f
geochemical types 3:261, 3:262f
greenstone belts 3:261, 3:264
magma formation 3:261, 3:263*"
magnesium content 3:260, 3:261,
3:262/; 3:263f
melting behavior 3:264
nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-CuPGE) mineralization 3:266
occurrence 3:261
spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261*", 3:264f
water content 3:266
zirconium content 3:264f
lava/lava flows 3:323-330
a'a lava 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326/",
5:567-569, 5:571f
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571f
clays 1:545-546
clinker 3:325/i 3:326, 3:326f
effusion rate 3:324
eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324*"
flood basalts 3:328
flow speed 3:324
flow volume 3:324
geotechnical properties 1:544-545,
l:546f
natural hazards
Heimaey, Iceland 3:330
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328,
3:329f
mitigation methods 5:576*
Mount Etna, Sicily 3:329
Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329
pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,
3:326/i 5:567-569, 5:571f
pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327/", 5:567-569,
5:571f
structure
cooling joints 3:327, 3:328f
crazing 1:546 f
INDEX 605
basalts (continued)
lava tubes 3:327
pipes 1:546f
subaerial lava 3:325,
3:325f, 3:326f
underwater flows 3:326, 3:327f
temperature 3:323
Venus 3:232f
viscosity 3:323
mafic sills 1:136f
magnetization process 4:148-149
mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:335-343
3:383
definition 3:335
geochemical analysis 3:339
3:318f
melting processes
decompression melting 3:210
flux melting 3:212
pressure-temperature diagram
3:211f
Palaeocene 5:461-462
petrological analysis 3:339
plate tectonics 1:424, 4:348
plume formation dynamics 3:341,
3:341f
propagating rifts 5:398, 5:399f
seamounts 4:477
seismic images
D" layer 3:338
lower mantle 3:338, 3:339f
superplumes 3:338
transition zone 3:338, 3:338f
upper mantle 3:337, 3:337f
surface expression 3:335, 3:336f
metabasalts 3:405
northern Cordillera 4:36-47
oceanic basalts 1:397
ocean island basalts 3:339
physical properties 1:483t
seamounts 4:475
Siberian Traps
Devonian 4:198-199
end Permian extinctions 3:319, 3:322
flood basalts 3.-315/J 3:316?, 3:328
Permian 4:215f, 4:227
Permian-Triassic boundary 4:220,
4:222
Triassic 3:348
sills l:136f
sulphide minerals 3:642f
titanomagnetite 4:148-149
See also olivine
basement 4:453, 4:455
Bashiorian stage 4:201f, 4:202
Bashkirian anticline 2:51, 2:90
Bashkirian stage 5:511/", 5:517f
Basidiomycetes 2:437-438, 2:440-441
Basin and Range Province, United States
2:100, 4:48, 4:60, 5:476-477, 5:480
bassanite 3:572
Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286, 3:287f,
3:289f
bastnasite 3:221,3:22If
Bath, England 3:113*, 3:113f9 3:114
batholiths
alkali-lime index 3:235f
associated rock types 3:237t
Coastal Batholith, Peru 3:237?, 3:239
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes 3:246
emplacement mechanisms 3:236
enclaves 3:238f
Idaho Batholith, United States 3:237?,
4:216
Moruya Batholith, Australia 3:238f
New Zealand 4:4f, 4:6
Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt 2:46
Patagonian Batholith, Chile 3:237?
Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United
States 3:237t
Sierra Nevada Batholith, United States
3:237?, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:S5f
South Mountain Batholith, Canada
3:240-241
tectonic setting 3:237?
Bathonian stage 3:352?, 4:100
Points (GSSPs) S:506f
5:517f
Batophora 2:432
bats 2:539
baultite 3:593?
bauxite
classification 5:26?
Fiji 4:120
formation processes 3:488-489, 3:489f,
5:33f
mining techniques 1:434
occurrence 5:32
texture 5:33f
world production rates 1:43 8t
bayldonite 3:508t
Bay of Biscay 2:80, 2:97, 2:101f,
2:105-108,3:650,4:95
Bay of Islands ophiolite 4:82f9 4:84f
beaches
barred coastline beaches 4:575, 4:576f
beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f,
3:605f
carbonate shorelines and shelves 3:524f,
4:502f, 5:135
caves 4:579f
cliffs 4:579f
lakes 4:552, 4:554f, 5:135
raised beaches 4:579f
rudaceous rocks 5:133, 5:136 S:137f,
5:138f
seasonal beach profiles 4:572f
transgressive beaches 4:533f
wave processes 4:570, 4:571f, 4:572f

Beacon Supergroup, Antarctica 1:132-135
Beagle voyage 2:160, 2:184, 3:182
Bean, A. 5:266?
Beardmore Glacier 3:129, 3:137f
Beardmore Shelf 3:128-129, 3:134f
Bear Seamount 4:95
bearthite 5:122
Beason Supergrooup 1:135
beaudanite 3:508f
Beaver Lake Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
Becke, Friedrich 2:250-251, 3:187
Becquerel, Henri 1:81-82, 3:604-605
bedform climb 4:543, 4:543f
bedforms
aeolian systems 4:599
antidunes 4:597
aqueous bedforms 4:594
bars 4:597
compound bedforms 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595/", 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
cross-lamination 4:594, 4:595f
current-controlled bedforms 5:15, 5:15f
current ripples 4:594, 4:594f
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
heterolithic lamination 4:599, 4:599f
hummocky cross-stratification 4:574f,
4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
longitudinal ripples 5:15, 5:15f
mud waves 5:15
occurrence criteria 4:595f
parting lineation 4:598, 4:598f
reactivation surfaces 4:597f
ripple lamination 4:594
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
standing waves 4:597, 4:598f
swaley cross-stratification 4:574f,
4:576f, 4:599f
undulating lamination 4:599, 4:599f
unidirectional aqueous flow 5:554
wave-current interactions 4:599
wave processes 4:572-573, 4:573f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598/, 4:599f
bediasites 5:444, 5:445f, 5:446f
Beecher, Charles E. 2:196
beer 3:78-81
brewing process
Belgium 3:81
Brown Beers 3:81
Czech Republic 3:80-81
Denmark 3:80
Europe 3:80
fermentation 3:78, 3:79
Germany 3:80
Ireland 3:80
lager 3:80-81
Lambic beers 3:81
malting 3:79
modern techniques 3:81
Netherlands 3:80-81
pils 3:80-81
Red Beers 3:81
Stowts 3:80
606
INDEX
beer (continued]
United Kingdom 3:79
water composition 3:79, 3:80t
characteristics 3:78-79
porter 3:80
stout 3:80
bees 2:297f, 2:300t
beetles (Coleoptera) 2:297f, 2:300t, 5:469
Beja suture 2:80-82, 2:82f
Belarus Belt 2:45f, 2:46
Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394f, 3:357
Belemnopsis 2:393f
Belgium 3:79, 3:80-81, 3:361, 4:192-193,
4:194, 5:454, 5:472
bellbergite 3:593t
Belledonne massif 2:127-129, 2:128f
Bellinghausen Sea l:133f, 1:139
Belomorian terrane 2:39, 2:44f
Beloretsk Terrane 2:51
belovite 5:123
Belt-Purcell Supergroup, northern
Cordillera 4:39-42
benches 5:432
Benioff, Hugo 3:195
Benioff zone l:120f, 1:127, l:15Sf
Bennettitales 2:453f, 2:453
Bennett, S. C. 2:513
benthic foraminifera
Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BFE)
5:462, 5:468, 5:470
oxygen isotope ratios 5:487t, 5:489-490
Palaeocene 5:462
benthos environments 4:158, 4:499f
bentonite 1:366-367, 1:369, 5:65, 5:572t
Benton Uplift 4:62f, 4:64f, 4:65
Bepi Colombo 5:242
Beqa4:118
beraunite 5:124-125
Berdyankian faunachron 3:345f
Bergman, Torbern 3:172, 3:178, 3:500
Beringer, Johann 2:169-170
Bering Strait 4:38, 5:461, 5:466, 5:471,
5:476, 5:490, 5:491
Berkey, Charles 1:445-446, 3:192
Berkshire massif 3:157f
berlinite 5:121-122
bermanite 5:124-125
Bermuda Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
Berriasella jacobi 3:361
Berriasian stage
bolide impact craters 3:363?
Brazil j(:322^1;325/'
5:517f

terrestrial invertebrates 3:369f, 3:381f
vegetation 3:363-364, 3:370f, 3:383f
berthierine 1:360, l:361t, 3:542-548, 5:99
Bertrand, Marcel 2:238
beryllium (Be)
carbonatites 3:223t
partitioning behaviour 3:639?
soil concentrations 2:22t
toxicity 2:22?
beryllonite 5:121-122
Berzelius, Jons Jacob 3:178, 3:500-501
betpakdalite
(MgCa2[Mo8As2Fe3036(OH)]
(H 2 0) 23 ) 3:551-552, 3:552t
Beyrich, Ernst 2:234, 5:472
Biblical geology 1:253-258
Christian viewpoints 1:257
Creation science 1:258
Flood Geology 1:254, 3:176
geological research (1780-1835) 3:176
graphic granite 1:256, 1:256f
Hebrew Scriptures
Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua)
1:256
earthquakes 1:256
Exodus
Moses Strikes the Stone to Produce
Water 1:256
Plagues 1:255
Red Sea crossing 1:255
Tablets of Stone 1:256
Genesis
Angel with the Flaming Sword 1:253
Flood 1:254, 3:170
Sodom and Gomorrah 1:255
scientific revolution 1:257
See also creationism
Bigadic mining district, Turkey
See ore bodies, borates
Big Obsidian Flow, Newberry Crater,
Oregon, United States 3:270, 3:271f
bikitaite 3:593t
Bilbilian stage 4:167f
Billings, Marland 3:188
billitonites 5:446-447
bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563f
biodiversity 1:259-265
biodiversity curves
mass extinction events 1:264f
shape significance 1:264
tetrapod evolution 1:264f
causes 1:265
faunal ecological structure l:262t
fish 2:464f
insects 1:263, 1:263 f
measurement methods
ancient species 1:260, 1:260f
disparity 1:259
diversity 1:259
marine fauna 1:260, 1:260f
modern species 1:260
types 1:259
Phanerozoic
marine change l:260f,
1:262, 1:264 f
terrestrial change 1:262, 1:263f
Precambrian 1:261
biofilms 1:283, 1:283 f
bioherms 3:109
biokarst 4:679, 4:681f
biosediments 1:279-294
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
biofilms 1:283, 1:283 f
biomarkers 1:292, 1:293 f
biosignatures 1:285, l:285t
chemical fossils 1:293
filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f,
4:368
geographic distribution 1:280f, 1:282
microbial effects
precipitation processes 1:284, l:284t
stromatolites
Archaean stromatolites 1:287,
I:289t9 1:291 f
biosignatures l:285t
trapping and binding 1:285
microbial mats 1:284, l:284f,
4:223-224, 4:377
microfossils
fossilization process 1:288
interpretive processes 1:288, 1:292f
oldest microfossils 1:291, l:292f
significance 1:282
stromatolites
attributes l:286f, l:289t
conical stromatolites 1:291 f
photograph 4:367f
formation processes I:287f9 1:28 8t9
3:109
interpretive processes 1:286
tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124, 4:125f
biosphere
early biosphere
biogeochemistry 4:366
evolution 4:3 64f
stromatolites 4:367
Earth 1:422
earth system science 1:430, 1:43If
Gaia hypothesis 1:432
INDEX 607
biosphere (continued)
short-term carbon cycle 1:337f
biostratigraphy
applications 1:84, l:86f
biozones
biochronozones 1:304
biostratigraphic principles 5:301,
5:301f, 5:302f
Eocene S:467f
multivariate biostratigraphic analyses
l:304f
Ordovician4:176, 4:182
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
3:3 73 f
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
Oligocene 5:472
Ordovician 4:182
Pleistocene 5:495
biotite
chemical composition 3:549-550
granites 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:241f,
3:550
metamorphic facies 3:399f, 3:400f,
3:401f,4:411f,4:412t
pressure-temperature diagram 3:243f
bioturbation
contourites 4:524f, 4:525f, 4:525-526,
4:526f
current-controlled bedforms 5:15
endobenthic tiering 5:529
facies analysis 4:486
ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:53If
trace fossils 5:520-521
Vendian 4:378
Walther, Johannes 2:243-244
biozones 1:294-305
biochronozones 1:304, l:304f
biostratigraphic principles 5:301, 5:301f,
5:302f
chronostratigraphical relationships
l:296f
dating techniques 1:295-296
Eocene 5:467f
l:304f
Oppel, Albert 1:295
Ordovician 4:176, 4:182
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
Smith, William 1:294
zone types
acme zone 1:302, 1:303f
assemblage zone 1:301, 1:301 f
concurrent range zone 1:297, 1:298f
first appearance/last appearance
1:296, l:297f
interval zone 1:302, l:303f

lineage zone 1:300, l:300f
miscellaneous zones 1:304
Oppel zone 1:299, 1:299f
range zones 1:296
taxon range zone 1:297, 1:298f
birds (Aves) 2:497-502
Archaeopteryx 2:497
Confuciusornis 2:498f
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:495, 2:508,
3:358-359
Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f9
2:500t
Eocene 5:469
Jeholornis 2:497
Jurassic 3:358-359
Mesozoic relationships 2:498f
Miocene 5:483
Neornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501f
origins 2:495
Ornithuromorpha 2:498f, 2:499,
2:501f
radiation patterns 2:499, 2:501f
Rahonavis 2:497
Sphenisciformes 2:507
Zhenzhoraptor 2:497
Birkenia 2:464f
Birkhill Shale Formation 4:185
bischoffite (MgCl2) 5:94
bismuth (Bi)
mineral classification systems 3:501?,
3:502t
natural occurrences 3:554
5:114t
soil concentrations 2:22?
toxicity 2:22?
bismuthinite (Bi2S3)
3:575?, 3:582f
Bithynian stage 3:345f
bituminous coal 4:28, 4:30f
bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:369-378
adaptive radiation 2:377
black shales 4:497, 4:498f
brachiopods 2:301-310
affinities 2:303
black shales 4:497
Cambrian 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification 2:303, 2:304?, 2:305f
Craniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304?,
2.-306/
Devonian 4:194
ecological structures 1:2621
ecology 2:303
extinction events 2:309, 2:309f
geographic distribution 2:305
Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182
Jurassic 3:356
life styles 2:307f
Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304?,

2:306f
modern brachiopods 2:310
morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2.-302/,
2:304?, 2:30Sf
Ordovician 4:179
origins 2:303
palaeocommunities 2:307f
Permian 4:216
radiation patterns 2:309
Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302,
2:302f, 2:304?, 2:306/, 2:309f
shell structure 2:302, 2:303f
Silurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:185-186
South-east Asia l:173f, 1:177f
stratigraphic distribution 2:306f,
2:309, 2:309f
stratigraphic ranges 2:304?
trace fossils 4:158, 4:158f
Tnassic 3:349f, 3:350
classification
Anomalodesmata 2:376?
Cryptodonts 2:376?
Heterodonta 2:376?
Palaeoheterodonta 2:376?
Palaeotaxodonta 2:376?
Pteriomorphia 2:376?
subclasses 2:376?
ecology
attachment processes 2:373, 2:375f
boring bivalves 2:375, 2:375f
burrowing bivalves 2:372, 2:374f
byssate attachment 2:373-374
cemented attachment 2:375
free living bivalves 2:375, 2:375f
swimming bivalves 2:373-374,
2:377-378
evolutionary history 2:377, 2:377f
family diversity 2:377f
fossil assemblages 4:497, 4:498f
Inoceramus 4:3 84f
Jurassic 3:356-357
life habits 4:141f
morphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375f
palaeoautecology 4:140, 4:141f
palaeosynecology 4:146f,
4:146-147
paper pectens 4:497
phylogenetic relationships 2:376
predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161f
shell morphology
dentition 2:37'4 f
growth bands 2:370f, 2:37If
hinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376?
internal structure 2:373f
microstructures 2:372f
musculature 2:371, 2:3 73/", 2:376?
soft part anatomy 2:371, 2:373f
Triassic 3:349
608
INDEX
blackband ironstones
diagenesis 5:102
ferruginization process 5:103, 5:104f
occurrence 5:34
photomicrograph 5:99f
sedimentation depth 5:100f
Blackett,Paul3:194
Black Forest, Germany 2:126f9 2:75, 2:81f
Black Hills, South Dakota, United States
4:21
Black Sea
Alps 2:125
anoxic environments 4:495, 4:496f
Biblical geology 1:254
calcareous algae 2:431
as European border 3:648-649
Holocene 2:151-152
oceanic crust 3:650
erogenic events 4:471
3:648
black shales
anoxic environments 4:193, 4:496-497
bedded cherts 5:54
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
Gondwana 3:129
North Africa 1:21, l:22f
4:28, 4:29f
Phosphoria Formation, United States
4:500
Silurian 4:193
black smokers
chlorinity 5:37It
East Pacific Rise 5:366f, 5:388, 5:388f
ecology 3:105
growth stages 5:392f, 5:393f
mineral deposits 3:491, 3:628, 5:388
occurrence 3:115, 5:365
structure 5:39Of
Black Warrior Basin 4:61, 4:62f, 4:67
Blackwelder, Eliot 5:542-543
Blake Outer Ridge 4:104-105, 4:93, 4:93f
Blake Plateau 4:101f, 4:103, 4:105, 4:63,
4:93, 4:93f, 4:96f, 4:98-100
Blake Ridge 4:106f
blastomylonite 3:388t
blended whiskies 3:82
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571f
blossite (Cu 2 (V 2 O 7 )) 3:589t
Blountian stage 4:75f
Blue Mountains, United States 4:53,
4:55-56, 4:72
Blue Ridge Mountains, United States
3:157/",4:12,4:76/"
blueschist facies
composition 3:404
definition 3:388t
3:399f, 3:400f
regional metamorphism 3:396/", 4:409f,
4:409-410

Tasman Orogenic Belt l:246f
Boborema Plateau, Brazil 1:309
Bode's law 5:221
body waves 5:333
boggsite 3:593t
Bohemia 4:178-179, 4:193, 4:202f
Bohemian Massif
Mps2:126f
palaeogeography 2:11 Of
Aptian-Albian palaeogeography 2:116f
Bajocian-Bathonian palaeogeography
2:112f
Berriasian-Valanginian palaeogeography
2:115 f
Cretaceous 2:113
dykes 2:117
Eocene 2:120-124
Jurassic 2:106f, 2:113, 2:114f
palaeogeography 2:114-f
Oligocene 2:121f, 2:122f
Palaeocene 2:117
Permian 2:107f
Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96f
Rhaetian-Hettangian palaeogeography
2:lllf
f
palaeogeography 2:109 f
2:11 8 f
5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:538, 5:539
Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:78, 2:80
volcanic centres 2:120
bokite((Al,Fe) 1 . 4 (V,Fe) 8 O 2 o-74H 2 O)
3:589t
Bokkeveld Group 3:129, 3:137f
bolide impact craters 3:363;, 3:383, 4:95,
4:98f
Bolivia 4:208f
Bolivian orocline 1:126
Bol'shezemel'skaya Zone 2:52, 2:52f, 2:53f,
2:54f
Bolsovian subdivision 4:202f
Boltwood, Bernard 3:186
bombs 4:387t, 4:390;, 5:572t
Bonaparte Basin 3:129, 3:139
Bonarelli Event 4:497-499
Bona vista platform 4:100, 4:96 f
boninites 1:2-3
Book Cliffs, Utah, United States 4:575,
4:576f
book gills 2:277
book lice 2:300;
bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, S:404f
boracite (Mg3B7O13Cl) 3:512*, 3:S12f
borax anhydrous (B2O3) 3:519t
borax decahydrate (Na2B4O7-10H2O)
3:519;
borax (Na2B4O7-10H2O) 3:510,
3:511-512, 3:512^ 3:513;, 3:514
borax pentahydrate (Na2B4O7-5H2O)

3:519;
Borborema Plateau, Brazil 1:3 09f, 1:312f
Borborema strike-slip system 1:307f,
l:315f, 1:323
Borch, Ole 2:226-227
Boreal Basin 4:461
Boreosphenida 2:528f
Borneo 4:209, 5:446-447
Bornetella 2:433
Bornholm Island 2:98
bornite (Cu5FeS4) 3:582f, 3:585t, 3:630;,
5:394;
boron (B)
borates
Argentine borate deposits 3:513;
chemistry 3:514
commercial borate minerals 3:512;
commercial refined borate products
3:519;
definition 3:511
depositional environment
formation processes 3:516, 3:516f
magmatic sources 3:517
marine evaporites 3:517
non-marine basins 3:517
occurrences 3:515
playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517
exploration techniquew 3:518
geological environment 3:511, 3:512f
global distribution 3:51 If
life estimates 3:521;
mineralogy 3:511, 3:512;
mining operations 3:519
origins 3:512f
processing techniques 3:519
reserve deposits 3:521;
Turkish borate deposits 3:513;
uses 3:511, 3:520, 3:520f
world production rates 3:52If
boric acid (H 3 BO 3 ) 3:519;, 3:519-520
hydrothermal fluids 3:629;
mineral classification systems 3:501;,
3:502;
5:114;
toxicity 2:22;
Boron mining district, United States
Boscovich, R. 1:98
Bosumtwi Crater 5:445f
Bos well, Percy 3:188
Bothnian Basin 2:40, 2:149-150
Bothriocidaris 2:352-353, 2:353f
Bothriolepis 2:466
Botoman stage 4:167f
Botswana 3:7;
Boue, Ami 2:183, 3:178
Bouguer gravity anomaly 1:1 OOf, 1:105f,
2:92-94, 2:93f, 4:67, 4:68f
Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601f
Boundary Mountain Terrane 4:83-84
boundary stratotypes 5:504, 5:506f
INDEX 609
boundstone 3:527/", 5:109 f, 5:110, S:lllf

Bournon, Jacques-Louis, comte de 3:61
Bowe Basin 3:129
Bowen Basin 1:242, 1:250
Bowen, Norman 3:187, 3:187f
Bowie, William 3:183, 3:194
Bowring, S. 4:219
Boyd, George W. 2:195
Boyle, Robert 1:257
brachinites 5:23It
affinities 2:303
black shales 4:497
Cambrian 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification 2:303, 2:304?, 2:305f
Craniiformea 2:301, 2.-302/", 2:304?,
2:306f
Devonian 4:194
ecology 2:303
Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182
Jurassic 3:356
life styles 2:307f
Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302/", 2:304?,
2:306f
morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,
2:304?, 2:305f
Ordovician 4:179
origins 2:303
Permian 4:216
Rhynchonelliformea 2:301-302, 2.-302/",
2:304?, 2:306f, 2:309f
Silurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:158, 4:158f,
4:185-186
South-east Asia 1:173 f, 1:177f
stratigraphic distribution 2:306/~, 2:309,
2:309f
stratigraphic ranges 2:304?
Brachiosaurus 2:493f
Brachiosaurus brancai 2:169
brackebuschite
(Pb 2 (Mn,Fe,Zn)(VO 4 )2(OH,H 2 O))
3.-5S9?
Bragg Law 1:62
Bragg, W.H. 3:501
Bragg, W. L. 3:501
Brahmaputra River 4:65It, 5:19t
braided river systems 4:656f, 4:657f,
4:659/", 4:676, 5:137, 5:138,
5:139f
braid-plains 4:541f, 4:542
Branchian stage 4:169f
branchiosaurs 2:475, 2:476f

brandtite 3:508f
Brasiliano-Pan-African orogeny 1:307-308,
a
Brasilia orogenic belt I:310f9 l:314f,
1:320
braunite 3:512f
Brazil 1:306-328, 3:11, 3:llf
cratons
Amazon craton 1:311, l:311f, l:312f
major shields 1:238f, l:306f
Rio de la Plata craton 1:312, l:312f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:310 f9
l:312f
Sao Luis craton 1:312
flying reptiles 2:509-510, 2:512f9
2:512-513, 2:514, 2:5'14f
gemstones 3:7t9 3:12
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363t
Neoproterozoic orogenic domains
Aracuai orogenic event 1:313f, 1:315
Araguaia orogenic belt l:314f, 1:319
Borborema strike-slip system 1:307f,
1:315f, 1:323
Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f
9 1:320
Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:318
Mantiqueira orogenic system 1:307'f,
l:313f, 1:315
Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320
Ribeira orogenic belt 1:318
suture zones 1:312f
Tocantins orogenic system 1:307f,
l:314f, 1:319
palaeogeographic reconstruction 1:323f
Phanerozoic sedimentary basins
Amazonas basin I:316f9 1:317f
Campos basin 1:321 f9 l:322f
Ceara basin 1:325f
continental margin basins 1:316f9
1:325
eastern Brazilian margin basins 1:321 f9
l:322f, 1:325
equatorial margin basins I:324f9
1:325f, 1:326, l:326f
Espirito Santo basin l:321f, l:322f
geographic distribution l:306f
interior rifts l:316f, 1:327, 1:327f
l:319f
Palaeozoic sag basins I:316f
I:317f9
9
l:318f, 1:324
Para-Maranhao basin 1:325f
Parana basin 1:314, l:316f, l:317f,
l:318f,l:319f,l:320f, 1:324
Parnaiba basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318f
Potiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f, 1:327f
Reconcavo basin 1:327f
Santos basin l:321f, l:322f
Sergipe-Alagoas basin l:322f
Solimoes basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318f

stratigraphy 1:317f
tectonic processes 1:306, l:306f, l:307f,
1:308 f
thermotectonic events l:308t
zeolites 3:598
brazilianite 5:124-125
Brazilian strength test 1:573-575
breccia 3:388t, 5:129, 5:268
breithauptite (NiSb) 3:575?
Brent Crater, Ontario, Canada 3:279f
Brevard fault zone, Appalachians
4:78-79
brewsterite 3:593t
Brianconnais swell 2:125-126, 2:133f,
2:133-135
brickearth 1:555-556, 1:5 57f
bricks 1:367
Bridge River terrane 4:40f9 4:46-47
Brigantian subdivision 4:202f
brines 3:519
Bringewood Formation 4:186f9 4:189
bristletails 2:300?
Bristol Hot Springs, England 3:114
britholite 3:221
British Columbia, Canada
Jurassic 3:352t
Oligocene 5:476-477
Precambrian continental nucleus 4:8
Triassic 3:345-346
zeolites 3:598
British Empire 1:370
British Geological Survey 3:67
brittle failure
See fractures
broadband reflective multispectral sensors
4:434?, 4:436
Broken Bow Uplift 4:62f, 4:64f, 4:65, 4:68f
Broken Ridge 3:315f, 3:316t
Bromidechinus 2:353f, 2:355
bromine (Br) 3:501 f, 3:502?, 3:629?
Brongniart, Alexandre 1:295, 2:181, 3:175,
3:352
Bronn, Heinrich Georg 1:295
Brooks Range 4:44-45
Broome Head Metamorphic Complex
l:246f
Brown, Arthur I. 1:384
Brown Beers 3:81
Brown, Walter T. 1:385
brucite (Mg(OH) 2 ) 3:396-397, 3:397/",
3:559, 5:394?
Bruckmann, U. F. B. 3:268
Bruckner, Edouard 3:181
Brunhes, Bernard 3:194
Brunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal
5:506f
brushite 5:126
Bryan, William Jennings 1:384
610
INDEX
bryozoans (Bryozoa) 2:310-320

anatomy 2:310, 2:311 f
bryozoan limestones 2:319, 2:319f
Carboniferous 4:212
chalk 5:44,
5:45'f, 5:46f
classification
Cheilostomes l:274f, 2:315, 2:315*,
2:316f, 2:319f
Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319f
Ctenostomes 2:315, 2:315*, 2:319f
Cyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Cystoporates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Fenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Gymnolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*
Phylactolaemata 2:314-315, 2:315*,
2:319 f
primary groups 2:315*

Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,
2:319 f
Trepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,
2:319 f
colonial variations 2:313

colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f9
2:313 f
competition 4:144-145
Cretaceous 1:272f, 1:274f, 1:274-276,
3:367, 3:367f
3:379
ecological structures 1:262*
Eocene 5:469
evolution 1:274 f
geological range 2:315*
Jurassic 1:2 74 f,
1:274-276, 3:356
morphology 2:315*
nervous system 2:312
occurrence 2:318
Ordovician4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
palaeoecology 2:320
Permian 4:216
polymorphism 2:313
punctuated equilibrium 1:268-269,
l:271f
radiations 1:2 72 f
reproduction 2:312
skeletons 2:314
Buch, Leopold von 2:237, 3:171, 3:174,
3:268
Buckland, William 2:177, 2:183, 2:206,
2:224-225, 2:401, 3:176-177
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de
3:171
bugs 2:297/i 2:300*
building materials
aggregates 1:41
building stones 1:328-333
characteristics 1:329*, 1:330
geological controls 1:330, 1:330*
historical use 1:328,1:329*
modern use 1:329*
petrographic studies 1:333
recovery planning and permitting
process 1:332*, 1:333
source location tasks 1:331*, 1:333
stone masonry 1:33It, 1:333
clays 1:367
concrete
aggregates 1:42
non-destructive testing 1:497*
physical properties 1:453*
forensic geology 2:263,
2:265*, 2:266^
limestones 5:112
military geology 3:478, 3:484f
quarrying 4:399-405
travertine 3:116-117, 3:117f
weathering 5:588
See also made ground
Buildwas Formation 4:186f, 4:188-189
buliminids 3:45Of
Bullen, Keith 3:195
Bunsen, Robert 3:184
Bunter formation, Germany 3:344
burbankite 3:221, 3:221*
Burdigalian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479/i5:506/",5:517/"
Burgess Shale
bacteria 3:311-312
clay mineralisation 3:313
Cnidarians 2:324
conservation deposits 3:310
early chordates 2:455
general discussion 3:310*
insects 2:296
obrution 3:311 f
Opabinia3:311f
palaeosynecology 4:142-143, 4:146
Burma 3:7*, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12,
4:192-193
Burnet, Thomas 3:170
Burrellian stage 4:183 f
Bury, Richard de 1:430
Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa
3:491-492
bustamite 3:569
butane (C4H10) 4:258, 4:259f
butterflies (Lepidoptera) 2:297f, 2:298f,
2:300*, 5:469
buttgenbachite 3:556*
bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:585f
Byrd Subglacial Basin 1:133f
Byrd Subglacial Mountains 3:147, 3:151f9
3:152f
bytownite 3:534/i 3:535
c
C4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482, 5:483,
5:484, 5:491
Cache Creek terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47, 4:54
Cacops 2:477f
cacoxenite 5:124-125
caddisflies 2:297f, 2:300*
cadmium (Cd)
5:114*
toxicity 2:22*
Cadomian Orogeny 2:75-78, 3:133f9
3:648, 4:352
Cadwallader terrane 4:40/", 4:46
caecilians 2:521f9 2:522, 2:525
cahnite (Ca2AsBO6-2H2O) 3:512*, 3:513*
Cailleux, Andre 2:244
Calabrian Trench 5:430*, 5:430f
Calamopityales 2:447
calaverite (AuTe2) 3:119*, 3:630*
carbonate sedimentation 3:524f, 3:529
Cayeuxia 2:435f
halimedales 2:432
coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:43If
haptophyta 2:430, 2:431 f
England 4:382, 4:383f
Palaeocene 2:433 f, 5:462
reef environments 2:243, 2:244, 2:428,
2:429f
Polystrata 2:430f
solenoporaceae 2:429, 2:43 O/"
calcareous nannoplankton 3:366, 3:366/i
3:373/", 5:462, 5:467/", 5:468
calcareous oozes 4:642 f, 4:648, 5:70, 5:71 f,
5:74, 5:74f, 5:75*
calcification 5:194f, 5:196f9 5:200
Calcifolium 2:434
calcite (CaCO 3 )
amphiboles 3:505
INDEX 611
calcite (CaCO3) (continued)

carbonatites 3:220, 3:221*
cementation 5:143, 5:143t
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:145f
5:394*
ironstones 5:99
limestones 5:108t
metamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:401f
occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108t
Vendian 4:372
calcite compensation depth (CCD) 3:528,
5:73, S:73f
calcium arsenate hydrate 3:509*
calcium (Ca)
apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 3:312, 3:312f,
5:120-128
carbonatites 3:221*, 3:221-222
kimberlites 3:254
soft tissue mineralisation 3:312,
3:312f
aragonite (CaCO3)
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108t
5:533/
brewing process 3:79, 3:80*
calcite (CaCO3)
depth effects 5:63f
ironstones 5:99
limestones 5:107, 5:108, 5:108t
occurrence 5:108t
calcrete 3:365, 5:588
carbonatites 3:223*
crustal composition 1:406*, 5:174*
geothermal systems 3:113*
glauconite 3:542*
kimberlites 3:248*
mineral analysis 1:108*
obsidian 3:269*
5:114*
Venus 5:247*
See also carbonates; evaporites
calcrete 1:562, 3:365, 4:134, 4:138-139,
5:588
calcurmolite
(Ca(U0 2 ) 3 (Mo0 4 ) 3 (OH) r llH 2 0)
3:552*
calderas 1:123 f, 1:126, 5:566, 5:567f
Caledonides
British Isles 2:56-63
tectonic evolution
Devonian 2:62
Ordovician 2:61
2:S7f
Silurian 2:61, 2:62
terranes
Connemara terrane 2:60
Grampian terrane 2:59
Hebridean terrane 2:59
Lake District terrane 2:60
Midlands terrane 2:61
Midland Valley terrane 2:60
Monian terrane 2:60
Northern Highland terrane 2:59
Southern Uplands terrane 2:60
Welsh Basin terrane 2:60
China 1:349f, 1:351
Greenland
eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69f
palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:56,
2:S7f
Scandinavia 2:64-74
Arctic Caledonides 2:71/~, 2:72f
Baltica continental margin 2:65f, 2:67,
3:648
Barents Shelf 2:50/i 2:64, 2:64f, 2:70
eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 2:71f
geographic location 2:35f
Koli Nappe Complex 2:65/j 2:67
Laurentian continental margin 2:65/,
2:67
Lower Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66
Middle Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66
Nordaustlandet Terrane 2:70-71
Norwegian Caledonides
5:536/; 5:537
Scandian collision 2:68
Seve Nappe Complex 2:65'/", 2:67
Silurian 4:191
Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f, 2:71f
tectonic features 2:72f
Tertiary 2:64f
thrust sheets 2:64, 2:65f
5:536/i 5:537
Upper Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67
Uppermost Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67
western Scandinavia 2:64, 2:65f
West Ny Friesland Terrane 2:71-72
Suess, Eduard 2:238
calendars, astronomical 1:77, 1:78/", 1:81*
California
Cretaceous 3:364
Franciscan Complex 1:243-244
gemstones 3:11
Glass Mountain, California, United

States 3:270, 3:274f
gold mining 3:125f
Gold Rush 3:122, 3:123, 3:126
liquefaction l:530f, l:532f, 1:533f
Long Valley rhyolites 3:246
marine biota 5:482-483
Miocene fault systems 5:479-480
Mono Craters, California, United States
3:270, 3:272f, 3:273f
Oligocene 5:476-477
Triassic 4:55-56
wine geology 3:85-87, 3:88-89
zeolites 3:599
See also Cordillera
Callcott, Maria, Lady 3:61
Callisto 5:284*, 5:285
Callistophytales 2:449
Callixylon newberryi 2:439f
Callovian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354, 3:354/",
3:355
5:517f
magnetostratigraphy 4:99^
Calymmian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Cambalong Metamorphic Complex
1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246f
Cambodia 3:8, 3:9f, 3:10f, 5:448
Cambrian 4:163-175
acritarchs4:169/"
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135
Appalachians 4:76
Arabia l:142f, 1:144f
Argentina l:156f
arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:276
Australia
Cambrian, early-middle 1:225f, 1:226
Stratigraphic correlation 4:167f
Avalonia4:169/"
Baltica l:173f, 4:164, 4:170f
Baltic Shield 4:169f
biodiversity 1.-260/", 1:262*
brachiopods 2.-306/", 4:171
Brazil 1:317f, 1:318 f
Burgess Shale
bacteria 3:311-312
Cnidarians 2:324
general description 3:310*
insects 2:296
obrution3:311/"
Opabinia3:311f
calcareous algae 2:428f
Cambrian Substrate Revolution 4:380
carbon cycle 1:204-206
carbon dioxide concentrations l:206f
612
INDEX
Cambrian (continued)
cephalopods 2:389f
Chengjiang lagerstatten 2:455,
3:312-313, 3:313f
China 1:347f, 4:167'f, 5:511f
chronostratigraphy
boundaries 4:164
sequence stratigraphy 4:25f
stratigraphical sequences 4:164,
4:167f,4:169f,4:170f
clay occurrences 1:364
climate 4:165
conodonts 3:441, 3:447
corals 2:325f,2:327f
crinoids 2:347f
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38/,
4:458-459
echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336f, 4:171
environmental conditions
carbon isotopic ratios 4:165-166,4:171 f
climate 4:165-166
evaporites 4:165
length of year 4:167-170
sea water chemistry 4:165
strontium isotopic ratios
4:165, 4:171f
terrestrial conditions 4:167
evolutionary radiations 2:165-166
fish 2:462, 2:463f
Furongian series 5:511f9 5:517f
gastropods 2:386, 2:386f
glacial/interglacial periods 3:347f
glauconite 3:546
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:178
3:133 f,4:170f
tectonic processes 3:132f
terranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f, 2:365f
Hox gene development 2:166
Hydroconozoa 2:321
lapetus Ocean 4:81, 4:83f, 4:17Of
5:517f
jawless fish 2:454, 2:460f
Kazakhstan 1:173 f
Lagerstatten 3:31 Ot
Laurentia 1:173f, 2:56, 4:164, 4:169f,
4:170f
molluscs 2:367
Morocco 4:169f
Newfoundland 4:164
nineteenth century stratigraphic
correlations 2:219f
North Africa I:14f9 1:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19 f
North American chronostratigraphy
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
arc magmatism 4:85
tectonostratigraphical zones
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Exploits subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f
Gander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
Humber zone 4:82f, 4:83, 4:84f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f, 4:84f,
4:85, 4:87f
4:84f
northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:44
Nova Scotia 4:164
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f
Ouachita Mountains 4:62, 4:64f
oxygen concentrations 1:206f
Paibian stage 5:511f95:517f
4:164, 4:170f
Panthalassic Ocean 4:17Of
Pechora Basin 2:53f
polarity-bias superchrons 3:33If
porifera (Porifera) 2:408-417, 4:171
Precambrian-Cambrian boundary
2:165-166
radiation patterns
brachiopods 4:171
echinoderms 4:171
faunal provinces 4:172, 4:173f
fish 2:463f
life forms 4:171, 4:172f
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Biotic
Transition 4:172
porifera (Porifera) 4:171
trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f,
4:174f
reef environments 4:565
sea-level changes 4:2 6f
Sedgwick, Adam 2:211
Siberia l:173f, 4:164, 4:170f
Siberian craton 4:167f, 4:461
South-east Asia
stratigraphic correlation I:183f9
1:185 f

species radiations 1:278
time-scale scaling concepts 5:516f
Treptichnus pedum 4:164
trilobites (Trilobita)
biogeographical distribution 4:173f
biostratigraphy 2:294f
exoskeletons 2:292f
first appearance 4:164, 4:171
occurrence 2:291
Xystridura templetonensis 4:174f
Wales 4:163, 4:164
Cambridge University 3:197
Cam Clay 5:185, 5:192

Cameroon Line 4:479
caminite 5:394t
Campanian-Maastrichtian
black shales l:22f
boundary stratotypes 3:372
extinction events 3:383
marine invertebrates 3:380f
marine vertebrates 3:381f
North Africa 1:23, 1:24, l:24f
terrestrial invertebrates 3:381f
terrestrial vertebrates 3:382f
vegetation 3:383f
Campanian stage
anoxic events 3:363
Krazi\l:322f,l:325f
5:517f
vegetation 3:37Of
Campos basin l:321f, 1:322f
Campylognathoides 2:513-514
Campylognathoididae 2:513-514
Canada
Carboniferous 4:211
gemstones 3:7t
jawless fish 2:458-459
Jurassic 3:352t
sharks 2:462
Triassic 3:344
See also specific provinces
Canadian Council of Professional
Geoscientists 3:75, 3:77*, 3:78
Canadian Shield 4:22f
basement gneisses 4:10f
carbonatites 3:228f
kimberlites 4:8-9, 4:llf
physiographic provinces 4:22f
structural provinces 5:175, 5:176f
tectonic map 4:23f
See also Slave craton
Canadian subdivision 4:176, 4:177
Canary Islands 3:315f, 3:316t
Canning Basin 3:129
Cannonball Sea 5:460-461
Cantabrian subdivision 4:202f
INDEX 613
Cape Cod, Massachusetts, United States

4:88-89,4:192-193
Cape Fear slide 4:94f, 4:94-95
Cape Hatteras, Massachusetts, United
States 4:93-94, 4:106f
Capeller, Moritz Anton 3:171
Cape Verde Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
Capitanian stage 4:215'?, 4:219f, 4:221 f,
5:511 f,5:517f
Capitan Reef Complex, New Mexico,
United States 4:566, 4:566f, 5:135
capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477/", 2:518,
2:519 f
Capricorn Orogeny l:209f, 1:209-210,
l:211f,l:212f,l:239f
captorhinids 2:481, 2:481f
Caradocian subdivision
Appalachians 4:76-77, 4:83-84, 4:84f,
4:87f
biodiversity 4:180f
general discussion 4:175-176, 4:178
mountain-building processes 4:182-184
4:179-180
terrane migration 4:182f
carats 3:118
carbonate reservoirs
characterization 4:235, 4:313
karst landscapes 4:235, 4:237f
permeability 4:316f, 4:317f
porosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 4:317f
See also petroleum geology
carbonates 3:522-532
ankerite (Ca(MgFe)(CO 3 ) 2 )
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 5:108t
Arabia 1:145
aragonite (CaCO3)
hydrothermal vents 5:394t
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108t
5:533f
Atlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103f
brewing process 3:80, 3:80t
calcite (CaCO3)
amphiboles 3:505
carbonatites 3:220, 3:221?
5:394?
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 3:523-524
Vendian 4:372
calcrete 3:365, 5:588
carbonatites 3:220, 3:221t

components
allochems 3:525, 3:526f
bioclasts 3:525, 3:526f
Dunham's classification system 3:527f,
3:527-528
fecal pellets 3:525
Folk's classification system 3:527f
lithoclasts 3:525, 3:526f
micrite 3:525-526, 3:527f
constituent minerals 3:523
Dana classification system 3:502t
caves (endokarst) 3:523f
hot springs 3:523f
lakes 3:523f, 4:556, 4:557, 4:558f
limestones 5:110, 5:110f9 5:lllf
reefs and mounds 3:523f
shorelines and shelves 3:524f, 4:102,
4:103f, 4:501-513, 5:110,
5:111 f
diagenesis 3:531
dissolution processes 1:550, l:550f
dolomite 5:79-94
amphiboles 3:505
cementation 5:143
classification 5:26t
composition 5:79
dolomitization
anhydrite replacement 5:84f
carbonate diagenesis 3:531
dolostone development 3:526f,
5:85f
environmental settings 5:88
hypersaline environments 5:90
hyposaline environments 5:89
limestone dolomitization 5:86f
mass balance constraints 5:80
matrix replacement 5:83f
microbial/organogenic models 5:88
mixing zone model 5:89
molds 5:84f
penecontemporaneous dolomites
5:88
reflux model 5:90
sabkha model 5:90-91
sea water dolomitization 5:91
subsurface environments 5:91
textural evolution 5:82
vugs 5:83f
geochemistry
isotope studies 5:85, 5:89 f
recrystallization 5:86-87, 5:89f
grain analysis 5:30, 5:3 If
hydrothermal activity 5:87-88, 5:90f
ironstones 5:99
kinetic constraints 5:80
limestones 5:107-108
North Africa 1:24
permeability 5:83, 5:88f
petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235,
4:23 6f
pore size classification 5:81, 5:82f
porosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 5:83, 5:88f
saddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f, 5:87f,
5:87-88
secular distribution 5:93
textural classification 5:81, 5:81f
thermodynamic constraints 5:80
5:533f
Vendian 4:372
geological proxies 4:132f, 4:133
geotechnical properties 1:549, l:549t,
1:5 50f
geothermal systems 3:113t
grain analysis 5:30, 5:31
Hey's chemical classification system
3:501t
hydrothermal fluids 3:629?
hydrothermal vents 5:394?
lacustrine deposits 4:556,
4:557, 4:558f
Lagerstatten 3:313
aggregates 1:35
Mps2:131f
brewing process 3:80
classification 4:454, 5:110, 5:26?
comparison with sandstones 5:107
densities 5:321f
depositional environment 5:110,
5:110f95:lllf
diagenesis 5:112
dissolution processes 1:550, 1:550f
dolomitization 5:107-108, 5:112
economic importance 5:112
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
geotechnical properties 1:549, Jf:549?,
l:550f,3:102t
grain analysis 5:107, 5:108, 5:109 f,
5:30, 5:30f
karst landscapes 1:550-551, l:551f,
4:679
matrix composition 5:110
mineralogy 5:108, 5:108t
nomenclature 5:110
Ordovician4:lS2/"
petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235
porosity l:549t, 4:234/", 4:236/",
5:107-108
Proterozoic 4:351
shorelines and shelves 4:505-506,
5:110, 5:lllf
stromatolites 1:430, l:431f
long-term carbon cycle 1:339f
marine environments
614
INDEX
carbonates (continued)
attached rimmed carbonate ramps
3:528
attached rimmed carbonate shelves
3:528
beaches 3:524f
composition 3:528
depositional systems 3:528, 3:528f
distribution 3:528
intertidal flats 3:524f
lagoons 3:S24f
reefs and mounds 3:523/, 3:529
sedimentary processes 3:530
metamorphic rocks 3:396,3:396f, 3:399,
3:400f
non-marine environments 3:530
porosity 1:549t
relative abundance 4:504f
shorelines and shelves 4:501-513
Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of
attached rimmed carbonate ramp,
temperate environment 3:528,
4:511, 4:511f,4:512f
tropical environment 3:528,
4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of
attached rimmed carbonate shelf
3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f
beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135
carbonate rock abundances 4:504f
carbonate sands 4.-506/", 4:508f,
4:509f, 4:51 Of
composition 4:501
Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:505,
4:505f, 4:506f, 4:93f
Great Bahama Bank 4:503 f, 4:505f,
4:507, 4:508f
limestones 4:505-506, 5:110, 5:lllf
morphology 4:502-504, 4:504f
north-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:511,
4:511f,4:512f
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:51 Of
reef environments 4:562-570
acritarchs 3:427f
atolls 4:481, 4:564
bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:563f
barrier reefs 4:564
bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:563f
Cambrian 4:565
carbonate sedimentation 1:343f,
3:523f, 3:529
Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,
3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568
Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565
examples 4:502f
extinction events 4:565-566,
4:566-567
floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,

4:564f
Florida-Bahamas shelf region
4:506f, 4:507
framestone 3:527f, 4:562f,
4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569f
fringing reefs 4:564, 4:568f
Jurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567/
lagoons 4:564
Miocene 4:568f, 4:569f
modern reef formation 4:562
patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564
Permian 4:565-566, 4:566f
rudists 4:567f, 4:567-568
rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:564f
Silurian 4:565
stromatolites 3:524f, 4:565
Tertiary 4:568-569
Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567
Walther, Johannes 2:244
zonation 4:562
seismic profile 4:503f
sequence stratigraphy 5:166
unattached rimmed carbonate shelf
4:507, 4:508f
siderite (FeCO3) 5:31
Strunz classification system 3:502t
Vendian 4:372
weathering processes 5:583, 5:588
carbonatites 3:217-233
age determination 3:220
economic deposits 3:221, 3:22It
extraterrestrial planets 3:232f
geochemical analysis
chemical composition 3:221, 3:223t
lead isotope ratios 3:225f, 3:226f
rare earth element plots 3:224f
stable isotope studies 3:222, 3:226f,
3:227f, 3:228f, 3:229f
trace element ratios 3:224f, 3:224t
global distribution 3:218, 3:218f
lava/lava flows 3:218t
magmatic ores 3:640
mantle plumes (hotspots) 3:228, 3:232f
mantle sources 3:227, 3:227f, 3:231 f,
3:232f
metasomatism 3:229, 3:232f
Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220?, 3:220-221,
3:224f, 3:225, 3:230f
origins 3:227
peridotites 3:23If
phase equilibrium studies 3:231, 3:232f
rift valleys 5:438-439
rock associations 3:220t
schematic diagram 3:219f
volcanism 5:569-571
carbon (C)
allotropes 3:554
anthropogenic carbon dioxide sources
1:343, 1:343 f, 1:344f, 1:345 f
basic principles 1:335, l:336f
Cambrian 1:204-206
geological evolution 1:340, 1:341 f,
l:342f
glacial/interglacial periods 1:341,
l:342f, 1:343 f
long-term carbon cycle I:336f9 1:338,
1:338f, 1:339 f
Ordovician 1:204-206
Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204,
l:205f, 1:206, l:206f
short-term carbon cycle 1:335,1:336f,
1:337f
carbon dioxide (CO2)
atmospheric concentrations
abundances 1:197't
anthropogenic sources 1:343f,
l:344f, 1:345 f
changes l:206f
4:223f
1:342 f
glacial/interglacial periods 1:342f,
1:343 f
Venus 5:246?
C4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482,
5:483, 5:484, 5:491
carbonatites 3:223?
carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f, l:337f,
1:338
Carboniferous 4:207
3:383
Devonian concentrations 4:196, 4:196f
kimberlites 3:245?
landfills 2:14, 2:15f
metamorphic facies 3:407
Miocene concentrations 5:482
natural gas content 4:259?, 4:260
Oligocene 5:475
Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204, 1:206,
l:206f
l:200t
carbon monoxide (CO) l:197t, l:200t,
5:246?
diamonds
Australia l:218f, 1:221
Canadian Shield 4:11 f, 4:8-9
carbonatites 3:222
geochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f,
3:24f
geographic distribution 3:7?
kimberlites 3:247-260, 3:255, 3:492,
4:8-9, 4:11 f
INDEX 615
carbon (C) (continued)

lamproites 3:257, 3:259/
placer deposits 3:489-490, 3:490f
prospecting methods 3:256
Russia 4:473
South-east Asia 1:17Sf, 1:196
5:533/", 5:534/", 5:536-537
uncut diamond 3:258f
graphite
5:533f
isotopes
Cambrian 4:165-166, 4:171f
carbonatites 3:222, 3:229f
Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE)
5:466, 5:467f, 5:470, 5:470f
chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f, 1:87
dendrochronology 1:391
diagenetic quantification 5:146,
S:148f
dolomite formation 5:85, 5:89f
geoarchaeology 3:18, 3:19f
ironstones 5:103
landfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18f
natural gas 4:258, 4:259f
Palaeocene 5:460, 5:464
Vendian 4:379
petroleum system
hydrogen index 4:279f
kerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277/", 4:278f
organic matter determination 4:272,
4:272f
pyrolysis analytical methods 4:275,
4:2 77f
source rock quality 4:272f
radiocarbon (14C) 3:20
total organic carbon (TOC)
kerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277/", 4:278f
4:27 2f
4:2 77f
See also carbonates
algae 4:212
amphibians 2:519-520, 2:520f
Angaran flora 4:206f
angiosperms 2:422f, 2:423
Appalachians 4:78
Arabia l:144f
atmospheric composition 4:205, 4:207f

Australia l:226f, l:227f, 1:234
Bashiorian stage 4:201 f, 4:202
biodiversity 1:262-263, l:263f
brachiopods 2:306f, 4:212
Krsizill:317f,l:318f,l:320f
bryozoans 4:212
carbon dioxide concentrations 1:206f
cephalopods 2:389f
Chesterian stage 4:209f
China 1:347f
climate 4:207, 4:208 f, 4:209f, 4:210f
conodonts 4:212
continent formation 4:204, 4:205f
corals 2:325/", 4:212
crinoids 2:346, 2:347f, 4:212
Desmoinian stage 4:209f
Dinantian division 4:201
dolostones 5:91
2:36, 2:38f, 4:460
echinoderms 2:336/j 2:337
echinoids 2:355
fire effects 4:209
fish 2:463f, 4:212
fossil fungi 2:440
gastropods 2:386f, 2:387
glaciation l:226f, 1:234, 4:131, 4:207,
4:208f, 4:663
Gondwana
continent formation 4:204
geological evolution 1:178, l:181t
glaciation 4:208f
Namurian stage 3:139, 3:141f
I:182f9 l:184f, 3:140f, 3:141f
Parana basin 1:319f, 1:320f
Permo-Carboniferous basin formation
2:101f
terranes3:230/"
goniatites 4:212
Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland 3:441,
3:442f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f
gymnosperms
biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 f
Cordaitales 2:449
Cycadales 2:448, 2:449f
Hydraspermales 2:447
Lyginopteridales 2:448
Medullosales 2:448, 2:449f
Voltziales 2:449
Gzhelian stage 4:201f, 4:202
historical setting 4:201
insects 1:204-206, 2:296-298, 2:299f,

2:300?, 4:210-211
5:517f
ironstones 5:106, 5:97-98
jawless fish 2:460f
Kasimovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202
Kazakhstan l:182f, I:184f9 4:201
Lagerstatten 3:310t
Laurasia 4:204, 4:212
Laurentia l:182f,l:184f
lithology 4:203, 4:204f
marine biota 4:212
mass extinctions 4:212
Mazon Creek 2:274-275
Mississippian
Appalachians 4:79, 4:80f
chronostratigraphy 4:201, 4:25f
climatic effects 4:207, 4:210f
glaciation 4:208f
and Points (GSSPs) 5:511f
5:517f
Mississippian-Pennsylvanian
boundary 4:201
Namurian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
nomenclature 4:201 f
Ouachita Mountains 4:61
palaeobiogeography 4:206f
palynological zonations 3:468f
Pangaea 4:226f
sea-level changes 4:26f
Tournaisan stage 4:202f, 4:208f
Visean stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
Missourian stage 4:209f
molluscs 2:367
Moscovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202
Namurian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
Neuropteris heterophylla 2:447f
New Caledonia 4:116
North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:87f,
4:88, 4:90f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461
palaeobiogeography 4:204, 4:206f
palaeoclimate 4:227
Pangaea 4:204, 4:212, 4:225, 4:226/
Pennsylvanian
chronostratigraphy 4:201, 4:25/
glaciation 4:208f
boundary 4:201
616
INDEX
Carboniferous (continued]
Pangaea 4:226f
porifera (Porifera) 2:408-417
Stephanian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,
4:209f
Westphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,
4:209f
Permo-Carboniferous basins
evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 f,
3:653
foreland 2:97
hydrocarbon reservoirs 2:124
isopachs 2:103f
Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100
magmatism 2:96f, 2:97
North German Basin 2:97, 2:99-100,
2:Wlf
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,
2:101f
Variscan internides 2:98
volcanic centres 2:101 f
western/central Europe 2:102
phylloid algae 2:434
plankton 4:212
Serpukhovian stage 4:201f, 4:202
sharks 2:463-465
Siberia 1:182f, 1:184f
Siberian craton 4:461-462
Silesian division 4:201
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:178, 1:18It,
I:182f9l:184f
1:185-f
Stephanian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
stratigraphy
absolute ages 4:202f, 4:203
Carboniferous-Permian boundary
4:201, 4:206f
Devonian-Carboniferous boundary
4:201
boundary 4:201
subdivisions 4:202
terrestrial biota
invertebrates 4:210
vegetation 4:209, 4:209f
vertebrates 4:211
tetrapods
adelogyrinids 2:475
aistopods 2:473f, 2:475
amniotes 2:468, 2:473f, 4:211-212
amphibians 2:468
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
skeletal material 2:474/", 2:476f
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids
cladogram 2:473f
physical appearance 2:475
dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476f
lepospondyls 2:475
lissamphibians 2:468
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
microsaurs 2:473'f, 4:211
nectrideans 2:473/, 2:475
Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473f
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
time-scale scaling concepts 5:51 6f
Tournaisan stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 4:202f,
4:208f
Trigonocarpus parkinsoni 2:449f
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:294
unconformities 5:544
Ural Mountains 4:201
vegetation 4:206f, 4:209, 4:209f
vegetational change 4:209f
Virgilian stage 4:209f
Visean stage 4:201f, 4:202, 4:202f,
4:208f, 4:209f
Walchia piniformis 2:447f
weathering effects 5:589-590
Westphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
See also Mississippian; Pennsylvanian
Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:460,
5:466, 5:467f, 5:470, 5:470f
Carcharocles megalodon 2:465
Carey, Warren 3:193-194
Caribbean Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316t
carminite 3:508t
carnallite 5:94-95
Carnarvon Basin 3:129, 3:139, 3:142-147,
3:146f
Carnegie Ridge l:119f, 1:131, 3:315f,
3:316t, 4:477-479
Carnian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517f
Carnivora 2:539
carnotite (K 2 (UO2)2(VO 4 ) 2 -3H 2 O) 3:495,
3:495f, 3:589t, 3:589-590
Carolina
Appalachians 4:72, 4:73f, 4:83f
Carolina platform 4:100
Carolina terrane 4:74f, 4:7Sf, 4:78
Carolina trough 4:96/", 4:98-100, 4:101 f,
4:102f,4:W5,4:106f
Caroline terrane 3:133'f
Great Dyke 4:95
Silurian 4:191-192
Caroline Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
Carpathians 2:35f, 2:75, 2:136, 2:137f,
2:138f, 2:139f, 2:235-237, 2:237f
Carr, Ezra 2:195
carrollite (CuCo2S4) 3:575*, 3:577*
Cars well, Canada 3:363*
Carthage-Colton shear zone 3:158f,
3:162-163
Cascade Range 4:48, 5:476-477, 5:480,
5:481,5:488
Cascadia Trench 4:60, 5:430*, 5:430f
Caseidae 2:485, 2:486f
Casineria 2:473f
Casineria kiddi 2:473f, 2:473-474
Caspian Sea 1:164, 3:648-649, 4:550
cassedanneite (Pb 5 (CrO 4 )(VO 4 ) 2 -H 2 O)
3:533*
Cassiar terrane 4:40/, 4:45-46
cassiterite (SnO2) 3:489-490, 3:585*,
3:630*
Castelloarina fascifer 4:158f
cataclasite 3:388t
catastrophic floods 4:628-641
causal mechanisms
dam failures 4:629, 4:631f
drainage area 4:63 Of
glacial melt 4:628-629, 4:631f
jokulhlaups
cycle 4:633f
definition 4:632
flood deposits 4:640f
flood flow 4:634f
geomorphic impacts 4:638f
outwash plain 4:637f
rip-up clast deposits 4:636f
tunnel inlet 4:634f
landslides 4:632
rainfall 4:628
snow dams 4:629
snowfall 4:628
spatial/temporal factors 4:63 Of
vegetative debris 4:629
definition 4:628
geomorphic impacts
backwater effects 4:637f
channel morphology 4:63 6f
erosion surfaces 4:635f
flood deposits 4:639f, 4:640f
ice blocks 4:638f
INDEX 617
catastrophic floods (continued]

kettle holes 4:638f
stream power 4:635f
hydrographs 4:634f
impact controls 4:640
turbulent flows 4:634f
catastrophism 1:257, 2:177, 2:182, 2:217,
2:224, 3:176, 5:297
Cathaymyrus 2:455
Cathaysia
See China
Cathaysian flora 4:217
Catoctin formation, Appalachians 4:74
cattierite (CoS2) 3:575t, 3:577t
Caucasus 2:35, 4:456, 4:471
Caudipteryx 2:495
Cautleyan stage 4:183f
caves (coastlines) 4:579f
caves (endokarst)
carbonate sedimentation 3:523f
cave features 4:684f
cave minerals 3:555, 3:556t
nitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556t
paragenetic canyons 4:684f, 4:684-685,
4:685f
Pleistocene 5:497
scallops 4:685, 4:686f
speleothems 4:686, 4:686f
vadose canyons 4:684f, 4:68Sf
Cayeuxia 2:435f
Caytoniales 2:452, 2:452f
Ceara basin 1:325f
Cearadactylus 2:514
Ceara Rise 3:315f,3:316t
cechite (Pb(Fe,Mn)VO 4 (OH)) 3:589t
Cedar Mesa Sandstone, Utah 4:547f
celadonite 3:542-548
cement
clays 1:367
limestones 5:112
sandstones 5:143, 5:143t
Cenoceras 2:39If
Cenomanian stage 3:147-154, 3:153f
anoxic events 3:363
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:229f, 1:236
Brazil l:322f, 1:325f
Gondwana 3:147
5:517f
marine invertebrates 3:367/", 3:380f
oceanic anoxic events 4:497-499

terrestrial vertebrates 3:369/", 3:382f
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 1:22f,
1:326, 3:360, 3:370, 3:383, 4:104f,
4:567-568
Ceno-Tethys Ocean 1:170f, 1:170-171,
1:175 f
Cenozoic
amphibians 2:523-526
Andrias scheuchzeri 2:524-525,
2:525f
assemblages 2:523
caecilians 2:525
2:523
frogs 2:524, 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525f
2:524f
salamanders 2:524, 2:525f
Argentina l:156f
Atlantic Margin 4:104f, 4:95
Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104f
bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:377f
brachiopods 2:306f
corals 2:325f
dolostones 5:91
Eocene 5:466-472
amphibians 2:523-524, 2:524-525
Andes Mountains 1:127, 1:128, 1:130
Arabia l:142f, l:144f
Australia, Phanerozoic I:230f9 1:236
Bartonian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469,
5:506f
International Stratigraphic Chart
(ICS) 5:517f
biota
Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction
(BFE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
marine environments 5:468
terrestrial biota 5:469
biozones 5:467f
chronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468f
climate 5:470
Coccolithophoridae 2:43If
Early Eocene Climatic Optimum
(EECO) 5:467f, 5:470
Europe 2:117
geomagnetic polarity time-scale 3:332f

and Points (GSSPs) 5:S06f
Gondwana3:231/", 5:468
Grube Messel, Germany 3:310t
gymnosperms 2:45If
impact craters 5:468
insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 5:469
5:517f
Lagerstatten3:310
Lutetian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506f
a
Mammalian Dispersal Event (MDE)
5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471
marine environments 5:468, 5:470
New Caledonia 4:116
Palaeocene-Eocene thermal maximum
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
Pangaea 3:;m/~
Papua New Guinea 4:110
plate tectonics 5:466
Priabonian stage l:322f, 1:325 'f,
5:466, 5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469,
5:470, 5:506f
(ICS) 5:51 7f
Solomon Islands 4:113
South-east Asia l:181t, l:188f, l:190f
tektites 5:444, 5:452
terrestrial environments 5:469, 5:471
Tonga 4: 120
Ypresian stage l:322f, 1:325 f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470,
5:506f
(ICS)5:517f
European Rift System 2:120, 3:653
fish 2:463f
fossil lichens 2:442
Gondwana
3:154
terrainesl:172f,3:131f
Holocene. See Holocene
5:517 f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Miocene 5:478-485
amphibians
albanerpetontids 2:525
assemblages 2:523-524
61S
INDEX
Cenozoic (continued)
frogs 2:525f
Rana ridibunda 2:524, 2:525/
Antarctica 1:140
Aquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325"/",
5:478, 5:479f, 5:506f, 5:517f
Arikareean stage 5:478, 5:479f
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:23O/", 1:236
Burdigalian stage l:322f, 1:325f,
5:478, 5:479f, 5:506f, 5:517f
Chasicoan stage 5:479, 5:479f
chronostratigraphy 4:2 5f
Clarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479f
climate
atmospheric carbon dioxide 5:482
sea-level 5:482
seasonality 5:482
temperature 5:482
Colhehuapian stage 5:479, 5:479f
Colloncuran stage 5:479, 5:479f
Europe 2:120
Friasian stage 5:479, 5:479f
geochronology 5:478, 5:479f
Gondwana 3:13If
Hemingfordian stage 5:478, 5:479f
Hemphillian stage 5:478, 5:479f
Huayquerian stage 5:479, 5:479f
5:517f
Langhian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
lateritic palaeosols 5:203f
Lau Islands 4:120
Laventan stage 5:479, 5:479f
marine life 5:482
Mayoan stage 5:479, 5:479f
Messinian stage 1.-322/J 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f, 5:506f,5:517f
mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum
5:482, 5:483
Montehermosan stage 5:479, 5:479f
New Caledonia 4:117
New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f, 4:7
North Africa 1:17, 1:24
oceanic circulation 5:478, 5:479,
5:481
Orleanian mammalian age 5:479f
Pangaea 3:131f
predation 4:145f
Prunum coniforme 1:269f
punctuated equilibrium 1:269f
reef environments 4:5 68f, 4:569f
Santacrucian stage 5:479, 5:479f
Serravallian stage I:322f9 1:325f,
5:478, 5:479f, 5.-506/", 5:517f

Stratigraphic boundaries 5:478
tectonic processes
Africa 5:481
Basin and Range 4:60, 5:480
Cascade Range 5:481
Central America 5:481
Columbia River Flood Basalts
5:480
continental positions 5:479, 5:480f
East Pacific Rise 5:479
Eurasia 5:481
Himalayan Mountains 5:481
Isthmus of Panama 5:481
Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25,
5:481
North America 5:479
Rocky Mountains 5:480
Sierra Nevada Range 5:481
South America 5:481
Tibetan Plateau 5:481
tektites 5:444
terrestrial life
Africa 5:484
animals 5:483
Australia 5:484
Eurasia 5:484
North America 5:483
plants 5:483
South America 5:484
Tonga 4:120
Tortonian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Turolian mammalian age 5:479f
Vallesian mammalian age 5:479f
Vanuatu 4:116
Neogene
China 1:347f
International Stratigraphic
Chart (ICS) 5:517f
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Oligocene 5:472-478
amphibians
2:525f
2:524f
biostratigraphical correlations 5:472,
5:473^
biota
algae 5:476
Coccolithophoridae 5:476
diatoms 5:476
foraminifera 5:473, 5:476
plankton 5:476
boundaries 5:472-473
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 5:475
Chattian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:473,
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
Europe 2:120
extinction events 5:473, 5:476
glaciation 5:473-474, 5:475,
5:476-477
Global Standard Stratotype
Sections and Points (GSSPs)
5:506f
global warming/cooling 5:473
impact structures 5:473
insects 2:299/", 2:300?
(ICS) 5:517f
Lagerstatten3:310?
mountain-building processes 5:477
New Zealand 4:1, 4:3/
North Africa 1:17
oxygen isotope ratios 5:473, 5:474f
palaeoclimate 5:473
palaeosols 5:475
precipitation 5:475
Rupelian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:473,
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
Stratigraphic subdivisions 5:473
time-scale scaling
concepts 5:516f
vegetation 5:475
Arabia l:142f, 1:144f
biota
biozones 5:460f
chalk facies 5:460, 5:461f
chronostratigraphy 4:25/", 5:460f
climate 5:464
environmental settings
carbon isotopic ratios 5:460, 5:464
oxygen isotope ratios 5:464
INDEX 619
Cenozoic (continued)
terrestrial environments 5:463,
5:464
faunal assemblages 5:460, 5:461f
and Points (GSSPs) S:506f
gymnosperms 2:452f
insects 2:299f
5:517f
Latest Palaeocene Thermal Maximum
(LPTM) dissociation hypothesis
l:342f
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
tetrapod radiations l:273f
Palaeogene
China 1:347f
Danian boundary 3:372, 3:373f
5:517f
Kazakhstan l:166f
New Zealand 4:6
North Africa 1:24
northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:43-44
Uzbekistan 1:167
Pangaea3:I31/"
placental mammals 2:537f
Pleistocene 5:493-499
amphibians 2:526
archaeological sites 5:496f
Australia, Phanerozoic I:230f9 1:236
biota 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f
caves (endokarst) 5:497
Cromerian complex 5:496f
Devensian stage 5:496f
extinction events 5:497-498
Flandrian stage 5:496f
glacial stages 5:496f
glaciation 2:526, 4:131, 4:663
Gunz stage 5:493
historical research 5:493, 5:496f
Hoxnian stage 5:496f
human activity 5:495, 5:496f
Ice Age 5:493
interglacial pollen assemblages 3:467f
5:517f
Ipswichian stage 5:496f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
mammoths 5:498, 5:498f

marine oxygen isotope record 5:496f
Mindel stage 5:493
palaeoclimate 5:495
Purfleet interglacial stage 5:496f
Riss stage 5:493
tektites 5:444
Wurm stage 5:493
Pliocene 5:486-493
amphibians 2:524, 2:525, 2:526f
Antarctica 1:140
Atlantic ocean currents 5:488f
biotic events
American terrestrial biotic
interchange 5:487t, 5:490
marine biotic interchange 5:487t,
5:491
marine trans-Arctic interchange
5:487t, 5:491
climate
general discussion 5:487t, 5:489
glaciation 5:487t, 5:489
mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t,
5:489
Global Standard Stratotype
Sections and Points (GSSPs)
5:506f
Hominin diversification 5:487t, 5:491,
5:491t,5:492f
insects 2:299f
5:517f
Lau Islands 4:120
orbital forcing 5:487t
palaeomagnetism 5:487t
predations 4:145f
South-east Asia 1:193 f
stages
Gelasian (upper Pliocene) 5:487,
a
Piacenzian (middle Pliocene) 5:486,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517f
Zanclean (lower Pliocene) 5:486,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517f
tectonic processes 5:487, 5:487t
Vanuatu 4:116
sedimentary basins 2:122f
South-east Asia I:181t9 1:187
southern Cordillera 4:58, 4:60
Tadzhikistan 1:168
Tertiary. See Tertiary
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uralide orogeny 2:87f
See also Quaternary
Central American tectonics 5:481
Central Appalachians 4:72-81
Carolina terrane 4:74f9 4:75f9 4:78
Cat Square terrane 4.-74/J 4:75f9 4:77
4:80f
occurrence 4:72
origins 4:72
passive margin development 4:76, 4:76f
sedimentary depositional
processes 4:73
superterranes 4:74/j 4:75f
tectonic evolution 4:74 f9 4:75f
Central Arabian Arch 3:140f
Central Asia 1:164-169
geologic history 1:168
Kazakhstan
borate deposits 3:517
Cambrian 1:173 f
Carboniferous 4:201
geology 1:164
and Points (GSSPs) S:Sllf
Kokchetav Massif 5:533, 5:535-536,
5:536f, 5:537
Ordovician 1:173 f
Permian 5:511f
Silurian l:173f, 4:191-192
tektites 5:451
terranes3:130/'
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165'f
Triassic 3:344
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Tadzhikistan 1:168, 1:518f
terrains l:165f
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, I:165f9
1:167
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uzbekistan 1:167
Central Atlantic Magmatic Province
3:315f,3:316t
Central Basin Platform 4:62f
Central Brazil Shield l:306f
Centralian Superbasin 3:129-139
Central Iberian Zone 2:80-82, 2:96/", 2:98
Central Mobile Belt 4:83
Central Sahara Ghost Craton 1:10
Central Stable Region 4:21
Central Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f
620
INDEX
Central Victorian Magmatic Province

l:247f, 1:250
Cephalaspis utahensis 2:458f
cephalopods 2:389-396
classification
Coleoidea
Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394f
Decabrachia 2:394, 2:395f
description 2:392
Octobrachia 2:394, 2:395f
Nautiloidea
description 2:391
Endoceratids 2:392
morphology 2:39If
Nautiloids 2:392, 2:396
Orthoceratids 2:392
Devonian 4:194
ecological structures 1:262t
Silurian 4:191
Ceratolithus acutus 5:486
Cerig Formation 4:186f, 4:188
cerium (Ce)
carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*, 3:224f
crustal composition 5:174t
granitic rocks 3:242f
komatiites 3:264f
Cernan, Eugene 5:266*, 5:2 70f
cerotungstite-(Ce) (CeW 2 O 6 (OH) 3 )
3:557*
cerussite (PbCO 3 ) 3:630*
cesium (Cs)
carbonatites 3:223*
lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)
pegmatites 3:639
partitioning behaviour 3:639*
toxicity 2:22*
Cetiosaurus 3:359f
chabazite 3:593, 3:593*, 3:594f
Chaco-Parana basin, Argentina 1:159,
4:208f
Chad 5:49?*
Chadian subdivision 4:202f
Chadronian land mammal age 5:472,
5:473f
Chagos-Laccadive Ridge 3:315f, 3:316*
chalcanthite 5:394*
chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51, 5:52f
chalcocite (Cu2S) 3:575*, 3:630*
chalcoeite 3:582f
chalcophile elements 3:638f, 3:639*, 3:641,
3:642f
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) 3:575*, 3:577*,
3:577f, 3:582f, 3:585t, 3:630*,
5:394*
Chalicotheridae 5:485
chalk 5:42-50
brewing process 3:80t
chalk sea
cyclic sedimentation 5:48, 5:48f
orbital forcing 5:48
palaeogeography 5:43f, 5:46
Coccolithophoridae 4:556, 5:42, 5:43f,
5:44, 5:45f, 5:112
cognac 3:85
composition 5:42
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367,
5:42, 5:43f, 5:45f, 5:46
depositional environment 5:110
facies analysis 5:44, 5:45f, 5:46f
geotechnical properties 1:549*,
1:551-552,3:102*
ground transitions 5:44, 5:48f
groundwater aquifers 5:48
ichnofabric 5:44, 5:46/", 5:47f
4:28, 4:29f
Palaeocene 5:461f
pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f,
5:47f
permeability 5:48-49, 5:49f
porosity 1:549*, 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49f
resedimentation 5:44-46
wine geology 3:87
Challenger Deep 5:428, 5:430*, 5:430f,
5:435
Chalmers, Thomas 1:383
Chamberlin, Rollin 3:189
Chamberlin, Thomas 3:184
chamosite 3:542-548, 5:99
Chandler Wobble 1:422
Changxingian stage 4:214, 4:215*,
4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221 f, 5:511/",
5:517f
Channel Tunnel 1:479, l:480f
Characodictyon 4:376
charged coupled device
across-track multispectral scanners
4:433, 4:433f
along-track push-broom scanner 4:435,
4:435f
digital cameras 4:435
hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438f
passive sensors 4:432, 4:432f
Charniodiscus 4:374, 4:374f
Charon 5:293*, 5:294
Chassignite meteorites 3:560-561,
5:234-235, 5:280
Chassigny, France 5:280
Chattahoochee-Holland Mountain fault
zone 4:79
Chattian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:473,
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
cheilostomes
See bryozoans(Bryozoa)
Cheirolepis 2:466-467
chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f,

1:87,3:353
chemosymbiosis 4:379
Cheneyan stage 4:183 f
Chengjiang lagerstatten 2:455, 2:462,
3:310*, 3:312-313, 3:313f
cheniers 4:571f, 4:577
cheremnykhite (Pb3Zn3O2(TeO4)(VO4)2)
3:589t
chert 5:51-62
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
Archaean 4:351, 4:368
classification 4:454, 5:26*
composition
chalcedony 5:51, 5:52f
megaquartz 5:51, 5:52f
microcrystalline quartz 5:51, 5:52f
opal 5:51
precipitation 5:51
silica solubility 5:51
textures 5:52
eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361 f
Gunflint Chert, Canada 4:3 67f 9
4:367-368
nodules 4:385
4:29, 4:30f
occurrence
bedded cherts 5:53, 5:54f
diatomaceous ooze accumulation
5:54, 5:54f
geysers 5:59
hot springs 5:59
hydrothermal origins 5:59, 5:60f
lakes 5:58
nodular cherts 5:55, 5:57/", 5:58f
Precambrian 5:55, 5:56f
radiolarian chert 5:54, 5:55f
sedimentary environments 5:35-36
silcrete 5:61
siliceous ooze accumulation 5:53,
5:55f
silicified wood 5:61
Tertiary bedded chert 5:54
prokaryotes 4:368
Rhynie chert
arthropods (Arthropoda) 2:274-275,
2:277
fossil mineralisation 3:313
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
general discussion 3:310*
hydrothermal activity 5:59-60,
5:61f
lichens 2:441-442
Old Red Sandstone 5:59-60
silica sources
biogenic silica 5:52
hydrothermal activity 5:53
siliceous sediments 5:53
INDEX 621
chert (continued)
terminology 3:570
chervetite (Pb2(V2O7)) 3:589t
Chesapeake Bay, United States 4:95,
4:98f, 5:444, 5:445f, 5:448, 5:467f,
5:468
chiavennite 3:593?
Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, 1.-105/,
3:283, 3:363?, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,
5:453-454
childrenite 5:122
Chile 3:122, 3:237?, 3:598
Chilenia, Argentina 1:160/", 1:163
Chile Ridge 1:119f
Chile triple junction l:124f, l:12Sf, 1:128,
1:130-131
Chilhowee Group, Appalachians 4:74-76
Chilliwack terrane 4:40f, 4:46
Chilodictyon 4:376
chiluite (Bi6(TeO4)2(MoO4)2O5) 3:552?
China 1:345-358
Cambrian 1:347f, 4:167f, S:Sllf
Carboniferous 4:204
Cathaysiana 1:348, 1:350-351
Dabie Shan 5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536f
earthquakes l:556f
Emeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:215 f,
4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222,
4:227
gemstones 3:7?, 3:11
accretional crustal consumption zones
l:346f, 1:346-347, 1:349 f
Archaean-Neoproterozoic
continental nuclei 1:348, 1:349f
Jinningian Orogeny 1:350
Luliangian Orogeny 1:348
platforms 1:350
protoplatforms 1:348
convergen crustal consumption zones
l:346f, 1:346-347, 1:349 f
crustal evolution 1:346, l:346f, 1:349f
geological history 1:347f
Hercynian Orogeny 1:352
Indosinian Orogeny 1.-346/", 1:348,
l:349f, 1:352
Jinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348,
1:349 f, 1:350
Neoproterozoic-Triassic
Caledonian stage l:349f, 1:351
faunal assemblages 1:351
Indosinian Orogeny 1:352
Laurasia 1:352
l:352f
post-Indosinian
Gondwana-affiliated massifs 1:353

Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 1:353
tectono-magmatism 1:353
tectonic megastages 1:347f
tectonic units 1:346, l:346f, 1:349f
liquefaction 1:556f
Meishan, China 3:344, 3:345, 4:219,
4:224-225, 5:506f
Ordovician 4:178-179, 4:180-181,
4:181-182, 5:Sllf
Pagoda Limestone 4:178-179
palaeoclimate 1:347f
Permian 4:214
Silurian 4:192-193
Sino-Korea craton 1:346, l:346f
Tarim craton 1:346, l:346f
tektites 5:443, 5:444f, 5:446-447
terranes 5:455, 5:457f
Triassic 3:344, 3:350, 5:S06f
vegetation 1:353
Yangtze craton 1:346, 1:346f
china clay
See kaolin
Chinese criteria 1:528
chitin 2:274-275
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:428-440
applications
palaeobiogeography 3:439
palaeoenvironments 3:438, 3:439f
biological affinity 3:432
carbon isotopic ratios 3:439
classification
Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f, 3:435f
Desmochitinidae 3:430,
3:431 f, 3:435f
Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,
3:435f
Operculatifera 3:430
Ordovician 3:430
Prosomatifera 3:430
evolutionary trends 3:434
intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:430f
Margachitina 3:434
morphology 3:428, 3:429/", 3:435f,
3:436f
palynology 3:468
Pterochitina 3:434
Silurian 4:191
structure 3:428
vesicle linkages 3:43 Of
Chiungchussuan stage 4:167f
Chladni, E. 5:229
chlorapatite 5:123
chlorine (Cl)
atmospheric concentrations 1:1971
brewing process 3:80, 3:50?
carbonatites 3:223?, 3:225
geothermal systems 3:113?

halite (NaCl)
Atlantic Margin 4:102
carbonatites 3:221?
densities 5:32If
evaporite pseudomorphs 4:610, 4:610f
geotechnical properties 1:552, 3:102?
karst landscapes 4:679
lacustrine deposits 4:557-558, 4:559f
petroleum geology 4:229-230
phase diagram 5:37If
porosity 1:552?
hydrochloric acid (HC1) 1:200?
3:502?
natural occurrences 3:553?

1:200?
toxicity 2:22?
Venus 5:247?
chlorite
cation exchange capacity 1:360?
cementation 5:143
chemical variations 5:69?
claystones 5:30
crystal structure 3:564f
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:76
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65/i 5:69
glauconite 3:542
iron/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratio 3:565f
layer type 1:361?, 1:362
metamorphic rocks 3:397/", 3:398f,
3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401f
optical properties 3:565f
sandstones 5:69
serpentine 3:566f, 3:566
structure l:360f
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 1:207
dasycladales 2:432, 2:433^
halimedales 2:432
Choiyoi Province, Argentina 1:161
Chokierian subdivision 4:202f
Chon Aike Province, Argentina 1:161,
3:147, 3:151 f
Chondrites 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47f
chondrites
achondrites 5:231?, 5:234f
carbonaceous chondrites 1:427, 1:429,
5:231?
chondrule cross-section 5:23 Of

Cocklebiddy chondrite 5:23Of
Earth origins 1:398
622
INDEX
chondrites (continued)
enstatite chondrites 5:23It
Chopawamsic 4:74
chordates
cladogram 3:445f
chromatite (CaCrO4) 3:533*
chromium (Cr)
carbonatites 3:223*
chromates 3:532-533
crocoite (PbCrO4) 3:533, 3:533*
general discussion 3:532, 3:533*
geographical distribution 3:532
chromite
magmatic ore deposits 3:640
mineral classification systems 3:501*,
3:502*
5:114t
toxicity 2:22*
chrysoberyl 3:7*
chrysotile
metamorphic alteration products
3:396-397, 3:397f, 3:496f, 3:559
structure 3:566f
textures 3:496, 3:566f
Chuaria 4:357, 4:358, 4:359f
Chugach terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47
Chuiella 1:178, l:182f
Chukchi Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*
Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
Cidaris 2:353f
Cimmeria 3:130f, 3:144f, 4:215f,
4:215-216
cinnabar (HgS) 3:575*, 3.-5S5*, 3:630*
CIPW normative classification 3:186
Circum-Antarctic current 5:474, 5:476
Circum-Pacific orogenic
collages 4:468
cirques 4:670, 4:672f
Cisuralian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f9
5:511 f,5:517f
cities, geoscience applications 5:557-563
Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559*
civil engineering 3:39
Cladotheria 2:528f
Claraia 3:350, 4:223-224
Clarazia 2:504
Clarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479f
Clarke, Frank 3:187-188
Clarke, John M. 2:196
Classopollis 2:450
clastic reservoirs 4:313, 4:314f, 4:315f
Claudiosaurus 2:502
clays 1:358-365
allophane 1:561
angiosperms 2:418, 2:422
ball clay 1:366-367
bentonite 1:366-367, 1:369, 4:29, 4:29f,
5:65, 5:572*
berthierine 1:360,1:361*, 3:542-548,5:99
cation exchange capacity 1:360*, 3:88
chlorite
cation exchange capacity 1:360*
cementation 5:143
chemical variations 5:69*
claystones 5:30
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65f, 5:69
formation processes 1:363, l:363f
glauconite 3:542
layer type 1:361*, 1:362
metamorphic rocks 3:397f, 3:398f,
3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401 f
sandstones 5:69
structure l:360f
claystones 5:26*, 5:28, 5:34
common clay 1:366-367
densities 5:321f
diagenesis 5:62-70
authigenesis 5:62
depth effects 5:63f
mudrocks
bentonite illitization 5:65
chlorite 5:65, 5:65f
geothermometry 5:64-65
illite crystallinity 5:65
kaolinite 5:65, 5:66f
sharpness ratio 5:65
smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64/
porosity 1:394
sandstones
chlorite 5:69
glauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69
illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating 5:69
smectites 5:67
water/rock ratios 5:62, 5:65-66, 5:67
dickite 1:363, 3:631-632
economic aspects 1:366-370
applications 1:367f
building materials 1:367
ceramics industry 1:368
historical applications 1:366
waste disposal 1:368
civil engineering aspects 1:367
definition 1:366
physicochemical properties 1:368

terminology 1:366-367
expansive clays 1:557, 1:559f
fire clay 1:366-367
Fuller's earth 1:366-367
geotechnical properties 3:102*, 3:104*
glauconite 1:364, 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69
halloysite 1:360*, 1:363, l:363f,
3:631-632
hectorite 1:369
illite
cementation 5:143, 5:143*
claystones 5:30
crystallinity 5:65
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:145f, 5:67,
5:67f, 5:68f
ferric illite 3:548
layer type 1:361, 1:361*
sandstones 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f, 5:65f
solonization 5:200
structure l:360f
interstratification 1:363 f, 1:363-364
kaolin
claystones 5:30
definition 1:366-367
layer type 1:360, 1:361*
kaolinite
Atterberg Limits 5:157*
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes
mudrocks 5:65, 5:66f
sandstones 5:66, 5:66f
sedimentary rocks 5:145f
vermicules 5:66f
formation processes 1:363, 1:363/,
5:33f
humid tropical zone soils 1:561
layer type 1:360, 1:361*
occurrence 5:32
physicochemical properties 1:368-369
Lagerstatten 3:313
montmorillonite
claystones 5:30
INDEX 623
clays (continued)
nacrite 1:363
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/", 4:646t
nonmarine environments 1:364
nontronite 1:369, 5:394?
occurrence 1:358
odinite 1:360, 1:361?, 1:364, 3:542
Oxford Clay, United Kingdom
3:310-311
palaeoclimate 4:134
palygorskite 1:361?, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369
physical properties 1:359, l:483t
pyrophyllite 1:360, 1:361?, 3:631-632
quick clays 1:562, 1:563 f, 4:690
red clays 4:642/i 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,
5:74f, 5:75?, 5:76
sandstone mineralogy 5:143t
saponite 1:369
sepiolite 1:361?, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369
serpentine 1:360, l:361t
smectites
glauconite 3:542
layer type 1:361, l:361t
sandstones 5:67
smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f
solonization 5:200
structure l:360f
soil mechanics 3:104?, 5:184, 5:184f
stratigraphy 1:364
structure 1:359f, 1:359, l:360f
talc 1:360, 1:361?, l:438t, 3:496, 5:394?
varved clays 1:562, 1:563f
vermiculite
cation exchange capacity 1:3 60t
structure 1:3 60 f
Vimy Ridge, France 3:482f
claystone ironstones
diagenesis 5:102, 5:102f
Clear Lake mining district, United States
cleavage, definition of 3:390?
Cleaveland, Parker 3:268
Clementine 5:266?, 5:266-267, 5:271
Clerk, John, Jr. 2:202-203
Clerk, John, Sr. 2:202
Clifford's Tower mound, England 1:536,
1:537?, 1:53 7/"
cliffs 4:579/
Climacograptus 2:361 f, 2:365-366
climate
dendroclimatology
micro-anatomical variations 1:390
precipitation data l:390f
reconstruction models 1:388-389
ring width studies 1:388, l:390f
4:505f, 4:506f
Holocene 2:147, 2:148f9 2:159?
rift valleys 5:439
sediment fluxes 5:18
weathering processes 5:585, 5:586f
See also palaeoclimate
Climatic Optimum
Holocene 2:148, 2:148f
Medieval climatic optimum 2:148f,
2:159?
Miocene 5:482
Roman climatic optimum 2:148, 2:148f.,
2:159?
Climatius 2:465
climbing dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f
clinobisvanite (BiVO4) 3:588-589, 3:589?
clinoclase 3:508?
clinoenstatite 5:533f
clinomimetite 3:508f
clinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593?, 3:593-594,
3:594f
clinopyroxenes 3:567-569
granites 3:235?, 3:242
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?
metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404
nomenclature 3:568f
spectral data 1:11 If
5:534-535, 5:535^
clinozoisite 3:398f, 3:404
clints 4:680, 4:682f
Clipperton Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?
Cloos, Hans 2:247-248
Cloudina 4:373
Cloudina riemkeae 4:362f
Cloudinidae 4:373, 4:379
Clydagnathus 3:442f
Clyde Plateau 2:96f
Cnidarians
anatomy 2:321, 2:321f
Anthozoa
anatomy 2:324f
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:323
classification
Anthozoa 2:321
Ceriantipatharia 2:323-324
Hydroconozoa 2:321
Hydrozoa 2:321, 2:321f
Octocorallia 2:323-324
Scyphozoa 2:321
Zoantharia 2:323-324
corals 2:321-334
anatomy 2:324f, 2:326f

comparative features 2:332?
3:379, 3:380f
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
Eocene 5:469
Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:506f,
4:507
Jurassic 3:356
life cycle 2:322f
Miocene 5:482
north-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:512f 9
4:512-513
Ordovician4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331f
Phanerozoic 2:323
Rugosa
anatomy 2:326f
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
representative corals 2:328f
Scleractinia
anatomy 2:326f
Cambrian corals 2:327f
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
Jurassic 3:356
reef-forming corals 2:331 f
representative corals 2:33Of
structure 2:327
Tabulata
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
taxonomy 2:327
Hydrozoa
anatomy 2:321 f
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:322
Scyphozoa
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:323
coal
classification 4:454, 5:26?
coal measures 3:147
colliery spoils 1:538
deltaic sediments 4:537, 4:538f
kerogenous sediments 5:33
624
INDEX
coal (continued)
4:28, 4:30f, 4:33
palaeoclimate 4:134
palynological research 3:468-469
Pennsylvanian Coal Measures 4:204,
4:210
Permian 3:142, 3:145f
South-east Asian deposits 1:195
sulphide minerals 3:585-586
Coalbrookdale Mudstone Formation
4:186f, 4:188-189
Coastal Batholith, Peru 3:237*, 3:239
Coast Plutonic Complex, British Columbia,
Canada 3:236
Coats Land 3:151 f
cobaltarthurite 3:508f
cobalt (Co)
carbonatites 3:223*
5:114t
toxicity 2:22*
cobaltite (Co,FeOAsS) 3:575*, 3:630*
Cobb-Eikelberg seamount chain 4:479
Cobequid-Chedabucto fault 4:82f
Coccolithophoridae
chalk 4:556, 5:112, 5:42, 5:43/i 5:44,
S:4Sf
3:378,3:37^
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f9 5:74,
5:74f, 5:75*
Eocene 2:431f
Jurassic 3:356
Oligocene 5:476
Cocklebiddy chondrite 5:23 Of
cockroaches 2:297/", 2:300*
Cocos Plate 4:9-11, 5:479-480, 5:480f
Cocos Ridge 1.-119/", 3:315f9 3:316*,
4:477-479, 5:397-398
coelacanths 1:274f, 1:276-278, 2:466
coelenterata 5:462, 5:469
Coelophysis 3:351f
Coelosphaeridium 2:433
coesite
occurrence 3:569-570, 3:571
phase diagram 3:570f
shock metamorphism 3:282, 5:183t
tektites 5:447
ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic
rocks 3:405, 5:533, 5:533, 5:533f9
5:534f
cognac 3:85
Coldfoot terrane 4:40/", 4:42, 4:45-46
colemanite (Ca 2 B 6 On-5H 2 O)
Argentine borate deposits 3:513*
commercial production 3:511-512,
3:512*
composition 3:512*
geochemical cycle 3:512f

geology 3:511
mineralogy 3:511
mineral processing 3:519
Turkish borate deposits 3:513*
uses 3:514
Coleoidea 2:392
Coleoptera
See insects
Colima, Mexico 5:575
collapsible soils 1:555, 1.-556/", 1:557*,
1:5 57f
colliery spoils 1:538
Collin, Alexandre 3:39
Collini, C. 2:509
collinsite 5:122
Collins,]. 5:266*
colluvial fans l:528t, 4:492
Coloborhynchus 2:514f
Colombia 1:311, 3:7*, 3:12
Colombian Andes 1:121/", 1:123
colonial surveys 1:370-373
air photographs 1:372
Directorate of Colonial Geological
Surveys 1:370, 1:371
Directorate of Overseas Geological
Surveys 1:373
geological maps 1:372
Geological Survey of Great Britain
1:370, 1:373
Imperial Institute 1:370
Mineral Resources Department 1:370,
1:371
overseas geology 1:370
Colorado basin, Argentina 1:159
Colorado Plateau 4:48, 4:58
Colorado River 4:65It
Colorados formation 3:147, 3:150f
Colorado, United States 2:457/", 3:122,
3:246, 4:35-36, 4:48-50, 5:476-477,
5:506f
colosteids 2:473/", 2:474f9 2:475
Colosteus 2:475
Columbia River 5:19*
3:316*, 5:480
Columella, Lucius 3:85-87
columnar jointing 3:327, 3:328f
comets
Comet Hale-Bopp I:200f9 5:224f9
5:225-226, 5:226*
Comet Hyakutake 1:200/", 5:226*, 5:226f
Halley's Comet I:200f9 5:224, 5:225*,
5:225/~, 5:226f
hydrogen concentrations 1:200f
life theories 5:226
meteor showers 5:224
nomenclature 5:224
notable comets 5:225, 5:225*, 5:226*
orbits 5:224
origins 5:224
Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN)
1:448, 1:454
Commission on New Minerals and Mineral
Names (CNMMN) 3:499
common clay 1:366-367
Comores Archipelago 3.-315/", 3:316*
Conchidium 4:189-190
conchoidal fractures 4:382, 4:384f
concrete
aggregates 1:42
non-destructive testing 1:497*
condensate 4:248, 4:252-255
condensed deposit 5:106
cone-in-cone structures 4:383, 4:385f
cone karst 4:682-683
cone sheets 3:215*, 3:219f
conglomerates
rudaceous rocks 5:129, 5:139f9 5:26,
5:26*
Congo
Congo Basin 3:142
Congo Craton 1:310-311,1:312f9 3:128,
3:132f
Congo River 4:651*, 5:19*
Nyiragongo volcano 3:329
Coniacian stage
anoxic events 3:363
Brazil 1.-322/", 1:325 f
Points (GSSPs) 5:506^
5:S17f
terrestrial invertebrates 3:369/, 3:381f
vegetation 3:370f9 3:383f
Coniasaurus 2:504-505
Conical Seamount 4:480
conichalcite 3:508f
Coniferales 2:450, 2:450/r, 2:451f
conifers 3:351, 4:206f9 4:209f
Connors-Auburn belt 1:242
conodonts 3:440-448
anatomy 3:441, 3:441 f9 3:442f
apparatus functions 3:446, 3:447f
architecture 3:443f9 3:446
biological affinity 3:445, 3:445f
INDEX 625
conodonts (continued)
Carboniferous 4:212
cladogram 3:445f
classification
Belodellida 3:446
Ozarkodinida 3:442-443, 3:446
Panderodontida 3:443, 3:446
Paraconodonta 3:447
Prioniodinida 3:446
Prioniodontida 3:442-443, 3:446
Proconodontida 3:446
Protopanderodontida 3:446
Clydagnathus 3:442f
evolution 3:447
Hindeodus parvus 4:219
internal structure 3:443, 3:443f
morphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,
3:444f
Ordovician index fossils 4:175-184
preservation 3:441
Promissum 3:44If
Silurian 4:185-186, 4:191
soft tissue preservation 3:308
as thermal maturation index 3:448
Conrad, C. 5:266t
Conrad discontinuity 1:406
Conrad Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
Conrad, Timothy A. 2:195
conservation
See geological conservation
Consilio Nazionale dei Geologi 3:78
Constonian substage 4:183 f
construction sites, site classification of 2:4t,
2:6t
contact metamorphism 3:393, 3:406,
3:414, 3:415f
continental drift theory 3:204
See also plate tectonics
3:316*, 5:480
3:318,3:322
contourites 4:513-527
deep-water bottom currents 4:514,
4:514f, 4:515, 4:517f
deep-water sediments 4:645-646
facies analysis
grain analysis 4:523, 4:524f, 4:525f,
4:526f
palaeoclimate 4:513-514
petroleum exploration 4:513-514
seismic characteristics 4:523
slope stability studies 4:513-514
facies continuum 4:526
sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f, 4:520f,
4:521 f, 4:523 f, 4:525f, 4:648
seismic characteristics
identification process 4:522f
sediment body 4:522, 4:523f
units 4:522
terminology 4:515, 4:517t
conulariids 4:374-375
convergent plate boundaries
controlling factors 5:317t
decollement 5:309, 5:309f, 5:310f,
5:311f95:315f,5:316f
5:311f, 5:315, 5:316f
5:309, 5:310f9 5:311 f
obduction 5:315
occurrences 5:307
ocean trenches 5:430t, 5:431-432,
5:435f
stability 5:3 09f
subcretion 5:309f, 5:314
tectonic erosion
turbidites5:310f,5:311f
description 4:343 f
geographic distribution 5:430, 5:430f
ocean trenches
accretionary wedges 5:307-317,
5:430t, 5:431-432, 5:435f
chemosynthetic communities
5:433-434
critical taper 5:433
depth control factors 5:435
empty trenches 5:434
faulting 5:435f,5:436f
filled trenches 5:432
outer rise 5:434
subduction erosion 5:431-432, 5:434,
5:435f
subduction zones 4:343/", 4:344,
4:345f, 5:429f, 5:429-430
water volume 5:433
southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:53, 4:60
Conybeare, W. D. 3:360-361
Cooma Metamorphic Complex 1:240-242,
1:242-243, l:246f
Coombs, Douglas 3:187
Cooper Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
cooperite 3:582f
Cope, Edward Drinker 3:180-181
Copernicus, Nicolas 1:257
Copperbelt, Zambia 3:494-495
copper (Cu)
carbonatites 3:223t
hydrothermal fluids 3:629t

hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630t, 5:394t
mineral analysis 1:108t
natural occurrences 3:553, 3:553t
5:114t
ophiolites 5:388
partitioning behaviour 3:639t
toxicity 2:22t
Coquand, Henri 3:184, 3:85
corals (Cnidarians) 2:321-334
Carboniferous 4:212
comparative features 2:332
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367^
3:379, 3:380f
Devonian 4:198
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
Eocene 5:469
4:507
Jurassic 3:356
life cycle 2:322f
Miocene 5:482
nodular cherts 5:58f
north-eastern Atlantic Ocean 4:512f,
4:512-513
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331f
palaeoterranes 5:457-458
Permian 4:216
Phanerozoic 2:323
Rugosa
anatomy 2:326f
comparative features 2:332t
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
Scleractinia
anatomy 2:326f
ecology 2:329,2:33^
Jurassic 3:356
reef-forming corals 2:33If
structure 2:327
symbioses 4:146
Tabulata
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
626
INDEX
corals (Cnidarians) (continued)

taxonomy 2:327
Cordaitales 2:449
Cordaites 4:206f, 4:209f
Cordevolian stage 3:34Sf
cordierite 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241f,
3:400f, 3:563
Cordier, Louis 3:174, 3:476
Cordillera
bedrock features
accretion terranes 4:40f, 4:41 f, 4:42,
4:46
arc terranes 4:46
autochthonous rocks 4:39
back-arc basin terranes 4:46
continental margin terranes 4:40/i
4:45
parautochthonous rocks 4:39
boundaries 4:36
Cretaceous 3:364
crustal thickness 4:38, 4:39f
economic deposits 4:44
evolution 4:44
neotectonics 4:37f, 4:38
physiography 4:37, 4:37f, 4:44
southern Cordillera 4:48-61
accreted terranes 4:53
Archaean 4:48
Cambrian 4:50
Cenozoic 4:58, 4:60
convergent plate boundaries 4:48,
4:53, 4:60
Cretaceous 3:364, 4:52, 4:55, 4:5Sf
crustal thickness 4:48
definition 4:48
Devonian 4:50
Eocene 4:58
Guerrero superterrane 4:54
Jurassic 4:52, 4:54
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:S7f
Laurentia 4:48
magmatic arcs 4:53
magmatism 4:55, 4:58, 4:59f
Medicine Bow orogeny 4:48-50
Miocene 4:58
miogeocline 4:50, 4:52
Neoproterozoic 4:48, 4:50
Nevadan orogeny 4:54
Oligocene 4:58
ophiolites 4:53-54
orogenic events 4:48, 4:50
Pennsylvanian 4:50
Permian 4:50
physiographic provinces 4:48, 4:49f
Precambrian craton 4:48
Proterozoic 4:48
Rodinia 4:48, 4:50

seismicity 4:60
Sevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55/", 4:56
strike-slip fault systems 4:52
tectonic evolution 4:58, 4:59f, 4:60
tectonic map 4:5If
Triassic 4:52
Wasatch line 4:50
Triassic 3:344
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes 3:246
Cordubian stage 4:167'f
Cormohipparion 5:484
Cornubian batholith, England 3:492-493
cornwallite 3:508f
Cornwall, United Kingdom 3:238f
coronal mass ejections 5:212, 5:213f, 5:219
Corosaurus 2:506
Corsica 2:75, 3:237?, 3:655f, 3:656,
5:466-468
corundum 3:254, 3:256?, 3:401 f, 4:411 f,
4:412t
corvusite ((Na,KCa,Mg)2(V8O20)-6104H2O) 3:589t
Corylorhynchus 2:485-486, 2:486f
Corystospermales 2:452
Costa Rica Rift 5:416f
Cotta, Bernhard von 3:184
cousinite
(Mg(U0 2 ) 2 (Mo0 4 ) 2 (OH) 2 .5H 2 0(?))
3:552?
covellite (CuS) 3:575?, 3:576f, 3:577?,
3:582f, 3:630?, 5:394?
cowiestie 3:593?
Cox, Allan 3:200, 3:202
crandallite 3:508f, 5:122, 5:124-125
Crassigyrinus scoticus 2:47'4f, 2:475
craters, lunar
important craters 5:2 70?
Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27'If
Mare Orientale 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,
5:270-271
Plato crater 5:267, 5:268f
surface features 5:267
cratons 5:173-178
Amazon craton
Cambrian 3:128
schematic map 1:31 If
suture zones 1:312f
Gondwana 1:23 8f
Pan-African orogeny 1:2, l:2f, 1:3/,
l:4f, 1:5 f
structural elements 1:148, 1:15Of
tectonic map 1:149f
Archaean 4:9f9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23f
Argentina 1:160f
Australia

1:239 f
Kimberley Craton l:210f, 1:212,
1:239 f
Lucas Craton l:210f, 1:213
North Australia Craton 1:208, l:209f,
1:211, 1:211 f, 3:128, 3:132f
Pilbara craton
origins 1:429
orogenic events 1:208, l:210f
1:209 f, 1:211 f, 1:215
West Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209f,
l:210f
Yilgarn craton 1:208, l:209f, l:210f,
1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39
Baltic Shield
Cambrian 4:169f
crustal segments 2:41 f
crustal thickness 3:649f, 3:656,
3:657f, 3:658
Suess, Eduard 2:238
3:652f
Brazil
Amazon craton 1:311, l:311f, l:312f
Rio de la Plata craton 1:312, 1:312f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, l:310f,
l:312f
suture zones 1:312f
Canadian Shield
carbonatites 3:228f
kimberlites 4 : l l f 9 4:8-9
tectonic map 4:23 f
China
Sino-Korea craton 1:346, 1:346f
Yangtze craton 1:346, l:346f
cratonization 5:175, 5:175f
crustal composition 5:174, 5:174?
crustal provinces 4:23f, 5:175, 5:176f
Dharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,
3:287f, 3:288t, 3:288f
Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, l:238f
INDEX 627
cratons (continued)
East European Craton 2:34-49
accretionary wedge terranes 4:459f
Archaean crust 2:38, 2:42f, 2:43f,
2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47f
craton assembly 2:47, 2:48f
crustal segments
Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41 f,
2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 2:48f
Sarmatia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f,
2:48f
Volgo-Uralia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:46,
2:47/", 2:48f
crustal thickness 2:3Sf9 2:36, 3:656,
3:657f, 3:658
gravity fields 2:36
Kola Peninsula 2:44f
lithologies 2:39f
magnetic anomalies 2:36, 2:37f
margins 2:34
morphology 2:36
Mylonite Zone 2:43f, 2:44
erogenic events 2:40, 2:48f
2:47
Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48f
Precambrian 2:34
Proterozoic 2:43f, 2:48f
rift systems 2:105, 2:36, 2:41f, 2:48f
Russia 4:456, 4:457f, 4:458f
Russian Platform 2.-35/J 2:36, 2:38f,
2:41f
sedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457f,
4:458f, 4:460f
sedimentary cover 2:35f, 2:36, 2:38f,
2:39f, 2:40f, 2:41f
Timanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50,
2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
topography 2:36
3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651,
3:652f
Uralide orogeny 2:34-35, 3:648
Variscides Orogeny 3:648, 3:651
Fennoscandian Shield
carbonatites 3:228f
crustal provinces 2:42f^ 2:43f
evolution 2:48f
Neoproterozoic 2:41 f
Suess, Eduard2:238
Triassic 2:108
global distribution 5:173 f
Gondwana 1:238f, l:306f
Hyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f,
4:468
Indian Shield 1:238f, 3:285, 3:286f
Indian Sub-Continent
3:288, 3:291t, 3:291f
Bastar-Bhandara Craton 3:286,
3:287f, 3:289f
Dharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f,
3:288t, 3:288f
Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f,
3:289
Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f,
3:290f,3:291t
Southern Granulite Terrain 3:287f,
3:288, 3:288f
Kaapvaal craton, South Africa
1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39
kimberlites 3:252f
lamproites 3:257, 3:259f
4:22, 4:8-21
Pan-African orogeny 1:1, l:2f, l:3f
Pangaea 5:177-178, 5:17^
platforms 5:173
Rae craton 4:16
Sask craton 4:16
sedimentary deposits 5:177
seismic characteristics 5:173, 5:174f
shields l:306f, l:307f, 5:173
Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167f,
4:456, 4:457f, 4:462f, 4:463,
4:463f
Slave craton
kimberlites 3:23, 3:23f
Precambrian continental nucleus
4:10f, 4:llf9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,
4:18 f
supercontinents 4:12, 4:14f, 5:177,
5:178f
supercratons 4:14f, 4:16, 4:17
Superior craton 4:llf, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,
4:17f, 4:19f
5:53 6f
Wyoming craton 4:12, 4:16
Zimbabwe craton 1:132-135
creaming curves 4:331-332, 4:333f
creationism 1:381-386
Creation science 1:258, 1:385
Cuvier, Georges 1:382, 2:182
definitions 1:381
fake fossils 2:172
Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,
2:182,2:224-225
Fundamentalism 1:383
gap theory 1:383
Scriptural Geology 1:383
Seventh Day Adventists 1:384
static versus dynamic theories 1:382
See also Biblical geology
creep
aeolian systems 4:612-614, 4:613f
landslides 4:691, 4:691f
made ground 1:541, 1:541 f
particle-driven subaqueous gravity

processes 5:2
creodonts 5:475-476, 5:485
crescentic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f,
4:620f, 4:621f
crescentic gouges 4:668-669, 4:670f
Cressagian stage 4:183 f
Cretaceous 3:360-372
Alps 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:132-133
ammonites 2:400-401, 2:401f
amphibians
2:523
Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:521 /", 2:523
Celtedens ibericus 2:521f
frogs 2:521f9 2:522
salamanders 2:522
angiosperms
2:423-424
origins 2:420-422, 2:422f
Palmoxylon 2:420f
pollen 2:426f
Quercus 2:420f
water lily 2:425f
anoxic environments 1:23, 3:363,
3:370-371, 4:497-499
Atlantic Margin evolution 4:104f
atmosphere 3:360
biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263f, l:264f
biota
marine biota
arthropods (Arthropoda) 3:367,
3:367f
brachiopods 3:367, 3:367/
bryozoans (Bryozoa) 3:367, 3:367f
calcareous nannoplankton 3:366,
3:366f
Coccolithophoridae 3:366, 3:366f
corals 3:367, 3:367f
diatoms 3:366, 3:366f
dinoflagellates 3:366, 3:366f
echinoderms 3:367, 3:367f
fish 3:368, 3:368f
foraminifera 3:366, 3:366f
gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:367,
3:367f
invertebrates 3:367
marine reptiles 3:368, 3:368f
molluscs 3:367, 3:367f
protists 3:366
628
INDEX
Cretaceous (continued]
radiolarians 3:366f
vertebrates 3:368
terrestrial biota
amphibians 3:368, 3:369f
arthropods (Arthropoda) 3:368,
3:369f
birds (Aves) 3:368, 3:369f
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 3:368,
3:369f
freshwater fish 3:368, 3:369f
insects 3:368, 3:369f
invertebrates 3:368, 3:369f
mammals 3:368, 3:369f
plants 3:370, 3:370f
reptiles (Reptilia) 3:368, 3:369f
vertebrates 3:368
birds (Aves)
Enantiornithes 2:498f, 2:500t
2:501f
radiation patterns 2:499, 2:501f
bolide impact craters 3:363t, 3:383
brachiopods 2:3 06f
Kmzi\l:317f,l:318f,l:320f
bryozoans (Bryozoa) 1:271-273, l:272f,
1:274 f
calcareous algae 2:428f, 2:434f
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:360,
3:371, 4:497-499, 4:567-568
cephalopods 2:389f
chalk 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367, 5:42,
5:43f, 5:45f, 5:46
China 1:347f
corals 2:325f
Cordillera 3:364
3:372-385
amphibians 2:523
causal mechanisms
bolide impact craters 3:383
multiple events 3:384
sea-level changes 3:383
impact structures 3:277, 3:283
Maastrichtian-Danian boundary
ammonite biostratigraphy 3:375f
Elvis taxa 3:377-378
fossil record 3:374, 3:377f
Lazarus taxa 3:377-378
marine invertebrates 3:379, 3:380f
marine microfossils 3:378, 3:378f
marine vertebrates 3:380, 3:381f
pseudoextinction 3:375-376, 3:376f
Signor-Lipps effect 3:376-377,
3:377f
stratigraphy 3:373f
terrestrial invertebrates 3:381,

3:381f
terrestrial vertebrates 3:381, 3:382f
Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501f
stratigraphy 3:373f
tektites 5:453
crinoids 2:347f, 2:347-348
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490
dolostones 5:91
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 4:461
Enantiornithes 2:497-499
end-Cretaceous extinction 2:355
Europe 2:113
fish 2:463f
gastropods 2::386f, 2:387
glauconite 3:546
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:181t, 1:187
mid-Cretaceous 3:147
l:188f,3:153f,3:362f
terranes l:170f, l:172f, 1:175f
gymnosperms
Czekanowskiales 2:451
Pentoxylales 2:452
Ichthyosauria 2:503
insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:368, 3:369f
5:517f
ironstones 5:106
Japan 3:302, 3:303f, 3:304f
Lagerstatten3:3iO?
large igneous province eruptions 3:363t
Laurasia 3:360, 3:362, 3:362, 3:362f,
3:365
mammalian diversification 2:532
mammals 2:538
New Caledonia 4:116
New Zealand 4:1, 4:2f, 4:3f, 4:5f, 4:6
North Africa l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19 f, l:22f,
1:23, 1:23 f, l:24f
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40f, 4:41 f
oceanic anoxic events 1:23, 4:497-499
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f, 3:461,
3:462f
oxygen concentrations 1:206 f
palaeoclimate 3:360, 3:365, 3:365f
3:362f
Pangaea 3:360, 3:362, 3:362f

Parana basin l:320f
predation 4:145-146
pycnodont fish 3:314f
reef environments 3:365, 3:367-368,
3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568
reptiles (Reptilia) 2:508
sea floor spreading 3:362-363
sea-level 3:360, 3:363, 3:364f
seamounts 4:480
sedimentation patterns 3:363
Selandian epoch 3:372-373
Siberian craton 4:462
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:1 Sit, 1:187,
l:188f
Stratigraphic correlation l:183f,
1:185 f
southern Cordillera 4:52, 4:55, 4:55/
stratigraphy
chronostratigraphy 3:361
stages 3:361f
tetrapod radiations 1:273f
time-scale scaling concepts 5:5^ 6f
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uzbekistan 1:167
See also Mesozoic
Crete 5:228-229
crickets 2:297f, 2:300t
Crimea 2:35
crinoids (Crinoidea) 2:342-350
anatomy 2:342
Carboniferous 4:212
ecology 2:348
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
evolution 2:345-346, 2:347f
feeding position 2:348f
Jurassic 3:358
morphology
Aethocrinus moorei
2:346, 2:346f
arms 2:343f, 2:344, 2:345f
calyx 2:343f, 2:344
columnal articulations 2:342-344,
2:343f
Pentacrinites fossilis 2:345f
pseudoplanktonic crinoids 2:349
Stratigraphic distribution 2:347f
taphonomy 2:348
taxonomy
Aethocrinea 2:344-345, 2:347f
INDEX 629
crinoids (Crinoidea) (continued)

Articulata 2:344-345
Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347f
Cladida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Disparida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Echinodermata 2:335, 2:336f
Flexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347f
Triassic 3:348f9 3:349f, 3:350
cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
3:571
critical taper 5:309 f, 5:433
crocodiles 2:485
Crocodylus porosus 2:504
crocoite (PbCrO 4 ) 3:533, 3:533?
Crocuta crocuta 5:497f
Croghan Hill 2:96f
Croll, James 3:181, 4:131
Cronstedt, A. F. 3:500
Cross, Charles Whitman 3:186-187
Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua) 1:256
Crozet Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t
crude oil
See oil
crust
See Earth, crust
crustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f, 1:278,
3:357
Cryogenian Period 4:360, 5:511 f
cryokarst 4:679
cryoturbation 5:201
cryptobioturbation 5:520-521
Ctenospondylus 2:488-489
cubanite (CuFe2S3) 3:575?
Cuillin Mountains 3:99
Cumberland-Allegheny Plateau 4:72, 4:73f
cummingtonite 3:504-505
cuprite (CuO2) 3:630t
cuproadamite 3:508t
cuproauride 3:119t
cuprotungstite (Cu3(WO4)2(OH)2) 3:587t
Curie, Marie 3:604-605
curienite (Pb(UO 2 ) 2 (VO 4 ) 2 -5H 2 O) 3:589t
Curie, Pierre 3:186, 3:604-605
Curnamona Craton, Australia 1:218-219
Currie, Philip J. 2:170-171
Cuvier, Georges 2:179-184
achievements 2:180
Agassiz, Louis 2:174
biographical background 2:179
biozones 1:295
catastrophism 1:257, 3:176, 5:297
creationism 1:382,2:182
death 2:175
gastropod classification 2:383-384
geomythology 3:97
legacy 2:182
palaeoecology 3:175
palaeontological reconstructions 3:176
Pterodactylus 2:509
research methods 2:180
stratigraphic classification 2:181
Cuvier (Wallaby) Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t
Cuyania, Argentina l:160f, 1:161

Cyamodus 2:506
cyanobacteria 2:441-442, 4:365f,
4:365-366, 4:367f
Cycadeoidea microphylla 2:453f
cycadophytes 3:351
cyclic resistance ratio 1:528
cyclic shear stress ratio 1:528
Cyclocrinites 2:433
Cyclocyrillium simplex 4:3 59f
cyclones 1:516, 1:517t
cyclothems 4:30, 4:31f, 4:487, 4:488f
Cylindroteuthis 2:394f
cymrite 5:533f
cynodonts 2:527, 2:528f
Cyprideis torosa 3:463
cyrilovite 5:124-125
cytosine 2:161, 2:162f
Czech Republic
beer brewing process 3:79, 3:#0?,
3:80-81
boundary stratotypes 5:511f
Carboniferous 4:211
Devonian 4:194
gemstones 3:7t
Holocene2:148
meteorites 5:233-234
Silurian 4:184-185, 4:189, 4:192-193
tektites 5:443, 5:446f
Czerkas, Stephen 2:170-171
D
Dabie Shan, China 5:533, 5:535-536,
5:536f, 5:537
dachiardite 3:593?
dacites
explosive eruption
characteristics 4:387't
lava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:325f,
3:327-328
Pyrenees 2:99
sulphide minerals 3:493
tridymite 3:571
Dacosuarus maximums 1:3 77f
Dahomeyan Belt 1:9-10
Daiichi-Kashima Guyot 4:482
Daisyworld model 3:3, 3:3f
Dakosaurus 2:504
Dale Dyke dam, England 1:536, 2:537*,
1:537f
Dalrymple, Brent 3:202
Daly, Reginald 2:191, 3:62, 3:192
DamaraBelt l:2f, 1:7
damselflies 2:300?
Dana, James D. 2:198, 2:237-238, 3:62,
3:182, 3:183f
danburite (CaB2Si2A8) 3:512?
Danian stage
background information 3:372,
5:459-460
biostratigraphy 3:373f
biozones 5:460f
Brazil 2:322/", 1:325 f
5:517f
marine vertebrates 3:36S/", 3:381f
vegetation 3.-370/, 3:383f
See also Maastrichtian-Danian boundary
Daniels, Edward 2:197-198
Danish Straits 2:150-151
Danjon Scale 5:272?
Danopolonian orogeny 2:44
Danube River 2:125, 2:152, 4:652?, 5:29?
Daonella 3:350
darapskite (Na 3 (NO 3 )(SO 4 -H 2 O)) 3:556?
Darcy's law 5:367
Darriwillian stage 4:176-177, 5:52 If,
5:517f
Darton, Nelson H. 2:196
Darwin, Charles 2:184-187
Beagle voyage 2:161, 2:184, 3:182
earthquake origins 2:237-238
evolutionary studies 1:78, 1:257, 2:186,
3:180,4:123
evolution theory 2:160
geological publications 2:185
igneous rocks 3:184
Lyell, Charles 2:185, 2:209, 5:298
natural selection 2:160, 2:161
palaeontological reconstructions 3:176
Parallel Roads of Glen Roy 2:186
portrait 2:2 84f
Sedgwick, Adam 2:184-185
tektites 5:443, 5:444f
Dashwoods 4:83f, 4:83-84, 4:84f, 4:87f,
4:89
datolite (Ca2B2Si2O9-H2O) 3:511-512,
3:522?, 3:512f, 3:514
Daubree, Gabriel August 3:184
David, T. W. Edgeworth 2:190
Davis, William 3:181-182, 3:189
Davy, Humphry 2:211, 3:60, 3:178
Dawkins, Richard 3:2
Dawsonoceras 2:391f, 2:392
DawsonPeak3:252/"
Dead Sea Rift 1:26-34
Arabia 1:148, 2:249/", l:150f
archaeology 1:33
climate 1:33
earthquakes 1:33
fault zones l:32f
hydrology 1:32
630
INDEX
Dead Sea Rift (continued)

laminated beds 1:33'f
petroleum reserves 5:441^ 5:442
plate tectonics 1:26, 1:27f
river systems 1:32, l:32f
satellite images l:26f, 1:27f
sedimentation 1:33
structure 1:31
topography 1:31
deanesmithite (Hg5S2O2(CrO4)) 3:533t
death mask hypothesis 4:374
Death Valley, United States 4:52, 4:559f,
4:650f, 5:442, 5:442f, 5:584f
De Beers Consolidated Mines 2:191
debris avalanches 4:690-691, 5:573,
5:576*, 5:576f
debris flows 4:689, 4:690f, 5:2, 5:3f
decade volcanoes 5:575
decavanadates 3:589t
Deccan Traps
Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 3:291f
Devonian 4:198-199
Dharwar Craton 3:288f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f,
3:316*, 3:317,3:363*, 3:383
lava/lava flows 3:328
3:335-336
mass extinctions 3:383, 4:198-199
Palaeocene 5:462
zeolites 3:598
declination (magnetic) 3:334
decollement 5:309f, 5:310f, 5:31 If, 5:313f,
5:315f,5:316f
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:70-78
biogenic sedimentation rates 5:77
calcite compensation depth (CCD)
3:528, 5:73, 5:73f
composition 5:70
deep water processes 4:648
distribution controls 5:73, 5:73f
geographic distribution 4:642f, 4:643f,
5:71f
historical research 5:70
lysocline 5:73, 5:73f
sediment types
calcareous oozes 4.-642/J 4:648, 5:70,
5:71f, 5:74, 5:74/~, 5:75*
carbonates 3:528
continental margin sediments 4:642f
diatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54, 5:54f
ferromanganese oxide crusts 4:648,
5:76, 5:77/", 5:119
glacial deposits 4:642f
mud 4:642f
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,
4:646t
pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45f9
5:47f
red clays 4:642/", 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,
5:74f, 5:75*, 5:76
siliceous oozes 4:642f, 5:53, 5:55/~,

5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*
silicoflagellates 5:75
sources 4:642/", 5:72f
Deep Sea Drilling Project 5:72-73, 5:406f
deep water processes 4:641-649
channel systems 4:648
continental slopes 4:642f, 4:646
deep continental margins 4:648
oozes 4:648
Quaternary sediment accumulations
4:641-642, 4:642f
seafloor morphology 4:641, 4:642f
sediment drifts 4:648
sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645'f,
4:646t
sediment sources 4:642, 4:642f
submarine canyons 4:646
transport processes
atmospheric circulation 4:644
biota 4:645
gravity-driven processes 4:644
ocean currents 4:643
submarine landslides 4:644-645
turbidity currents 4:644
volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645
wind blown sediment 4:644
See also deep-ocean pelagic deposits
defence settings, site classification of 2:4*,
2:6*
Deimos 5:280
Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 f
De Kay, James 2:195
De la Beche, H. T. 2:218, 3:62, 3:69, 3:179,
3:476, 5:298
1:240*, 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248f
Delaware Basin 4:33f, 4:62f
Delaware, United States 5:444
Del Cano Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
deloryite (Cu 4 UO 2 (MoO4)2(OH) 6 ) 3:552*
delrioite (CaSr(V 2 O 6 )(OH) 2 -3H 2 O) 3:559*
Del Sur mountains 4:48
deltas 4:528-539
abandonment 4:531, 4:533f, 4:534f
controlling factors 4:528
deformation processes
collapse depressions 4:534/", 4:535,
4:535f
growth faults 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536f
linear gullies 4:534/", 4:535, 4:535f
liquefaction l:528t
mud diapirs 4:534f, 4:535, 4:53 7f
mudflows 4:534f, 4:535, 4:53Sf,
4:537f
rotational slides 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535^
shale ridges 4:534f, 4:535
syn-sedimentary deformation 4:532,
4:534f
distributaries 4:531 f
economic aspects 4:536/", 4:537, 4:538f

importance 4:528
levees 4:534f
life cycle 4:531, 4:532f, 4:533f
lobe complexes 4:532/", 4:533f
Mississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532f
petroleum reservoirs 4:2351, 4:23 6f
petroleum traps 4:537
plume formation dynamics 4:529-530,
4.-530/; 4:53If, 5:20f, 5:21f
river mouth processes 4:529, 4:530f
sedimentary growth faults 4:608, 4:609f
sediment suspension processes
4:593-594
shelf-edge deltas 4:534f, 4:537
submerged delta plain 4:534f
Sundarban Delta 3:296
tidal sand-banks 5:21f
transgressive barrier islands 4:534f
Wax River delta 4:531, 4:532f
Deluc, Jean-Andre 2:182
Dempster-Shafer analytical method 4:429
dendrites 4:382, 4:383f
dendrochronology 1:387-392
absolute dating techniques !:##*, 1:91
dendroclimatology
precipitation data l:390f
environmental reconstructions 1:388
Holocene 2:147
stable isotope studies 1:390
X-ray densitometry 1:390-391
Denmark 3:79, 3:80, 3:372, 5:461f
Denning, W.R 5:238
Densignathus 2:472, 2:472f
Denticulopsis kamtschatica 5:487
Denver Basin 4:33f
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161, 2:162f
depositional sedimentary structures
4:593-602
basic principles
bedding 4:593
bedload transport 4:593
fine-grained sediments 4:594
lamination 4:594
plane bed transport 4:597-598
suspension processes 4:593
upper flow regime transport 4:597,
4:598f
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
INDEX 631

(continued)
4:576f, 4:578f, 4:S99f
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
decelerating flow structures 4:600
flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601
gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601f
lamination
Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601 f
pebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601 f
structureless features 4:600
Dermochelys 2:505f
Descartes, Rene 2:227, 2:232, 3:73, 3:169
descloizite (Pb(Zn,Cu)VO 4 (OH)) 3:589t
Deseadan land mammal age 5:473f
deserts 4:539-549
aeolian systems
accumulation 4:543, 4:543f
bedforms 4:599
bounding surfaces 4:543, 4:544f
bypass supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545f
cross-bedding 4:600
deflationary supersurfaces 4:545,
4:545f
dry aeolian systems 4:544
interdune migration surfaces 4:543,
4:544f, 4:546f
preservation 4:543
reactivation surfaces 4:543, 4:544f
sand sea construction 4:543
subcritical climbing 4:543
superimposition surfaces 4:543,
4:544f
supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545f
wet aeolian systems 4:544
zircon occurrences 3:604
alluvial fans 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:542
ancient aeolian systems
depositional models 4:547, 4:548f
dune-interdune interactions 4:547f
interdune migration surfaces 4:546f
stabilization 4:546
borate deposits 3:516f, 3:516-517
braid-plains 4:541f9 4:542
dunes l:528t, 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:599
ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f9 4:542
fluvial systems 4:541 f, 4:542
geomorphic features 4:541f
interdunes 4:541, 4:541f
Kara Kum Desert 1:166
Kyzyl Kum Desert 1:167
playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517
radar mapping 4:417
sabkhas
Arabia 1:146
Arabian Gulf 4:509f, 4:5lOf, 4:511
dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91
evaporites 5:31, 5:32f
liquefaction l:528t
occurrence 1:561
sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,
4:622f
sandsheets 4:542
soils 1:561
Thar Desert 3:296
zircon 3:604
Deshayes, Gerard-Paul 1:295, 2:183,
2:208-209, 2:234
Desmarest, Nicholas 3:60, 3:174
Desmoinian stage 4:70, 4:209f
Desnoyers, Jules 2:183
De Solido Intra Solidum Naturaliter
Contento Dissertationis Prodromus
(Steno) 2:227
Desor, Edouard 2:175
deuterium
See hydrogen (H)
Deuterostoma 2:335
Devils River Uplift 4:62f, 4:65-67
Devil's Tower, Wyoming 3:99
Devonian 4:194-200
Antarctica I:134f9 1:135
Appalachians 4:78
Archaeopteris hibernica 2:445, 2:445f
Armorica 2:78, 2:79
Avalonia 2:78, 2:79
Baltica 2:78, 2:79
biodiversity
end-Devonian biodiversity crisis 4:197
late Devonian biodiversity crisis 4:198,
4:199 f
marine environments 4:196, 4:197f
mass extinction events l:264f, 4:196,

4:197, 4:197f, 4:198
volcanism 4:198
brachiopods 2:306f
Brazil 1:317f, 1:318f, l:320f
calcified cyanobacteria 2:435
Caledonian Orogeny 2:62, 2:64
cephalopods 2:389f
China 1:347f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430, 3:435f,
3:436f, 3:438, 3:438f
corals 2:325f
crinoids 2:346, 2:347f
dolostones 5:91
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f7 4:459
echinoids 2:355
Eifelian stage
biodiversity 4:196, 4:199f
carbon dioxide concentrations 4:196
extinction events 4:197f
and Points (GSSPs) S:511f
5:517f
marine environments 4:197f
vegetation 4:195
Elkinsia polymorpha 2:445, 2:446f
Emsian stage
biodiversity 4:199f
aa
vegetation 4:195
Errivaspis waynensis 2:458f
extinction events l:264f, 4:194, 4:196,
4:197, 4:197f, 4:198
Famennian stage
extinction events 4:197, 4:197f9 4:198
fish 4:196
glaciation 4:208f
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
fish 2:462, 2:463f, 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196
fossil fungi 2:437, 2:438f
Frasnian/Famennian (F/F) mass
extinction 4:197, 4:197f
632
INDEX
Devonian (continued)
Frasnian stage
biodiversity 4:199f
extinction events 4:196, 4:197f, 4:198
fish 4:196
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
Givetian stage
impact events 4:199-200
5:517f
palaeoclimate 4:196, 4:19 6f
vegetation 4:195
glaciation 4:197, 4:199f, 4:208f
Gondwana
black shales 3:129
Devonian, early 3:129
Devonian, late 3:129
geological evolution 1:178, 1:18It
l:182f, 2:78, 2:79, 3:137f,
3:138f
terranes l:170f, 1:171, l:172f, l:175f,
3:130f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f,
2:365f, 4:142, 4:143f
gymnosperms
Hangenberg bioevent 4:197, 4:197f
heterostracans 2:458f, 2:458-459
lapetus Ocean 2:78, 2:79
insects 2:296-298, 2:299/", 2:300*,
4:195-196
5:517f
ironstones 5:106
jawless fish 2:460f
Kazakhstan l:182f
Kellwasser bioevent 4:197, 4:197f
Lagerstatten 3:310*, 3:312-313
Laurasia 2:79, 3:438
Laurentia l:182f, 2:78, 2:79
Lochkovian stage

5:517f
vegetation 4:194-195
molluscs 2:367, 4:141-142
North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,
1:21, l:22f
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
4:88, 4:90f
ostracoderms 2:457, 2:458f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460f
Ouachita Mountains 4:64f
Parana basin 1:319f, l:320f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
placoderms 2:465
Pragian stage
insects 4:195-196
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
Rheic Ocean 2:79
Rhynie chert
2:277
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
general description 3:310t
lichens 2:441-442
Russia 4:463f
sarcopterygians 2:467
sharks 2:463-465
Siberia 1:182f
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:178, 1:18It,
1:182f
Stratigraphic correlation I:183f9
1:185 f
Stratigraphic controversy 5:504
tektites 5:454
terrestrial environments
animals 4:195
plants 4:194, 4:195f
tetrapods
evolutionary process 2:165, 2:165f
limbs 2:471f
lobe-finned vertebrates 2:469, 2:470f
tetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:470f
thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f
Thelodus macintosh! 2:459f
Tuberculaspis elyensis 2:458f
vertebrates
evolution 2:468, 2:470f
fish 4:194, 4:196
Xenotheca devonica 2:446f
Devonshire, United Kingdom 4:194
Dewey, John Frederick 3:62
deyerite (BiVO4) 3:589t
Dhahran Sabkha, Saudi Arabia 4:542
Dharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,3:287f,
3:288t, 3:288f
Diadectes 2:477f, 2:477-478
diadectomorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478
diagenesis 1:393-395
biogeochemical cycles 1:433f
boundaries 1:393, l:393f
carbonates 3:531
clays 5:62-70
authigenesis 5:62
depth effects 5:63f
mudrocks
porosity 1:394
sandstones
chlorite 5:69
glauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69
illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating
5:69
smectites 5:67
water/rock ratios 5:62, 5:65-66, 5:67
fossils 4:157
overview 1:393-395
processes
cementation 1:394, I:394f9 5:143,
5:144f
INDEX 633
diagenesis (continued)
compaction 1:393-394, l:394f
fractures 1:394, l:394f
permeability 1:394, l:394f
physical diagenesis 1:393
porosity 1:393, l:394f
sequence 5:144, S:14Sf
sedimentary rocks
diagenetic controls 5:150
diagenetic sequence 5:144, 5:145f
fluid inclusion analysis 5:146, 5:1477f
ironstones 5:102f
isotope analysis 5:146, 5:148f
limestones 5:112
petroleum emplacement 5:145,5:145f,
5:148, 5:149f
physical diagenesis 1:393, l:394f
quantification analysis 5:146
radiometric dating 5:69, 5:146, 5:147f
sandstones 1:394, 5:143, S:144f
tuffaceous deposits 3:597, 3:597f
See also metamorphism
diamictites 1:139-140, 1:172-174, l:178f,
3:129,4:50,4:180,4:675
diamonds
Australia 1:218 f, 1:221
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:11 f
carbonatites 3:222
geochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f9
3:24f
geographic distribution 3:7t
kimberlites 3:247-260, 3:492, 4:8-9,
4:11 f, 4:473
lamproites 3:257, 3:2S9f
Russia 4:473
South-east Asia l:178f, 1:196
S:533f, 5:534f, 5:536-537
diapirs
See mud diapirs; salt deposits
diapsids
definition 3:351
Lepidosauromorpha 2:483
mosasaurs 2:483
Petrolacosaurus 2:482, 2:482f
pterosaurs 2:513
snakes 2:483
Sphenodon 2:483
Spinoaequalis 2:482-483
Squamata 2:483
Younginiforms 2:483
diatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54, 5:54f
diatomite 1:30, l:438t
diatoms
biogenic silica 4:500, 4:556, 5:52

deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646?,
5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75t
forensic geology 2:270-271, 2:272f
Oligocene 5:476
Pliocene 1:139-140
diatremes
See kimberlites
Dicellograptus 4:178
dichromates 3:533?
Dickinsonia costata 4:362f
dickite 1:363, 3:631-632, 5:67
Dicranograptus 4:182
Dicroidium 1:136, 3:349, 3:349f
Dictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f, 2:364f
Dictyosphaera delicate 4:356f, 4:358
Dicynodon 1:182, l:184f, 1:352
Didymograptus 4:178
Dienerian stage 3:345, 3:345f
dietzeite (Ca2(CrO4)(lO4)2-H2O) 3:533?
Dietz, Robert 3:195, 3:198, 3:199
digenite (Cu9S5) 3:575?, 3:582f, 5:394t
Dillinger terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46
diluvialism 3:170
Dimetrodon 2:488f, 2:488-489, 2:538,
4:217
Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511, 2:513-514
Dimorphosiphon 2:432
Dinantian division 4:201
Dinarides 2:126f, 2:135-146
Dinilysia 2:483
dinoflagellates
3:378, 3:378f
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:462
Dinogalerix 2:538
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:490-496
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,
3:358-359
3:381, 3:382f
diagnostic characteristics 2:490, 2:491 f,
2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
evolutionary relationships 2:490
geomythology 3:98
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
Jurassic 3:358, 3:359f
origins 2:492
Ornithischia
diagnostic characteristics 2:492f
Neornithischia 2:493
Thyreophora 2:493
palaeopathology 4:162, 4:162f
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Reptilia 2:490
Saurischia
general discussion 2:492f, 2:494
Sauropodomorpha 2:494
Theropoda 2:494, 3:351f
Triassic 2:492, 2:493/", 3:350, 3:3Slf
diogenites 5:23It
Dione 5:287t, 5:288
diopside 3:221?, 3:397f, 3:400f, 3:567
diorites 3:237?, 3:550
Diplocaulus 2:477f, 2:478
Diplocraterion 4:224
Diplograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366
Diptera
See insects
Dipterus 2:464f
Directorate of Colonial Geological Surveys
1:370, 1:371
Directorate of Overseas Geological Surveys
1:373
disarticulation 4:157
disaster equation 1:516f
Discoaster pentaradiatus 5:486-487
Discoaster surculus 5:487
Discovery Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
disease 5:328
dispersive soils 1:558, l:559f, l:560f
dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476/", 2:477f
Ditrupa 4:512f, 4:512-513
divergent plate boundaries 4:342, 4:343f9
4:344f, 5:374f, 5:429-430
Dixey, Frank 1:371
djurieite 3:575t
D" layer 3:338
DNA-RNA proteins 4:125
Dnieper Basin 2:35f, 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f,
3:650-651, 4:460-461
Doell, Richard 3:202
Dog Bay-Liberty-Orrington Line 4:82f
Dolichosaurus 2:504-505
dolines 4:682f, 4:684f
Doliodus problematicus 2:463
Dollfus, A. 5:238, 5:271
Dolomieu, Deodat de 2:182, 3:171, 3:476,
3:476/", 5:79
dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) 5:79-94
A\ps2:131f
amphiboles 3:505
cementation 5:143
composition 5:79
densities 5:321f
dolomitization
dolostone development 5:85f
634
INDEX
dolomite (CaMg(003)2) (continued)

molds 5:84f
penecontemporaneous dolomites 5:88
reflux model 5:90
seawater dolomitization 5:91
vugs 5:83f
geochemistry
isotope studies 5:85, 5:89f
grain analysis 5:30, 5:3If
ironstones 5:99
limestones 5:107-108, 5:108t, 5:112
metamorphic facies 3.-400/", 3:40If
North Africa 1:24
occurrence 3:523-524, 5:108t
4:23 6f
porosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 5:83, S:88f
saddle dolomite 5:81, 5:81f9 5:87f,
5:87-88
textural classification 5:81, 5:8If
5:533f
dolomitization
See dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
dolostone
See dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
dolphins 5:482-483
Dom Feliciano orogenic belt 1:313 f,
1:318
Don Braulio formation, South America
3:129
Donets Basin 2:35f, 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f,
3:650-651, 4:471
Doppler radar 4:415
Dorashamian stage 4:214, 4:215t
dore 3:124-125
Dorry abrasion tests 1:568
Dorypterus 4:498f
Doughty, Charles 1:140
Doushantuo Formation, China 3:310t,
4:360, 4:361f, 4:362f
Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan 2:261
dragonflies 2:297/i 2:300*
dragonflies (Odonata) 5:469
Drake Passage l:133f, 1:138-139, 5:468,

5:490
Dronning Maud Land 3:151f
drumlins 4:676
Drummond Basin 3:139, 3:140f
Dubrajpur formation 3:147, 3:150f
Duchesnean land mammal age 5:472
Duckmantian subdivision 4:202f
dufrenite 5:122
duftite 3:508f
duhamelite(Pb 2 Cu 4 Bi(VO 4 )4(OH)3-8H 2 O)
3:589t
Duke, C. 5:266*
Dunbarella 4:498f
dunes
barchan dunes 4:600, 4:618-620,
4:619f, 4:620f
climbing dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
crescentic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f,
4:620f, 4:621f
falling dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
lamination 4:599
linear dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f,
4:621f
liquefaction l:528t
lunettes 4:618-620, 4:619f
morphology 4:619f
nebkhas 4:618-620, 4:619f
parabolic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
sand seas 4:540
sedimentary structures 4.-621/", 4:622
seif dunes 4:600
star dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f
zibars 4:542, 4:618-620, 4:619f
dunite 3:253-254, 3:257f
See also olivine
Dunnage zone 4:82f, 4:84, 4:87f
Dupuy, Victor 3:476
durability
See rock properties
duricrusts 5:588
Durocher, Joseph 3:184
dust storms 4:616, 4:616f, 4:617f, 5:21,
5:273, 5:274f
Du Toit, Alexander 2:188-194
ancestry 2:188
career
De Beers Consolidated Mines 2:191
Department of Irrigation 2:190
DwykaTillite2:189
Geological Commission of Cape
Province 2:189
Geological Survey of the Union of
South Africa 2:190
South African geology 2:189
field mapping equipment 2:189f
honours 2:193
plate tectonics theory 2:188, 2:190,

2:192f9 2:252, 3:193-194
portrait 2:188f
publications 2:191
Dutton, C. E. 3:181-182, 3:183, 3:184
DwykaTillite 2:189, 4:216
dykes
Bohemian Massif 2:117
carbonatites 3:218t, 3:219f
gemstones 3:10
granitic rocks 3:236-239,3:237*, 3:238 f,
3:240*, 3:244
kimberlites 3:249, 3:492
Palaeocene2:n9/"
Permo-Carboniferous basins 2:96f, 2:97,
2:98, 2:99
Russia 4:463f
Scotland 2:97-98
Dyrosaurus 2:504
dysprosium (Dy) 3:223*, 3:224/i 3:242f
Dzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215*
E
Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO)
5:467/i 5:470
Early Holocene Shield Trap Cave,
Montana, United States 3:308
Earth
age determination 1:78, l:82t, 3:183,
3:186
asteroid bombardment 4:363-365,
5:220-221
asthenosphere 3:411 f, 3:656, 4:340,
4:343/
atmosphere 1:197-207
abundances l:197t
anthropogenic sources 1:343f,
l:344f, 1:345 f
changes l:206f
4:223f
l:342f
glacial/interglacial periods 1:342f,
1:343 f
chemical composition 1:1971
condensation 1:199
evolution
1:201-202
nuclide binding energy 1:198, l:198f
outgassing 1:199
Phanerozoic atmosphere
INDEX 635
Earth (continued)
1:206, l:206f
oxygen concentrations 1:206,
l:206f
temperature history l:205f
solar luminosity I:197f9 1:197-198
1:200*
biosphere 1:422
core
accretion models 1:400f
magnetic field 1:425f
properties l:424t
cratons 5:173-178
Amazon craton
Cambrian 3:128
schematic map 1:31 If
suture zones 1:312f
Gondwana l:238f
Pan-African orogeny 1:2, l:2f, l:3f,
l:4f,l:5f
structural elements 1:148, 1:15Of
tectonic map 1:149f
Archaean 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16, 4:23f
Argentina l:160f
Australia
Gawler Craton 1.-209/", 1:210f,
1:215, l:239f
Kimberley Craton 1:210/j 1:212,
1:239 f
Lucas Craton l:210f, 1:213
North Australia Craton 1:208,
I:209f9 1:211, 1:211 f, 3:128,
3:132f
Pilbara craton. See Pilbara craton,
Australia
l:209f, 1:211 f, 1:215
West Australian Craton 1:208,
1.-209/", l:210f
Yilgarn craton 1:208, 1:209 f9
l:210/;i:239/; 3:491-492,
5:39
Baltic Shield
Cambrian 4:169f
crustal segments 2:4If
crustal thickness 3.-649/J 3:656,
3:657/", 3:658
Suess, Eduard 2:238

Trans-European Suture Zone
(TESZ) 3:652f
Brazil
Amazon craton 1:311, 1:311 f,
l:312f
Rio de la Plata craton 1:312, 1:312f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, I:310f9
l:312f
suture zones 1:312f
Canadian Shield
carbonatites 3:228f
kimberlites 4:8-9, 4:11 f
4:21
tectonic map 4:23 f
China
Tarim craton 1:346, 1:346f
Churchill-Superior Boundary Zone
4:19 f
crustal composition 5:174, 5:174t
crustal provinces 4:23 f9 5:175, 5:176f
Dharwar Craton 1:132-135, 3:286,
3:287f9 3:288t, 3:288f
Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132,
l:238f
East European Craton. See East
European Craton
carbonatites 3:228f
crustal provinces 2:42f9 2:43f
evolution 2:48f
Suess, Eduard 2:238
Triassic 2:108
global distribution S:173f
Gondwana l:238f
Hyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457/",
4:468
Indian Shield I:238f9 3:285, 3:286f
Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton
3:287f9 3:288, 3:291*, 3:291f
3:287f9 3:289f
Dharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f9
3:288t, 3:288f
3:289
Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f9
3:290f,3:291t

3:288, 3:288f
1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39
kimberlites 3:252f
lamproites 3:257, 3:2S9f
4:8-21, 4:22
Pan-African orogeny 1:1, I:2f9 l:3f
Pangaea 5:177-178, S:178f
platforms 5:173
Rae craton 4:16
Sask craton 4:16
sedimentary deposits 5:177
seismic characteristics 5:173, 5:174f
shields 1:148, I:306f9 l:307f, 3:285,
5:173
Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167% 4:456,
4:4S7f, 4:462f, 4:463, 4:463f
Slave craton
4:10/j 4:llf9 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,
4:18 f
supercontinents 4:12, 4:14/, 5:177,
5:178f
Superior craton 4:llft 4:12, 4:13f9
4:1694:17f94:19f
5:53 6f
crust 1:403-409
chemical composition determination
chemical analyses 1:406, 5:174,
5:174*
continental crust 1:406t
deep-sourced xenoliths 1:406
oceanic crust 1:406, 1:406*
partial melting 1:407
seismic wave velocities 1:406
Conrad discontinuity 1:406
continental crust 3:233-247
chemical composition
determination l:406t
heat flux 5:3 63
metamorphic facies 3:411, 3:412f
New Zealand 4:1, 4:lf
thermal gradients 3:41 If
continent-continent collisions 5:539
crustal aggregation 4:12, 4:14f
crustal provinces 4:23f9 5:175, 5:176f
crustal stretching 4:100, 4:101 f
crustal structure 3:646
crustal thickness
Baltic Shield 3:656, 3:657f, 3:658
East European Craton 2:35f9 2:36,
3:656, 3:657f, 3:658
636
INDEX
Earth (continued)
European Permo-Carboniferous
basins 3:653
gravity measurements l:102f,
1:103, l:103f
Mohorovicic discontinuity
3:647-648
4:24f
northern Cordillera 4:38, 4:39f
regional metamorphism 3:412,
3:413f, 3:414f
tectonic processes 3:647-648
deformation processes 1:408, l:408f,
l:409f, 4:16, 5:425-428
elemental abundances S:114t
geophysical techniques 3:646, 3:646f
glacial isostatic adjustment 2:15Of,
5:427
growth estimates 1:407
heat flow 1:408, 4:15-16
heat flux 5:363t
isostasy 1:407, l:407f, 1:408 f
major crustal types 1:404, 1:405f
Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:647f
neotectonics 5:425-428
definition 5:425
glacial isostatic adjustment 5:427
global perspective 5:428
global tectonics 5:426
oceanic crust
determination 1:406, l:406t
heat flux 5:3 63
transform faults 5:384, 5:386f
transition zone 4:101 f
primitive crust 1:407
properties l:424t
recycling processes 1:404, 1:405f
rock densities 5:321f
structure 1:405
terranes 5:175, 5:176f, 5:455
thermal gradients 3:411 f
5:539
vertical movement 2:150f9 2:151 f
density l:92,l:94f
early biosphere
evolution 4:3 64f
stromatolites 4:367
geological time-scale 5:274f
gravity measurements 1:92

impact structures
bolide impact craters 3:363t, 3:383
Cretaceous 3:363?, 3:383
Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona,
United States 3:279/i 3:571
Oligocene 5:473
planetary evolution 3:283
shock metamorphism 5:179, 5:182f
internal structure 1:423, 1:423 f, 3:194,
5:320
lithosphere
description 1:403, 4:340, 4:343f
earth system science 1:430, 1:43If
gravity measurements I:97f9 1:98,
1:98 f
heat flux 5:363*, 5:363f
lithospheric flexure 5:428-437
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211 f
mid-ocean ridges 5:383
Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:656,
3:657f
northern Cordillera 4:39f
ocean trenches 5:428-437
2:100
propagating rifts 5:396-405
strength analysis 5:335, 5:336f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:224f
thermal metamorphism 5:499, 5:500f
transform plate boundaries 4:343f
volcanism 5:565
magnetic field
auroras 5:218, 5:219f
basic principles 4:147, 4:148f
S:506f
East Coast Magnetic Anomaly
(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99f
geomagnetic fluctuations 5:218
geomagnetic storms 5:217
magnetostratigraphy 3:331-335
analytical techniques 3:333
apparent polar wander paths 1:85 f^
4:153, 4:153f
cycle charts 5:169f
field sampling 3:333
gauss 3:333-334
geomagnetic polarity time-scale
l:81f,l:83f, 3:331, 3:332f
historical background 1:82-83
Jurassic 3:353
large igneous provinces (LIPs)

3:321f
magnetic anomalies l:83f, 1:101,
l:101f
magnetic field reversals 1 :424f9
3:202
magnetostratigraphical correlation
3:333/r, 3:334
methodology 1:84
normal polarity 3:331
polarity-bias superchrons 3:331f
remnant magnetization 3:332
reversed polarity 3:331
secular variation 3:334
movement trends 1 :425f
Raff-Mason magnetic
anomaly 5:3 99 f
schematic diagram 1:425 f
solar wind 5:217, 5:218f
Vine-Matthews anomalies 4:346
magnetosphere 5:217, 5:217f, 5:218f
mantle 1:397-403
accretion models 1 :400f
carbonatites 3:227, 3:227f, 3:231 f,
3:232f
composition
convection 1:401-402, 1:402 f
mineralogy 1:401 f
pyrolite hypothesis 1:399, l:401f
convection model 3:142, 3:143f,
3:193f, 4:348
discontinuities 3:338
gravity measurements l:97f, 1:98
internal structure 1:397, l:398f,
1:423, 1:423 f
kimberlites 3:255, 3:257f, 4:8-9,
4:11 f, 4:473
mantle keel 4:8-9
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211 f
mid-ocean ridges 5:376-377, 5:3 78 f
properties l:424t
sampling techniques
chemical-equilibrium studies 1:397,
1:398 f9 1:399 f
kimberlites 1:398
meteoritic analogies 1:398, l:400f
peridotites 1:397, 1:399
seismology 1:397
seismic images
D" layer 3:338
superplumes 3:338, 4:14f
transition zone 3:338, 3:33 8f
upper mantle 3:337, 3:33 7f
stable isotope studies 3:228, 3:229f
subducted slabs 1:402
INDEX 637
Earth (continued)
tomography 1:402
volcanism 5:565
mantle convection 1:424
melting processes
conduction heating 3:212
flux melting 3:212
pressure-temperature diagram 3:21 If
orbital variations 1:410-421
amplitude modulation cycles
dynamical ellipticity 1:417, l:418f
frequency analysis 1:417f
modulation terms l:416t
significance 1:416
tidal dissipation 1:417, l:418f
celestial mechanics 1:410, 1:41 Of
chaos 1:417
geological record
evolutionary spectrum 1:419f
magnetic susceptibility l:418f
Jurassic 3:354
Milankovich cycles l:413f, 4:131
orbital frequencies
climatic precession l:413f, 1:414,
1:41 St, 1:415f, 1:416t, l:418f
eccentricity 1:412, l:413t, l:413f,
l:416t,l:418f
insolation 1:415, 1:416f
obliquity l:413f, 1:414, 1:424?,
1:414f, l:416t, l:418f
origins 1:411
precession 1:411, l:412f, l:413f
solar system 1:411, 1:4111
palaeoclimate 1:206, 4:131, 4:208
origins
atmosphere
condensation 1:199
1:201-202
nuclide binding energy 1:198,
1:198 f
outgassing 1:199
Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:204
solar luminosity l:197f, 1:197-198
terrestrial volcanic-gas
compositions l:200t
biospheric evolution 4:364f
Oort cloud 1:428f

structure 1:427
ozone layer 1:424, 1:425f
planetary comparisons 1:426, 1:427f
properties 1:422?, 1:424?, 4:357
shape 1:92
solar system 1:197, 1:421
structure 1:421-429
Sun-Earth connection
auroras 5:218, 5:219f
distances 5:209
glaciation 5:215
global warming 5:215
solar constant 5:215, 5:216f
space weather 5:218
terrestrial atmosphere 5:215, 5:217f,
5:219
tidal forces 1:422, l:422f
view from space 1:421 f
earthflows 4:690
earth materials
carbonates. See carbonates
carbonatites. See carbonatites
igneous rocks
aggregates 1:35
basalts
3:315f, 3:316?, 5:480
crazing l:546f
geotechnical properties 1:545t,
l:546f,3:102t
pipes l:546f
seamounts 4:475
classification 4:45'3t
anomalies 4:454
differentiation techniques 4:453,
4:454f
formation processes 4:452f
lava flows 4:454
dacites 3:493
feldspars 3:536
gemstones
extrusive rocks 3:10
hydrothermal fluids 3:11
intrusive rocks 3:10
pegmatites 3:11, 3 : l l f
granites 3:233-247
alumina saturation index 3:235?
associated rock types 3:237?
biotite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:550

carbonatites 3:218t
classification schemes 3:234
composition 3:237?
densities 5:321f
enclaves 3:238f, 3:239, 3:240?
fractional crystallization 3:242
gemstones 3:10
geochemical analysis 3:242f, 3:243f
geotechnical properties 1:545?,
3:102?
magmatism time-scales 3:245,
3:246f
mineral deposits 3:492, 3:493f
mineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241 f
muscovite 3:550
occurrence 3:236, 3:237?
origins 4:455
oxidation state 3:234-235, 3:235f
petrogenic studies 3:242, 3:242f
petrology 3:238f
physical properties 1:453?
plutonic shape 3:236
3:243f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
South-east Asia l:187f
textures 3:240
zircon crystals 3:245, 3:245f
intrusive igneous rocks
3:492, 3:493^
micas 3:550
plagioclase 3:538
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
rhyolites 3:493
site classification 2:3?
zircon 3:602
kimberlites 3:247-260
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:11 f
chemical composition 3:245?
definition 3:247
depth distribution 3:255, 3:257f
diamond exploration 3:22, 3:23/i
3:24f, 3:492
diamonds
mineral suites 3:255, 3:256?
provenance 3:255
Du Toit, Alexander 2:190
geotectonic setting 3:249, 3:252f
intrusion types
diatremes 3:248, 3:249?, 3:249/",
3:250f, 3:251f
dykes 3:249
interrelationships 3:249, 3:25If
sills 3:249
63S
INDEX
earth materials (continued)

kimberlite indicator minerals 3:22,
3:23f, 3:24f
magmatic system 3:25If
mantle sampling technique 1:398
megacrysts 3:255
mineralogy 3:256*
mining techniques 3:257, 3:258f
phlogopite 3:550
radiometric dating 3:250, 3:252/",
3:253f
Russia 4:473
temperature ranges 3:254-255, 3:255f
upper mantle associations 3:255,
3:257f
xenoliths 3:252, 3:254f, 3:255f
metamorphic rocks
aggregates 1:35
classification 3:386-402, 4:453*
anomalies 4:455
4:454f
formation processes 4:4S2f
naming procedures 3:389f, 3:390
nomenclature 3:386, 3:387t
structural terminology 3:390*
densities 5:32If
feldspars 3:537
formation processes
duration 3:392
fluids 3:392
geothermal gradient 3:392f
Gibbs free energy 3:393, 3:393f
local metamorphism 3:393
mineral structures 3:394, 3:395f
physicochemical reactions 3:393,
3:393f, 3:394f
pressure 3:392
3:393^
regional metamorphism 3:392-393
temperature 3:391
gemstones
emeralds 3:12
rubies 3:12
sapphires 3:12
gneiss
Acasta Gneisses, Canada 1:427-429,
4:10f,4:13f,4:15f, 4:350
definition 3:387, 3:388t
geotechnical properties 1:545*,
3:102*
granitic gneiss 3:599
Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia
3:607/, 3:607-608
regional metamorphism 3:396f
mafic rocks 3:394-396, 3:396f
marls 3:396, 3:396f
micas 3:550
mineral assemblages
carbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399,
3:400f
mafic rocks 3:397, 3:398f
marls 3:396, 3:396/", 3:401, 3:401 f
pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f,
3:398, 3:400f
quartzofeldspathic rocks 3:397,
3:399f
ultramafic rocks 3:396, 3:397f
nomenclature
definitions 3:387t
main specific rock name 3:386,
3:387*
minor specific rock name 3:386,
3:388t
structural root names 3:387, 3:388t
structural terminology 3:390*
pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f
plagioclase 3:538, 3:539f
pressure-temperature-time (PTt) paths
3:409-417
anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,
3:416f
clockwise paths 3:413, 3:416,
3:416f
contact metamorphism 3:406,
3:414, 3:41Sf
crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f,
3:414f
exhumation rates 3:409-410, 3:413,
3:416, 3:416f
as interpretative tool 3:416, 3:416f
stable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f,
3:415 f
temperature-depth diagram 3:412,
3:412f
protoliths 3:394, 3:396f
quartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396,3:396f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
schist 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387, 3:388t
shock metamorphism 5:179-184
controversies 5:182
damage effects 5:182f
hydrocode calculations 5:181
impact craters 5:179, 5:182f
melting 5:180*, 5:183t
peak pressure magnitudes 5:1 SO*,
5:183
planar deformation features 5:183*
shock metamorphic effects 5:182,
5:183*
shock wave propagation 5:180

vaporization 5:180*
silicate minerals 3:561-567
site classification 2:3*
slate 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387*, 3:396f
5:533-540
Alps 5:536f, 5:537
Bohemian Massif 5:535-536,
5:536f, 5:538, 5:539
coesite 5:533, 5:533/, 5:534f
continent-continent
collisions 5:539
Dabie Shan, China 5:533,
5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537
exsolution effects 5:535f,
5:535-536
formation mechanisms 5:538,
5:539f
Himalayan Mountains 5:536^,
5:538,5:539
identification process 5:533
Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan
5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536f,
5:537, 5:539
mineral assemblages 5:533
Norwegian Caledonides 5:53 6/",
5:537
polyphase aggregates 5:538f
5:533/; 5:539^
ultramafic rocks 3:394, 3:396, 3:396/i
3:397f
zeolites 3:598
zircon 3:602
native elements 3:553-555
allotropes 3:553*, 3:554
liquid elements 3:553
occurrences 3:553, 3:553*
solid metal occurrences 3:553
solid non-metal occurrences 3:554
rock classification 4:452-455
basement 4:453, 4:455
4:454f
igneous rocks 4:453*
anomalies 4:454
4:454f
lava flows 4:454
metamorphic rocks 4:453 *
anomalies 4:455
4:454f
sedimentary rocks 4:453*
anomalies 4:454
INDEX 639

4:454f
formation processes 4:4S2f
sedimentary rocks
conglomerates 5:26
sandstones 5:27
anhydrite
densities 5:321f
hydrothermal vents 3:631-632,
5:391, S:394t
occurrence 5:32f
porosity 1:5 52t
aragonite (CaCO3)
bivalves (Bivalvia) 2:370-371,
2:3 72f
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 5:108t
rocks 5:533f
autochthonous sediments
carbonates 5:30
breccia 5:129
chalk. See chalk
chert
Archaean 4:351, 4:368
banded ironstone formations (BIFs)
5:38
eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361f
Gunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f,
4:367-368
nodules 4:385
4:29, 4:30f
occurrence 5:35-36, 5:53
prokaryotes 4:368
classification 4:453 , 5:25-37
5:26, 5:26t
anomalies 4:454
autochthonous sediments 5:26,
5:26t
conglomerates 5:26
4:454f
mineralogy 5:25
sandstones 5:27, 5:27*
clays. See clays
conglomerates
grain analysis 5:26
rudaceous rocks 5:129, 5:139f,
5:26, 5:26t
4:514f, 4:515, 4:517f
facies analysis 4:523, 4:524f,
4:525f, 4:526f
sediment drifts 4:518, 4:519f9
4:520f, 4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f,
4:648
seismic characteristics 4:521,
4:522f, 4:523f
diagenesis
ironstones 5:102f
limestones 5:112
sandstones 1:394
dolomite 5:79-94
Mps2:131f
amphiboles 3:505
carbonatites 3:220, 3:222
cementation 5:143
composition 5:79
densities 5:321f
dolomitization 5:80
geochemistry 5:84
grain analysis 5:30, 5:3If
5:90f
metamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:40If
North Africa 1:24
5:88
4:23 6f
porosity 4:234f, 4:236f,
c.oo C.OO/
j:oj,j.oo/
reflux model 5:90

5:87-88
sea water dolomitization 5:91
textural classification 5:81, 5:81f
rocks 5:533f
evaporites 5:94-97
Alps 2:132
Arabia 1:141
Arabian Gulf 4:511
calcium brines 5:95, 5:96
Cambrian 4:165
composition 5:94
Cretaceous 3:365
densities 5:321f
evaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,
4:61 Of
geotechnical properties 1:552,
1:5 52t
hydrothermal deposits 5:95
lacustrine deposits 4:557, 4:559f
non-rift basins 5:96
North Africa 1:21,1:24
4:28, 4:29f
occurrence 5:31
palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134,
4:138-139
porosity 1:5 52t
rift valleys 5:95
seawater chemistry 4:165, 5:96
seawater evaporation
deposits 5:94
Silurian 4:193
sulphate concentrations 5:94, 5:95
sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95
flint
conchoidal fractures 4:3 84f
mining techniques l:434f
nodules 4:385
occurrence 5:35-36
gemstones 3:13
gypsum 3:572-573
classification 5:26t, 5:394t
3:102t
lacustrine deposits 4:557-558
occurrence 3:573
physical properties 3:572
porosity 1:5 52t
halite (NaCl)
640
INDEX
earth materials (continued]

carbonatites 3:221t
classification S:26t
densities 5:321f
4:610f
fluid inclusions 5:97
3:102t
hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629?
lacustrine deposits 4:557-558,
4:S59f
porosity 1:5 52t
seawater evaporation deposits 5:94
ironstones 5:97-107
banded iron formations (BIFs)
1:438-439, 3:489, 3:494-495,
4:351,4:372, 5:33-34, 5:37-42
blackband ironstones 5:34, 5:99,
5:99fy 5:100f, 5:102, 5:103,
5:104f
bog iron ores 5:101, 5:102
claystone ironstones 5:99f, 5:100,
5:100f, 5:102, 5:102f, 5:103,
5:104f
definition 5:98
diagenesis 5:102f
ferruginization process 5:103,
5:104f,5:105f
ferruginous peloids 5:101, 5:103
lithification 5:101
mineralogy 5:98
nodules 4:385
nomenclature 5:98
occurrence 5:33
ooidal ironstones. See ooidal
ironstones
stratigraphic record 5:106
tectonic setting 5:106
types 5:99
verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545f,
3:547, 5:101
kerogenous sediments
occurrence 5:33, 5:34f
aggregates 1:35
A\ps2:131f
densities 5:32If
1:549?, l:550f, 3:102t
grain analysis 5:30, 5:30f
karst landscapes 1:550-551, l:551f,
4:679
nummulitic limestones 1:24, l:24f
Ordovician4:lS2/"
porosity 1:549?, 4:234f
Proterozoic 4:351
5:110, 5:111^
magnesite (MgCO3) 5:31, 5:108,
5:108t
micas 3:550
mineralogy 5:25-37
mudrocks
mudstone 1:548, 3:102t
opal 5:26?, 5:35-36
phosphates
bedded phosphates 5:34-35
guano 5:26?, 5:35, 5:35f
occurrence 5:34
placer deposits 5:34-35
plagioclase 3:538-539
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
residual sediments
occurrence 5:31
rudaceous rocks 5:129-141
alluvial fans 5:135, 5:138f
beaches 5:133, 5:136f, 5:137f,
5:138f
braided river systems 5:137, 5:138,
5:139f
clast form notation 5:130, 5:13If,
5:132f
composition 5:134f
conglomerates 5:26, 5:26?, 5:129,
5:139f
deep-water deposits 5:140
form variations 5:133f
imbrication 5:133, 5:139
importance 5:140
particle size 5:129
roundness 5:129, 5:130f, 5:134f
sphericity 5:129, 5:134f
stream beds 5:132, 5:135f
terminology 5:129
textures 5:129
till 5:139
sandstones
Arabia 1:141
arkoses 5:27?, 5:29f

cements 5:143, 5:143t
chlorite 5:69, 5:69*
classification 5:26?, 5:271
comparison with limestones 5:107
composition 5:27
densities 5:321f
diagenesis 1:394
diagenetic mineralogy 5:143, 5:144f
diagenetic quantification 5:146
fluid inclusion analysis 5:146,5:147f
3:102t
glauconite 5:27, 5:69
grain analysis 5:27, 5:27/", 5:107
greywackes 1:35, 3:102?, 5:27?,
5:28f
micas 5:143t
mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f,
5:147f
mineralogy 5:143t
petroleum emplacement 5:145,
S:14Sf, 5:148, 5:149f
petroleum reservoirs 4:234,
4:235?, 4:236 4:239 f,
4:243f
porosity 4:232, 4:233f
quartzites 5:27?, 5:29f
quartz wackes 5:27?, 5:2 8f
radiometric dating 5:69, 5:146,
5:147f
rock classification 5:142f
sand 3:104?, 5:141-151
zeolites 3:597
shales
anoxic environments 4:193,
4:496-497
Arabia 1:141
bedded cherts 5:54
black shales. See black shales
Burgess Shale 2:274-275, 2:296,
2:324, 2:455
densities 5:321f
fossils 4:498f
3:102?
Posidonia Shale Formation,
Germany 3:31 l,4:384f
Senzeilles Shale, Belgium 5:454
weathering 1:548
siderite (FeCO3)
grain analysis 5:31
limestones 5:108, 5:105?
occurrence 5:1 OS?
siliceous sediments 5:26?, 5:35
siltstone 5:26?, 5:28
stratification 5:25
INDEX 641

zeolites 3:596
zircon 3:602
shales
Arabia 1:141
black shales
4:496-497
bedded cherts 5:54
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
Gondwana 3:129
3:321f
North Africa 1:21, 1:22f
4:28, 4:29f
Phosphoria Formation, United
States 4:500
Silurian 4:193
Burgess Shale
arthropods (Arthropoda)
2:274-275
bacteria 3:311-312
Cnidarians 2:324
general discussion 3:310t
insects 2:296
obrution 3:310, 3:311 f
Opabinia 3:311f
classification 5:26*, 5:28
densities 5:32If
geotechnical properties 1:548, 3:102t
Posidonia Shale Formation, Germany
3:310*, 3:311, 4:384f
weathering 1:548
earthquakes 5:318-330
characteristics
epicentre 5:318, 5:318f
focus 5:318, S:318f
generation process 1:500, 1:500f
magnitude measurements 5:318,
5:319f9 5:320f
Richter scale 5:319-320, 5:320t
seismic waves 5:318-319, 5.-320/",
5:332, 5:332f, 5:333f
eighteenth century viewpoints 3:172
elastic-rebound model 5:331f
engineering geology 1:456-463
applications 1:456
engineering geological mapping
earthquake effects l:460t
earthquake motion 1:456f
exploration trenches 1:460, l:462t
geological profiles 1:460, l:461t
isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503f
mitigation methods l:461t

post-event geological mapping
1:460, l:462t
purpose 1:460
trench logging 1:460, l:462t
failure conditions 1:457
ground effects
accelerograms 1:527f
bearing failure 1:531, l:531f
displacement 1:457, 5:331f
ground motion 1:500-501
ground oscillation 1:530
lateral spreading 1:530, l:530f
liquefaction 1:457, 1:500-501,
1:525-534, 1:5 56f
mitigation methods 1:533
residual shear strength 1:531,1:531 f
settlement 1:530, l:531f
shear anlysis 1:53 Of
slope failure 1:457, 1:458-459
mitigation methods
collateral damage 1:458
damage-prone areas 1:457
1:461*
ground condition improvements
1:458
site characterization l:462t
tsunamis 1:458-459
observation techniques 1:457
post-event geological mapping 1:460,
l:462t
seismotectonic zonation
active faults 1:459
attenuation 1:459
credible faults 1:459
design earthquakes 1:459
design input 1:459
site characterization 1:460, l:462t
engineering seismology 1:499-515
ground motion characterizations
Arias intensity 1:505, 1:505 f
Husid plot 1:505, 1:505 f
peak ground acceleration 1:504,
1:505f, 1:507f, l:508f, 1:509 f
response spectrum 1:505-506,
l:506f, l:507f, 1:51 Of, 1:5 14f
shaking duration 1:504-505
single-degree-of-freedom oscillators
1:505-506, l:506f
ground motion measurement
techniques
accelerograms 1:502-504, 1.-504/",
1:505f, 1:509 f
European Macroseismic Scale
l:502t
Fourier spectral data 1:5 12f
intensity scales 1:501, l:502t
isoseismal maps 1:502, 1:503 f
site response analysis 1:511 f
velocity profiles l:512f
ground motion prediction techniques

1:506
hazard assessment techniques 1:510,
l:513f
Mississippi embayment seismic data
I:513f9l:514f
seismic hazards 1:499, l:500f, 1:510
focal mechanism 5:332-333, 5:334f
geomythology 3:97-98
global distribution 4:341f9 5:321, 5:322f
hazard analysis
bearing failure 1:531, 1:531/"
British Isles 5:32 7f
damage effects 1:500-501, 5:324f,
5:325f, 5:327f
disease 5:328
environmental geology 2:31
exposure 5:328
fire effects 5:325
frequency 1:5lit
Geographical Information Systems
(CIS) 4:427
Husid plot 1:505, l:505f
1:505 f, 1:507f, 1:508 f, 1:509 f
l:506f, 1:507f, 1:51 Of, l:514f
1:505-506, l:506f
techniques
accelerograms 1:502-504, l:504f,
1:505/, 1:509 f
1:502*
Fourier spectral data 1:512f
intensity scales 1:501, 1:502*
site response analysis 1:51 If
velocity profiles 1:512f
1:506
1:513f
historic earthquakes 5:326*
landslides 3:93/", 5:327
liquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,
l.-556/i 3:94, 5:325, 5.-32S/1
looting 5:328
man-made earthquakes 5:329
mitigation methods 1:533, 5:328
modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity
scale 5:322, 5:323*
mortality rates 1:517*, l:518t
research programs 5:328
residual shear strength 1:531, 1:53If
642
INDEX
earthquakes (continued]
seismic hazards 1:499, 1:510
shear anlysis 1:530f
starvation 5:328
tectonic earthquakes 5:322, 5:324f
tsunamis 5:325
urban environments 5:322, 5:324/",
5:32 7f
volcanic earthquakes 5:329
Japan 3:298, 3:300f
Manhattan earthquake, Kansas, United
States 4:32
New Madrid earthquake, Missouri,
United States 4:32
4:32
Oceania 4:11 Of
radar techniques 4:418
seismological records 5:320
Suess, Eduard 2:237, 2:237/", 2:238-240
surface traces 5:321f
Tibetan Plateau 5:423-424
volcanism 5:575
See also faulting processes; liquefaction
earth system science 1:430-434
biogeochemical cycles 1:431, l:432f,
1:433 f
cyclic processes 1:430, I:432f9 1:433f
definition 1:430
Gaia hypothesis 1:432, 3:1-6
geosphere 1:431
impact on geological sciences 1:432
reductionism 1:433-434
stromatolites 1:430, 1:43 If
earwigs 2:297/", 2:300*
East African Rift 1:26-34
climate 1:29
dome structures 1:28
fault zones 1:28f
hominids 1:31
hydrology 1:29, 1:31 f
lake basins 4:558
Miocene tectonics 5:481-482
Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220*, 3:220-221,
3:224f, 3:225, 3:23Of
satellite images I:26f9 1:30f
sedimentation I:27f9 1:30
structure 1:27, 1:27f, 5:438, 5:440f
topography 1:27
volcanism 1:28, 1:29f, 1:30 f
East Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135, 1:136
4:76/i 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99f
Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:238f
Eastern Ghats Granulite Belt 3:287f9 3:289
Easter Seamount Chain 4:4771
Archaean crust
Baltic Shield 4:456-457

crustal segments 2:38, 2:42f9 2:43f,
2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47f
Cambrian 2:36, 2:38f, 4:458-459
Carboniferous 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460
Cretaceous 2:36, 2:3S/j 4:461
crustal segments
Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41f,
2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 2:48f
Sarmatia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f,
2:48f
Volgo-Uralia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:46, 2:47f,
2:48f
crustal thickness 2:35/", 2:36, 3:656,
3:657f, 3:658
Devonian 2:36, 2:38f9 4:459
Eocene 4:461
gravity fields 2:36
Jurassic 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460-461
lithologies 2:39f
margins 2:34
morphology 2:36
Mylonite Zone 2:43f9 2:44
Oligocene 4:461
Ordovician 2:36, 2:38f9 4:459
erogenic events 2:40, 2:48f
palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:47
Permian 2:36, 2:3 S/j 4:459-460
Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f9 2:48f
Precambrian 2:34
Proterozoic 2:43f, 2:48f
Quaternary 4:461
rift systems 2:36, 2:41f9 2:48f9 2:105
Russia 4:456, 4:457f9 4:458f
Russian Platform 2:35f9 2:36, 2:38f,
2:41f
4:458f9 4:460f
sedimentary cover 2:35f9 2:36, 2:38f,
2:39f, 2:40f9 2:41f
Silurian 2:36, 2:38f
terranes 2:44f9 4:458f, 4:459f
Timanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50, 2:53,
2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
topography 2:36
3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651, 3:652f
Triassic 2:36, 2:38f9 4:460-461
Vendian 2:36, 2:38f9 2:54f
East Ghats orogenic belt 3:164f
East Kirkton, Scotland, United Kingdom
4:210-211
East Mariana Basin 3:315f9 3:316t

East Pacific Rise
axial depth profiles 5:375-376, 5:379f
axial magma chamber
characteristics S:408f9 5:409f, 5:410,
5:414f
crustal structure 5:411 f
early research 5:407
seismic velocities 5:410, 5:411f
black smokers 5:366f
crustal structure 5:412, 5:415f
crustal thickness 5:416f
divergent plate boundaries 4:342
fissure width 5:383
geochemical correlations
5:376, 5:380f
geological research (post-1962) 3:198
heat flux 5:3 63f
hydrothermal vents 5:371*, 5:388,
5:388f
linear anomalies 3:203-204
magma-lens reflections 5:416f
magma supply 5:379
microplates 5:401f9 5:401-402
Miocene tectonics 5:479
seamounts 4:477*, 4:479, 4:480f
seismic layer 2A
characteristics 5:407, 5:408f9 5:409f
crustal structure 5:411 f
crustal thickening 5:41 Of
geological significance 5:407
seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:415f
shaded relief map 5:373f
spreading centre topography 5:3 74f
East Sahara Craton 1:10
East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f, 2:91 f9
2:92f
Eaton, Amos 2:195
Eauripik Rise 3:315f9 3:316*
Echinerpeton 2:487-488
Echinochimaera 2:464f
Echinocorys 2:352f
echinoderms 2:334-341
Ambulararia 2:335
Cambrian 2:335-337, 2:336/", 4:171
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/
3:379, 3:380f
Crinoidea 2:342-350
anatomy 2:342
Carboniferous 4:212
ecology 2:348
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
evolution 2:345-346, 2:347f
INDEX 643
echinoderms (continued)
Jurassic 3:358
morphology
arms 2:343f, 2:344, 2:345f
calyx 2:343f, 2:344
2:343f
stratigraphic distribution 2:347f
taphonomy 2:348
taxonomy
Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347f
Cladida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Disparida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Flexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347f
Triassic 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350
Deuterostoma 2:335
Echinodermata
Asteroidea 2:335, 2:336f
carpoids 2:335, 2:336f
Crinoidea 2:335, 2:336f
Echinoidea 2:335, 2:336f
Holothuroidea 2:335, 2:336f, 2:355
Ophiuroidea 2:335, 2:336f
echinoids 2:350-356
classification
Arbacioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
Cassiduloida 2:355, 2:356f
Cidaroida 2:351f, 2:355, 2:356f
Clypeasteroida 2:352f, 2:355,
2:356f, 5:469
Diadematoida 2:355, 2:356f
Echinoida 2:352/i 2:355, 2:356f
Echinothurioida 2:355, 2:356f
Holasteroida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
Holectypoida 2:355, 2:356f
Pedinoida 2:352/i 2:355
Salenioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
Spatangoida 2:351f, 2:352f, 2:355,
2:356f
Temnopleuroida 2:352/", 2:355,
2:356f
echinoid morphology
general features 2:3 51 f
modern echinoids 2:352f
Palaeozoic echinoids 2:352, 2:353f
post-Palaeozoic echinoids 2:352f
spines 2:353 f
Eocene 5:469
heart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
palaeobiology
burrowing 2:354
feeding 2:354
locomotion 2:354
predation and defence 2:354
reproduction 2:355
phylogenetic relationships 2:355,
2:356f
sand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
sea urchins 2:350
skeletons 2:350
Eleutherozoa 2:335
Jurassic 3:358
morphological evolution l:276/i 1:278
Ordovician4:179
Palaeocene 5:463
Pelmatozoa 2:335
phylogenetic relationships
2:335, 2:336f
stereom 2:334, 2:335/r
taxonomy
asteroids 2:336f, 2:339, 2:340f
blastozoans
blastoids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339,
4:220
diploporites 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339
eocrinoids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339
rhombiferans 2:33 6/j 2:33 8/j 2:339
carpoids
Cincta 2:336/i 2:337, 2:338f
cornutes 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338f
Ctenocystoida 2:336/i 2:337, 2:338f
mitrates 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338f
Soluta 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338f
Stylophora 2:336f, 2:337, 2:338f
crinoids 2:342, 2:335, 2:336/",
2:342-350
edrioasteroids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339
helicoplacoids 2:336/", 2:337, 2:338f
holothurians 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340f,
2:341f
isophorids 2:338f, 2:339
ophiocistioids 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340f
ophiuroids 2:336/", 2:340, 2:340f
stromatocystitids 2:338f, 2:339
Echinus 2:352f
eckermannite 3:505-506
eclogites
definition 3:387t
mantle composition 1:399
metamorphic facies
composition 3:404
3:399f, 3:400f
pressure-temperature conditions
3:403 f
regional metamorphism 4:409f9
4:409-410

metamorphic grade 3:396f
Alps 5:537
5:538-539
identification process 5:534-535
Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:647-648
ecology
corals (Cnidarians) 2:329, 2:331f
Gaia hypothesis
concept definition 3:1
criticisms 3:2
geological record 3:4
influence 3:5
Lovelock's hypothesis
criticisms 3:4
definition 3:4
four components 3:3
molecular biology 3:1
Nisbet's Essay 3:4
superorganism concept 3:2
palaeoecology 4:140-147
definitions 4:140
palaeoautecology
bivalves 4:140, 4:141f
Eopecten 4:141, 4:141f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142,
4:143 f
molluscs 4:141-142
palaeosynecology
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:146f,
4:146-147
Burgess Shale 4:142-143, 4:146
competition 4:144
example studies 4:146
fossil populations 4:143, 4:144f
organism interactions 4:144
predation 4:145
symbioses 4:146
rift valleys 5:439
economic geology 1:434-444
clays 1:366-370
applications 1:367f
definition 1:366
644
INDEX
economic geology (continued]

mineral deposits
applications
energy resources 1:437
industrial minerals 1:437, 1:43#*,
l:438f
metallic mineral deposits 1:437,
I:438t9l:438f
biological habitats 5:388f, 5:388-389
deposit characteristics
deposit development flowchart
1:43 6f
economic attributes 1:436
geological attributes 1:436
exploration trends 3:497
genetic processes 3:488-497
ancient sedimentary rock
associations 3:493, 3:495f
bacterial action 3:490-491
basic igneous rock associations
3:491
carbonate sequences 3:495
felsic igneous rock associations
3:492, 3:493f
hydrothermal activity 3:494-495
industrial minerals 3:489-490,
3:496
metamorphic rock associations
3:496
meteoric waters 3:491
placer deposits 3:489, 3:490f
tectonic deformation 3:496
ultrabasic igneous rock associations
3:491
weathering 3:488-489, 3:489f
geochemical exploration 3:21-29
buried deposits 3:23, 3:26f
diamond exploration 3:22
elemental analysis 3:21
environmental geochemical
mapping 3:27, 3:28f
regional geochemical surveys 3:27
sample analysis 3:26
sediment analysis 3:21, 3:25f
sulphide minerals 3:21, 3:2 6f
life cycle activities
end of life studies l:440t, 1:443
feasibility studies 1:440*, 1:441,
l:442f
mine development 1:440*, 1:441,
1:442f
mineral extraction 1:440*, 1:442,
2:26, 2:27f
new deposit discovery 1:440,
1:440*, 1:441 f
relevant geological knowledge
1:439, l:440t
mineral extraction
engineering services 1:443
environmental impacts 2:26, 2:27f

life cycle activities 1:440*, 1:442
mineral reserves 1:442
mining procedures 1:443
mining techniques 1:434, I:434f9
1:43 5 f
plate tectonics l:440f
anoxic environments 4:495-496,
4:497f
arsenopyrite (FeAsS) 3:582-583,
3:583f
crystal structure 3:574, 3:575*,
3:576f, 3:577f
geobarometry 3:583
hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:393f,
S:394t
limestones 5:112
ore deposit types 3:584, 3:585t
phase relationships 3:581f
phase transformation diagram
3:S80f
physical properties 3:576, 3:S77t
sphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:S84f
stability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580f
sulphidation curves 3:582f
weathering 5:588
world production demand l:435f
See also mining geology; ore bodies
ECORS-CROP project 2:127-129
Ectasian System 5:511 f9 5:517f
Ectoprocta
See bryozoans (Bryozoa)
Ecuador 4:9
Ecuadorian Andes 1:121 f9 1:123
Edaphosauridae 2:487
Edaphosaurus 2:486f, 2:488
edenite 3:505f
edentates 2:537f, 2:538
Edestus giganteus 2:463-465
Ediacaran 4:371-381
biodiversity 1:261
bioturbation 4:378
Cambrian radiation patterns 4:171
Cnidarians 2:321, 2:323f
eukaryotes 4:362-363
geological events
carbonates 4:372
glaciation 4:372
marine transgressions 4:372
palaeobiological events
Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378f
metacellularity 4:373, 4:376t
shelly fossils 4:373, 4:373f
stromatolites 4:373, 4:377
Pan-African orogeny 4:378
predators 4:379
sedimentary structures 4:376, 4:379f
strontium isotopic ratios 4:378
edingtonite 3:593*
edoylerite (Hg3S2(CrO4)) 3:533*
Edwards, Austin 3:192
Eemian interglacial stage 5:506f
Eggenburg, Austria
See Suess, Eduard
Egypt 1:12-25, 3:7*, 3:12, 3:78, 5:234f,
5:280, 5:466, 5:506f
Ehrenberg, Christian 3:184
Eifelian stage
Appalachians 4:87f
5:517f
Variscides Orogeny 2:80f
vegetation 4:195
Eights Coast Mountains, Antarctica 1:137
Eimer, Theodor 3:180-181
Elba 3:655f, 3:656
Elba Island, Italy 3:238f, 3:599
Elbe Line 2:96, 2:101 f
El Capitan (Mars) 5:281f
El Chichon, Mexico 5:575*
Eldeceeon rolfei 2:474f
electron microprobe analysis 1:109
electrums 3:118-119, 3:119*, 3:553-554,
3:630*
elemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639*
Eleutherozoa 2:335
Elginerpeton 2:469, 2:470f, 2:472f
Elhuyar, Fausto 3:171
Elhuyar, Juan Jose 3:171
Elie de Beaumont, Leonce 2:183,
2:208-209, 2:237, 3:177-178, 3:182
Elliotsmithia 2:487
Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,
l:133f, l:134f, 1:136, 3:129, 3:137f
Elonichthys 2:466-467
Elpistostege 2:469
Eltanin glasses 5:451
Eltanin (research vessel) 3:203
Elton Formation 4:186f9 4:189
eluvial deposits 3:604
INDEX 645
Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f, 3:159f

embranchements 2:180
embreyite (PbsfCrOÎPO^-HaO) 3:533?
Emeishan Basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:215f,
4:215-216, 4:217-218, 4:222, 4:227
emeralds 3:7?, 3:12
Emet mining district, Turkey
Emiliani, Cesare 5:494
Emmons, Ebenezer 2:195
Emmons, William 3:192
Emsian stage
Appalachians 4:87f
biodiversity 4:199f
fish 2:463
Gondwana 3:129, 3:137f
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498 f, 2:500t
enargite (Cu3AsS4) 3:575?, 3:630?
Enceladus 5:257?, 5:288
Encope 2:352f
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
end-Guadalupian extinction event 4:217,
4:221, 4:223, 4:223f
Endoceratids 2:392
endokarst
See caves (endokarst)
end-Permian extinctions 4:219-225
causes
extraterrestrial impact 4:221
global warming 4:222, 4:223f
volcanism 4:222
definition 4:219
Permian-Triassic boundary
biodiversity fluctuations 4:221, 4:22If
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
crinoids 4:220
extinction estimates 4:220
gastropods 2:387
Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221 f
marine extinctions 4:220
4:219 f

stratigraphy 4:219f
terrestrial extinctions 4:220
vegetation 4:220
post-extinction recovery 4:223
See also extinction events; mass
extinctions
engineering geology 1:444-448, 3:35-43

aggregates 1:34-43
applications
bituminous construction materials
1:41
concrete 1:42
mortar 1:42
railway track ballasts 1:41
unbound pavement construction
1:42
classification 1:34, 1:36
grading process 1:36, 1:37f
investigation process 1:35
particle shape
elongation index (British Standard
812) 1:38
examples l:38f
flakiness index (British Standard
812) 1:38
petrographic studies 1:38, 1:39f
sources 1:34, 1:35
testing procedures
abrasion value (British Standard
812) 1:40
chemical tests 1:41
concrete prism test 1:41
crushing value (British Standard
812) 1:40
density 1:39
Franklin point load strength 1:40,
1:575, 1:576?, 1:577f
freeze-thaw test 1:40
impact value (British Standard 812)
1:39
Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM
C131/C535) 1:40
magnesium sulphate soundness test
(British Standard 812) 1:40
methylene blue absorption test 1:41
Micro Deval test 1:40
mortar bar test 1:41
polished stone value (British
Standard 812, part 114) 1:40
Schmidt Rebound Hammer value
1:40
1:577f
10% fines value (British Standard
812) 1:40
water absorption 1:39
building stones 1:328-333
characteristics 1:329?, 1:330
geological controls 1:330, l:330t
historical use 1:328, 1:329?
modern use 1:329?
quarrying 4:399-405
recovery planning and permitting
process 1:332?, 1:333
source location tasks 1:331?, 1:333
stone masonry 1:33It, 1:333
civil engineering 3:39

clays 1:366-370
applications l:367f
definition 1:366
codes of practice 1:448-455
core indices 1:451
Eurocodes 1:453?, 1:454
international standardization 1:450
laboratory test procedures 1:452,
1:453?
particle size definitions 1:451, 1:45It
professional qualifications 1:452
standards 1:448
terminology standardization 1:450
weathering classifications 1:451
definition 3:37
applications 1:456
earthquake effects 1:460?
exploration trenches 1:460, 1:462?
geological profiles 1:460, 1:461?
mitigation methods 1:461?
1:460, 1:462?
purpose 1:460
trench logging 1:460, 1:462?
failure conditions 1:457
(CIS) 4:427
ground effects
displacement 1:457, S:331f
ground motion 1:500-501
lateral spreading 1:530, 1:53O/"
liquefaction 1:457, 1:500-501,
1:525-534, l:556f
slope failure 1:457, 1:458-459
mitigation methods
collateral damage 1:458
damage-prone areas 1:457
1:461?
ground condition improvements
1:458
646
INDEX
engineering geology (continued)

site characterization l:462t
tsunamis 1:458-459
4:32
observation techniques 1:457
post-event geological mapping 1:460,
1:462*
seismotectonic zonation
active faults 1:459
attenuation 1:459
design earthquakes 1:459
design input 1:459
site characterization 1:460, l:462t
1:463-474
applications l:469t
data collection 1:469
data content 1:467, l:468t
data interpretation 1:472
desk study (preliminary sources)
1:472
earthquakes
earthquake effects 1:460t
geological profiles 1:460, l:461t
1:460,1:462?
purpose 1:460
trench logging 1:460, 1:462?
field mapping 1:472
hazard mapping 1:467
large-scale engineering geology map
l:466f
map legend information 1:464?,
l:466f, 1:470?
map presentation 1:472
map scale 1:467?, 1:468
site investigation 1:473
three-dimensional models 1:4 72f,
1:473
written reports 1:472
zoning maps 1:467-468
engineering geophysics 1:482-499
applications
bedrock depth studies 1:488,1:491?,
1:493 f
buried objects 1:491?, 1:497,1:498f
containment structures 1:49It,
1:495f, 1:496
electromagnetic profiling 1:498f
foundation design 1:489, 1:49It,
1:494 f
ground penetrating radar 1:488,
1:491?, l:493f, 1:498f
hazard identification 1:4911, 1:493,
1:495 f
military applications 1:495-496,

l:496f
non-destructive testing 1:491?,
1:496,1:497?
pavement studies 1:488, 1:491?,
1:493 f
pipeline investigations 1:490,
1:491?, l:494f
transport infrastructure 1:487,
1:491?, l:492f, 1:493f
methodology
analytical techniques 1:482, 1:483?
data processing and interpretation
1:483, l:484/;i:485/"
modeling techniques 1:482, 1:485f,
l:486f
target properties 1:482-483, 1:483?
three-dimensional (3D) imaging
techniques 1:484, l:486f
survey design
aliasing 1:488 f
cost-benefit analysis 1:49If
detection distance plots 1:487f
feasibility studies l:489f, l:490f
sampling intervals 1:488f
two-dimensional (2D) modeling
techniques 1:486, 1:489 f,
1:490 f
engineering seismology 1:499-515
Husid plot 1:505, 1:505f
1:505f, 1:507f, l:508f, 1:509f
l:506f, 1:507f, l:510f, 1:514f
1:505-506, l:506f
techniques
1:505 f, 1:509 f
1:502?
intensity scales 1:501, 1:502?
1:506
1:513f
1:513f, 1:514f
environmental geology 1:445, 3:38
future directions 3:42
geohazards 1:515-524
anthropogenic hazards
ground subsidence 1:519f, l:520f
groundwater 1:519
soil loss 1:519
urbanization l:522f
world population growth l:521f
definitions 1:516
disaster equation 1:516f
floods. See floods
gas hydrates 4:266
(CIS) 4:424
hazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, 1.-522/,
1:523f
landslides 4:687-692
ancient landslides 4:690f9 4:691
angle of repose 4:688, 4:692
Atlantic Margin 4:94f, 4:94-95
catastrophic floods 4:632
creep 4:691, 4:691f
debris avalanches 4:690-691,
5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f
debris flows 4:689, 4:690f
earthflows 4:690
earthquakes 5:327
economic losses 4:688, 4:688f
engineering geomorphology l:476f,
1:476-478, 1:477f
frequency 1:517?
Geographical Information
Systems (CIS) 4:426, 4:426/i
4:428?
hazard analysis 1:515-524
hazard mapping 1:523f
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,
5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f
mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?,
4:688
Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:69If
mud flows 4:689
occurrence 4:687
quick clay landslides 4:690
rainfall 5:17, 5:19f
rockfalls 4:689, 4:689f
rotational slides 4:689, 4:690f
slope stability studies 4:688
slumps and slides 4:689, 4:690f
sturtzstroms 4:690-691
Tadzhikistanl:518/"
talus 4:689
topples 4:689
translational slides 4:689
volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?,
5:576f
natural hazards
hazard frequency 1:517?
mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?
INDEX 647

risk assessment 1:519, 1:523*, 3:103
volcanism 3:328, 4:426, 5:572, 5:573,
5:576*
geological engineering 1:445, 3:36
geologist's role 1:449
applications 1:474
investigation methods
geomorphological mapping 1:479,
l:480f
geomorphological models 1:481
historical records 1:476, 1:47 6f,
1:477f
measurement techniques 1:477f,
1:478
terrain analysis 1:478, 1:478 f,
l:479t
physical systems 1:474, 1:475f
geotechnical engineering 3:100-105
basic research areas
foundations 3:103
ground improvement 3:103
underground excavation analysis
3:103
components 3:101, 3:101f
definition 3:100
ground investigation 3:103
hydrogeology 3:104
modeling techniques 3:104
professional registration 3:38-39
risk analysis 3:103
rock mechanics 3:101, 3:102*
soil mechanics 1:445, 3:101, 3:103*,
3:104*, 5:184-193, 5:558
ground behaviour 1:446
historical background 1:445, 3:39
hydrogeology 1:445, 3:38
importance 1:448
landfills 2:14-21
carbon dioxide formation 2:14,
2:15f
dissolved oxygen concentrations 2:17,
2:19 f
gas formation 2:14, 2:14f

government regulation 2:14
isotopic analyses
carbon isotope concentrations 2:16,
2:17, 2:18f

deuterium concentrations 2:16,
2:17, 2:18f
oxygen isotope concentrations 2:16,
2:17,2:18f
pH2:15,2:15f
redox level 2:17, 2:19f
seasonal variations 2:19, 2:19f
in situ passive sampling 2:17
thermal surveys 2:15
volatile organic compounds 2:15,

2:15 f
liability issues 3:40

licensing 3:36, 3:40
made ground 1:535-542
applications 1:538
collapse compression 1:541-542
compaction 1:540-541, 1:541 f
creep compression 1:541, 1:541 f
definition 1:535
embankment dams 1:536, 1:538-539
examples 1:537*
fill placement 1:539, l:539f, l:540f
fill properties 1:540, l:541f
historical background 1:535, 1:535f
lagoons 1:540, 1:540/"
landfill 1:538
land reclamation 1:537
liquefaction 1:525*
mine wastes 1:538
modern applications 1:536
Silbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:537*,
1:537f
professional registration
Canada 3:42
certification 3:41
competing approaches 3:41, 3:42
Europe 1:447, 3:41
examination process 3:41
geological engineering 3:37
liability issues 3:40
United States 3:40
quarrying 4:399-405
aggregates 1:35
career opportunities 4:401
design 4:400
engineering considerations 4:401
environmental issues 4:401, 4:404*
general description 4:399f
geological factors 4:400
military geology 3:478,3:479f, 3:480f,
3:484f
operational considerations 4:399
planning considerations 4:401, 4:404*
quarried stone
geological characteristics 4:400,
4:402*
joint sets 4:401 f
mass characteristics 4:400
regional characteristics 4:403*
quarry restoration 4:402
quarry types 4:400, 4:403*
rock mechanics 4:440-451
components
existing fractures 4:440, 4:442f.,
4:443f
intact rock 4:440, 4:444f

in situ stress 4:440, 4:441f, 4:446f
fracture testing 4:444/", 4:445f
geotechnical engineering 3:101, 3:102*
Hoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443,
4:444f, 4:445f
hydraulic fracturing 4:440, 4:441 f
magnitude measurements 4:446f
overcoring 4:440, 4:441 f
rock masses 4:443, 4:445/", 4:446f
servo-controlled testing device 4:441,
4:443^
shear box 4:443 f
single-plane-of-weakness theory
4:443, 4:444f
techniques
continuous rock analyses 4:449,
4:451f
excavation effects 4:446f
fractured rock analyses 4:447
kinematic analyses 4:447
Kirsch solution 4:45If
numerical analyses 4:450
slope instability 4:448f
stress analysis 4:450f
stress/strain analyses 4:45If
3:103, 4:448f, 4:449f
wedge instability 4:447f
rock properties 1:543-554, 1:566-580
anhydrite 1:552
carbonates 1:549, 1:549*, 1:5 50f
chalk 1:549*, 1:551-552
coal 1:553
deformation characteristics
classification 1:57 It
elasticity 1:570, 1:571
moisture content 1:570
plasticity 1:570
rock composition 1:569-570
strength analysis 1:570
stress/strain analyses 1:570-571,
1:571 f
yield strength 1:570
density 1:566, 1:567*
durability
geodurability classification chart
1:578 f
1:577f
soak tests 1:575, 1:577*
evaporites 1:552, 1:552*
folding 5:348, 5:350f
gypsum 1:552,3:102*
halite (NaCl) 1:552,3:102*
hardness 1:567
igneous rocks
1:545*
granites 1:545*, l:546f
648 INDEX

weathering l:546f
limestones 1:549, l:549t, 1:55Of,
3:102t
mudrocks 1:548
mudstone 1:548,3:102*
permeability 1:579, 1:579*, 1:579 f
porosity 1:549*, 1:552*, l:566f,
1:566-567,1:567*
Schmidt hammer 1:568, l:568f
Schmidt hardness values 1:569f
shales 1:548, 3:102*
Shore hardness values l:568f
Shore scleroscope 1:567, 1:567f
specific gravity 1:566
strength analysis
direct shear 1:573, 1:575f
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
1:573
Mohr stress circle 1:574f
point load strength test 1:40, 1:575,
1:576*, 1.-576/"
tensile strength 1:573
triaxial compression strength 1:573,
l:574f
uniaxial compression 1:572, 1:572*,
1:573 f
sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95
weathering
rock-mass strength 5:581
shales 1:548
spheroidal weathering 1:543f
weathering grades 1:544f
weathering profile 1:545f
site classification 2:1-9
characteristics 2:2f
components 2:3*, 2:4*
definition 2:1
goals 2:1, 2:4*
key considerations 2:6*
pitfalls 2:2, 2:7*
purpose 2:1
scope 2:1
site investigation 1:580-594
borehole analysis 1:593f
definition 1:580
engineering geological
mapping 1:473
fieldwork
boring techniques l:586f, 1:587,
1:588
dynamic probing 1:588, l:588f
moisture determination 1:586-587,
1:587f
static probing 1:589, 1:589f
trial pits 1:586, 1:586f
geophysical techniques 1:590
ground investigation
decision-making process 1:585
design process 1:585
geotechnical engineering 3:103
techniques 1:585
groundwater instrumentation 1:590,

1:591 f
hazard analysis 1:522
investigation process
contaminated ground 1:585
data presentation 1:472, 1:585
desk study (preliminary sources)
1:472, 1:581, l:582t, l:584f
Procedural Statement 1:581, 1:582*
stages 1:581, 1:581*
walk-over survey 1:585
laboratory test procedures 1:591,
1:591 f
property determination 1:585
reporting process 1:592, l:592f,
1:593f
responsibilities 1:581
in situ testing 1:590
soils 1:554-565
cold regions
permafrost 1:563
quick clays 1:562, 1:563f
till 1:562
varved clays 1:562, 1:563^
collapsible soils 1:555, 1:556/", 1:557*,
1:5 57f
crete formation 1:562
deserts 1:561
dispersive soils 1:558, 1.-559/", l:560f
expansive clays 1:557, 1:559f
peat 1:564, 1:5 64f
quicksands 1:555, l:556f
sabkhas 1:561
sediment transport effects 1:555*
soil mechanics 5:184-193
applications 5:193
Atterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186,
5:187*
Cam Clay 5:185, 5:192
compression 5:187, 5:188f
consolidation 5:192, 5:192f
critical state strength 5:190, 5:190f
dense/loose states 5:189
drainage 5:185, 5:186
geotechnical engineering 3:101,
3:103*, 3:104*
grain characteristics 5:186, 5:186f
Hazen permeability formula 5:186
Liquidity Index 5:187, 5:187f
loading rates 5:186
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
5:185
one-dimensional compression 5:188
packing states 5:188, 5:189f
peak strength 5:191, 5:191f
plasticity 5:185, 5:187, 5:187f
principle of effective stress 5:185
relative density 5:187, 5:187f
shearing behaviour 5:189, 5:189f,
5:190f
shear modulus 5:191, 5:191f
soil classification 5:186
soil strength 5:189

state boundary surfaces 5:192,
5:193f
state parameters 5:188, 5:189f
stiffness 5:191, 5:191f
stress/strain analyses 5:184, 5:185f
swelling 5:187, 5:188f
Terzaghi effective stress equation
5:185
undrained strength 5:190, 5:190f
subsidence 2:9-14
causal mechanisms
alluvium 2:13
differential settlement 1:519f
flowing water 2:12
ground shrinkage/swelling
cycles 2:13
groundwater extraction 2:11
groundwater regime changes 2:13
karst2:10
mine workings l:520f
mining 2:9
oil and gas extractions 2:11
salt dissolution 2:12
thermokarst 2:13
volcanism 2:13
terminology 1:445, 3:36
training 1:445, 1:447
urban geology 5:557-563
cities 5:557
Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559*
discontinuities 5:558, 5:563f
engineering contributions 5:560*
foundation materials 5:558f
geotechnical constraints 5:560*
groundwater 5:558
importance 5:557
professional registration 3:39
site characterization 5:558, 5:558f,
5:561*, 5:562, 5:562*, 5:563f
societal issues 5:562*
soils 5:558
urban construction constraints 5:558,
5:561*, 5:562*
urban development 5:558, 5:558f
urbanization effects 1:522f
weathering 5:588
engineering seismology
See seismology
England
Cretaceous 3:361
Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:51 If
Holocene 2:148
Jurassic 3:352*
marine reptiles 2:502, 2:504-505,2:507f
Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:96/",
2:97-98
Pleistocene 5:493, 5:495
INDEX 649
England (continued)
soils 1:557-558, l:S64f9 1:565
Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)
4:434?, 4:436
enstatite 3:397f, 3:404, 3:567
enstatite chondrites 5:23It
entisols 5:196?, 5:199
Entrada Sandstone, Utah 4:546, 4:547f
environment
environmental geochemistry 2:21-25
acidification 2:23, 2:24f
environmental restoration 2:23, 2:24t
organic contaminants 2:23
trace elements
abundance 2:22?
bioavailability 2:21
occurrence 2:21
speciation 2:21, 2:22?
toxicity 2:22?
Holocene 2:152, 2:154, 2:159t
quarrying 4:404t
environmental geology 2:25-33
definition 2:25
engineering geology 1:445, 3:38
engineering geomorphology 1:474-481
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
4:424
natural hazards
frequency 1:5171
(GIS) 4:424
mortality rates 1:517?, l:518t
volcanism 2:31, 2:32f, 3:328, 4:426,
5:572
resource management
economic mineral resources 2:26
geological conservation 2:29
mineral extraction impacts 2:26, 2:27f
soil resources 2:28
water resources 2:28, 2:28/
urban geology
built environment 2:29, 2:29f
geomaterials 2:29, 2:29f
urban environments 2:25, 2:26f
volcanic hazards 2:31, 2:32/j 3:328,
4:426, 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?
waste management
clays 1:368
nuclear waste repositories 2:31, 2:3If
sanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30f
strategies 2:30, 2:30f
Eoarchean Era 5:51 If, 5:517f
Eocaecilia micropodia 2:521f
Eocene 5:466-472
amphibians 2:523-524, 2:524-525
Arabia 1:142f, 1:144f
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:230f, 1:236

Bartonian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:506f
5:517f
biota
marine environments
(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
bryozoans(Bryozoa) 5:469
calcareous nannoplankton 5:467/",
5:468
coelenterata 5:469
corals 5:469
echinoids 5:469
foraminifera 5:468
molluscs 5:469
vertebrates 5:469
terrestrial biota
flora 5:469
invertebrates 5:469
vertebrates 5:469
biozones 5:467f
chronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:466, 5:467f,
5:468f
climate 5:470
Coccolithophoridae 2:43If
5:467f, 5:470
Europe 2:117
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:18It
l:188f, l:190f
terranes 3:13If
Grube Messel, Germany 3:310?, 3:312
gymnosperms 2:45If
insects 2:299f, 2:300?, 5:469
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506f
5:517f
5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471
Metasequoia 2:45If
New Caledonia 4:116
North Africa 1:24, 1:24f
4:25f
northern Cordillera 4:41 f
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
Pangaea3:131/"
Priabonian stage l:322f, 1:325f,
5:466, 5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470,
S:506f
5:517f
radiation patterns 5:468f
South-east Asia 1:18It, 1:188f, l:190f
tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:452
Tethys Ocean 3:295
Tonga 4:120
Ypresian stage l:322f, 1:325'f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470, 5:506^
5:517f
Eocephalodiscus 2:357-359
Eocoelia 4:186-188
Eoentophysalis 4:367f, 4:368
Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f, 3:270f
Eomaia scansoria 2:533f, 2:533-534
Eoplectus 2:464f
Eoraptor 2:492
Eorhabdopleura 2:357-359
eosphorite-childrenite 5:124-125
Eothyrididae 2:485
Eothyris 2:485
ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542
epidiagenesis 1:393, 1:393 f
epidote 3:235?, 3:242, 3:404, 3:563,
3:631-632
See also silicate minerals
epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409, 4:409f
Epiphyton 2:435
epistilbite 3:593?
epitheres 2:538
epithermal deposits 3:634
erbium (Er) 3:223?, 3:224f, 3:242f
ergs 4:540-541, 4:547-549
erionite 3:593?
Eriptychius 2:457, 2:464/
Eromanga Basin 3:147, 3:150f
erosion surfaces 4:587-593
catastrophic floods 4:635f
channels 4:592, 4:592f
erosional sole marks
chevron marks 4:591, 4:591f
developmental stages 4:589f
fluid turbulence 4:589
flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590f
gutter casts 4:590, 4:590f
longitudinal furrows 4:590
obstacle scours 4:589, 4:589f, 4:591
tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591f
way-up indicators 4:588-589
facies analysis 4:490, 4:490f
fluvial geomorphology
flood events 3:90, 3:91 f
650
INDEX
erosion surfaces (continued)

flood plains 3:90f, 3:91 f
meandering river systems 3:90f
measurement techniques 3:90f
stream terraces 3:90
surficial deposits 3:90-92, 3:92f
mass wasting processes 3:93
palaeosols 5:207f
processes
abrasion 4:588
cohesiveness 4:588, 4:588f
critical erosion velocity 4:588, 4:588f
surface structures 4:591
tectonic erosion 5:317t
See also landslides
Eryops 2:477f
erythite 3:508f
Escher von der Linth, Arnold 2:234, 3:182
eskers 4:677, 4:677f
Espirito Santo basin 1:32If, 1:322f
Estonia 4:187f
Estrada Nova formation 3:146f
estroncioginorite ((Sr,Ca)2B10Oi7-7H2O)
3:513t
estuaries 1:528*, 4:571 f
Etendeka Traps 3:315f, 3:316*, 3:363t
ethane (C2H6) 4:258, 4:259f
Ethiopia 5:491*
Ethiopian Flood Basalt 3:315f, 3:316*,
5:474
Etna, Mount 1:200*, 3:329, 4:389*", 5:575
eubacteria 4:355f
eucrites 5:23It
Eucritta melanolimnetes 2:474f
Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514, 2:515
Eugonophyllum 2:434
euhemerism 3:96
eukaryotes (Eukarya) 4:354-363
algae
early Neoproterozoic 4:358, 4:359f
green algae 4:358-359, 4:3S9f, 4:360
red algae 4:356*", 4:358, 4:360, 4:361 f
Archaean eukaryotes 4:357
atmospheric evolution 1:202, 1:203
biodiversity 1:261
biomineralization 4:359-360
carbonaceous compression 4:357, 4:358,
4:360
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
Basidiomycetes 2:437-438,
2:440-441
Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f,
2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
sporocarps 2:440-441
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
heterotrophy 4:360
Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:3 56*",

4:357
Neoproterozoic eukaryotes
early animals 4:360
Ediacaran 4:362-363
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361f,
4:362f
Vendian 4:372-373
Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356*",
4:357
testate amoeba 4:360
tree of life l:203f, 4:125*", 4:365f
Euler rotation poles 4:344, 4:346f
Euler's theorem 4:344-346
Euparkeria 2:485
Euramerica 4:204, 4:21 Of
Eurasia 5:481, 5:484
Eurocodes 1:453*, 1:454
Europa 4:13f, 4:14-15, 5:283, 5:284*,
5:284f
Europe
Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656
Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,
4:471
Alps 2:125-135
alpine nappe structures
internal deformation 2:130, 2:131 f,
2:132f
thrust faults 2:130, 2:130*", 2:131f
Central Alps 2:117, 2:128f, 2:129,
2:133-135, 2:134f, 3:654, 3:655f
Eastern Alps 2:128*", 2:129,2:133-135
geomorphology 2:125, 2:126f
crystalline basement rocks 2:133f
Suess, Eduard 2:235
2:127f
rock types 2:127
subsurface geological structure
Central Alps 2:128f, 2:129,
2:133-135, 2:134*", 3:655f
Eastern Alps 2:128f9 2:129,
2:133-135
Western Alps 2:127, 2:128*",
2:133-135
tectonic units
Adriatic margin 2:125, 2:128*",
2:132, 2:132f
Eurasian plate 2:125
European margin 2:125, 2:128f,
2:132, 2:132f
Penninic nappes 2:126-127
tectonic map 2:126f
Western Alps 2:117, 2:133-135
Appenines 3:654, 3:655f

beer brewing process 3:80
Cenozoic European Rift System 2:120,
3:653
central Europe
3:653
Cretaceous basins 2:113
Mohorovicic discontinuity 2:104/,
3:650*"
2:95-102, 3:653
tektites 5:444, 5:445*, 5:445f
Triassic basins 2:105
Variscides Orogeny 2:79, 2:80*", 2:81f,
3:651
Corsica 3:655*", 3:656
Cretaceous 2:113
accretionary wedge terranes 4:459*"
Archaean crust 2:38, 2:42/", 2:43 f9
2:44*", 2:45f, 2:47f
Cambrian 4:458-459
Carboniferous 4:460
Cretaceous 4:461
crustal provinces 4:459*"
crustal segments
Fennoscandian Shield 2:38, 2:41*",
2:42f, 2:43*", 2:44f, 2:48f
Sarmatia 2:41 f, 2:42f9 2:45, 2:45/",
2:48f
Volgo-Uralia 2:41*", 2:42*", 2:46,
2:47f, 2:48f
crustal thickness 2:35f, 2:36, 3:656,
3:657*", 3:658
Devonian 4:459
Eocene 4:461
geographic location 2:35*"
gravity fields 2:36
Jurassic 4:460-461
lithologies 2:39f
magnetic anomalies 2:36, 2:37*"
margins 2:34
morphology 2:36
Mylonite Zone 2:43/", 2:44
Oligocene 4:461
Ordovician 4:459
orogenic events 2:40, 2:48f
Permian 4:459-460
Phanerozoic 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48f
Precambrian 2:34
Proterozoic 2:43*", 2:48f
Quaternary 4:461
rift systems 2:36, 2:41 f, 2:48*", 2:105
Russia 4:456, 4:457*", 4:458f
Russian Platform 2:35*", 2:36, 2:38*",
2:41f
sedimentary basins 4:456, 4:457*",
4:458*", 4:460f
INDEX 651
Europe (continued)
sedimentary cover 2:35f, 2:36, 2:38f,
2:39f, 2:40f, 2:41f
Timanide Orogeny 2:34, 2:49-50,
2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
topography 2:36
3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f, 3:651,
3:652f
Triassic 4:460-461
Elba 3:655f, 3:656
Eocene 2:117
granitic rocks 3:237?
groundwater 3:80
Hercynian Belt, Europe 3:237?
Holocene 2:147-160
Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2:152f, 2:153f,
2:155-159, 2:156f, 2:159t
climate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159t
dating methods 2:147
environmental periods 2:159t
human activity
environmental conservation 2:154
environmental effects 2:152
historical developments 2:159t
industrialisation effects 2:155,
2:15 6f
Neolithic period 2:152
phosphate concentrations 2:156f
sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150f,
2:151f,2:154f,2:155f
vegetation 2:147, 2:149f9 2:152f,
2:15'3f, 2:155'f
Jurassic 2:108
Ligurian Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656
magmatism 2:96/i 2:97, 2:101f, 2:102,
3:657
Miocene 2:120
Cenozoic European Rift System 3:653
depth map 2:104f, 3:649f
Mediterranean region
Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656
Central Alps 3:654, 3:655f
cross-sections 3:648f
Ligurian Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656
orogenic events 3:658
Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654f
structural features
Baltic Shield 3:650, 3:651f
eastern Europe 3:650, 3:651f
East European Craton 3:650,3:651f

morphology 3:65Of
northern Europe 3:650, 3:651f
subcrustal lithosphere 3:656, 3:657f
Ural Mountains 3:652, 3:653f
western/central Europe 2:104f,
3:650f
Oligocene 2:120, 2:121/"
orogenic events. See orogenic events
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:95-102
geodynamic setting 2:100
geological characteristics 2:95
magmatism 2:102
age distribution 2:96f
foreland 2:97
Oslo Rift 2:101 f, 2:97
petrogenesis 2:99
palaeogeography 2:107'f
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs 2:103f
North German Basin 2:97,
2:99-100, 2:101 f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97,
2:98-99, 2:101f
sedimentary basin formation 2:96,
2:101f, 3:653
tectonic processes
rift systems 2:105, 2:106f
sedimentary basin formation 2:102
wrench tectonics 2:102
Provencal Basin 2:120-124, 3:655f,
3:656
sedimentary basins
Alpine Orogeny 2:113, 2:117
2:116f
2:112f
Cenozoic 2:122f
Cretaceous 2:113, 2:117
East European Craton 4:456, 4:457/",
4:458f, 4:460f
Eocene 2:117
geological map legend 2:123f
isopachs 2:103f, 2:122f
Jurassic 2:108
palaeogeography 2:114-f
Miocene 2:120
North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,
2:119f,2:121f,2:122f
Oligocene 2:120, 2:121f
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:105
Rhaetian-Hettangian
palaeogeography 2:11 If
2:118 f
thermal subsidence 2:105, 2:117
Triassic 2:105
western/central Europe 2:105, 2:113
Zechstein palaeogeography 2:107f
tectonic processes
central Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f,
2:102
main tectonic units 2:106f, 3:648,
3:648f
rift systems
Cretaceous 2:113
Eocene 2:117
Jurassic 2:108
Miocene 2:120
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:105, 2:106f
Triassic 2:105
western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f,
2:102
tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445^
Timanide Orogeny 2:49-56
Barents Shelf 2:50f, 2:53
East European Craton 2:49-50, 2:53,
2:54f
foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:5Of,
2:51
Novaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f, 2:53
Pechora Basin 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52f,
2:53f, 2:54f
Polar Ural Mountains 2:50f, 2:52
Precambrian 4:352
652
INDEX
Europe (continued]
Subarctic Ural Mountains 2:52
tectonic relationships 2:5Of
terranes 2:5Of
Triassic 2:105, 3:344
Tuscany 3:655f, 3:656
Uralide orogeny 2:86-95
aeromagnetic map 2:87f, 2:93f
Bouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94,
2:93^
2:34-35, 3:648
heat flow density 2:91-92, 2:93f
seismic profile 2:91f, 2:92f
tectonic evolution
foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:90
island arcs 2:88
subduction zones 2:89
velocity profiles 2:91, 2:92f
zone classifications 2:86, 2:87f
Ural Mountains
Carboniferous 4:201
East European Craton 2:4If
gemstones 3:12
Kazakhstan-Khingan domain 4:467,
4:467f
3:653f
Permian 4:214-215, 5:511 f
Silurian 4:192-193
tectonic map 4:467f
Timanide Orogeny
2:51
Variscides Orogeny
3:651
evolutionary history 2:9'5, 2:101 f,
3:653
foreland 2:97

2:99-100, 2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
2:98-99, 2:1 Olf
3:651
European Federation of Geologists
1:452-454, 3:75, 3:76f, 3:77t, 3:77f
European Geotraverse (EGT) project
2:129, 3:645
European Land Mammal Ages (ELMAs)
5:472, 5:473f, 5:478, 5:479^
European Rift System 2:120, 3:648-649,
3:653
europium (Eu)
carbonatites 3:223t, 3:224f
EUROPROBE project 3:645
Europrobe Seismic Reflection in the Urals
(ESRU) 2:88f, 2:90, 2:91f
eurypterids 4:210-211
eustasy
See sea-level; sequence stratigraphy
Eustbenopteron 2:464f, 2:467, 2:469,
4:196
Eutheria 2:535-540
eutherians 2:528f, 2:533f, 2:533-534
Evandavia aureola 4:376, 4:376f, 4:379f
Evans, R. 5:266?
evaporites 5:94-97
Alps 2:132
anhydrite
densities 5:32If
5:394t
occurrence 5:32f
porosity 1:5 52t
Arabia 1:141
Arabian Gulf 4:511
Cambrian 4:165
composition 5:94
Cretaceous 3:365
densities 5:321f
gypsum 3:572-573
classification 5:2 6, 5:394t

occurrence 3:573
porosity 1:5 52t
halite (NaCl)
densities 5:321f
evaporite pseudomorphs
4:610, 4:610f
porosity 1:5 52t
Hellenic Trench 5:433
4:28, 4:29f
occurrence 5:31
palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134, 4:138-139
palaeodeposits 4:102, 5:441f, 5:442
porosity 1:5 52t
rift valleys 5:95
seawater chemistry 4:165, 5:96
Silurian 4:193
sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95
evolution 2:160-167
biodiversity
biodiversity curves
causes 1:265
diversity changes 1:261, 1:262
measurement methods
ancient species 1:260, l:260f
disparity 1:259
diversity 1:259
marine fauna 1:260, 1:260f
types 1:259
Phanerozoic
marine change l:260f,
1:262, l:264f
Precambrian 1:261
creationism
INDEX 653
evolution (continued)
definitions 1:381
Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,
2:182,2:224-225
gap theory 1:383
Darwin, Charles 1:257, 2:160,
2:184-187
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161,
2:162f
genetic transmission 2:161
Hox genes 2:166
Lyell, Charles 2:160-161
macroevolution
extinction 2:165-166
tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f
metazoans 1:261
microevolution
allopatric-speciation 2:163, 2:164f
phyletic gradualism 2:164/,
2:164-165
punctuated equilibrium 1:27'If, 2:164,
2:164f
sympatric speciation 2:163-164,
2:164f
radiations
abiotic causes 1:273, 1:273f
Cretaceous l:273f
distorting factors 1:270-271
environmental shift 1:271, 1:272f
evolutionary novelties 1:274, l:274f
Jurassic 1:273 f
morphological evolution 1:274 f9
1:276, 1:27 6f
Palaeocene l:273f
taxic evolution 1:274f, 1:276, 1:276f
triggers 1:269-270
Red Queen hypothesis 2:166
speciation
definition 1:266
fossil record 1:267
general discussion 1:266f
phyletic gradualism 1:267, l:268f,
1:269f, l:270f
punctuated equilibrium 1:268, 1:268 f9
1:271 f
species recognition 1:267
Ewamin Orogeny l.-213/j 1:218-219
Ewing, Maurice 3:194, 3:197, 3:199
excurrite (Na4B10O17- 7H2O) 3:513*
exhumed karst 4:679
exogenic trace fossils 5:523, 5:523f

exokarst
See karst landscapes
expansive clays 1:557, l:559f
Exploits subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f
Explora Wedge 3:147, 3:151f, 3:152f
exposure 5:328
extinction events
Aptian extinction event 3:370
5:462, 5:468, 5:470
biodiversity
ancient species 1:260, l:260f
measurement methods 1:260, l:260f
Phanerozoic
marine change l:260f, 1:262, l:264f
Precambrian 1:261
carbon dioxide concentrations 4:223,
4:223f
Carboniferous 4:212
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:360,
3:370, 4:567-568
3:372-385
amphibians 2:523
causal mechanisms
impact structures 3:277, 3:283-284
pseudoextinction 3:375-376,3:376f
3:3 77f
stratigraphy 3:373f
3:381f
Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501f
stratigraphy 3:373f
tektites 5:453
Deccan Traps 3:383, 4:198-199
Devonian 1:264f9 4:194, 4:196, 4:197,
4.-197/; 4:198
4:221, 4:223, 4:223f
end-Ordovician extinction 4:180

amphibians 2:516
causes
volcanism 4:222
definition 4:219
biodiversity fluctuations 4:221,
4:22 If
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
crinoids 4:220
gastropods 2:387
4:219 f
stratigraphy 4:219f
vegetation 4:220
Siberian Traps 4:222
insects 2:296-298, 2:298f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:321/",
3:322
Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221 f
Oligocene 5:473, 5:476
reef environments 4:565-566,
4:566-567
Signor-Lipps effect 3:376-377, 3:377f
Vendian 4:379
F
Faberge, Peter Carl 3:267
Fabiano, Papirio 3:168
fabric, definition of 3:390t
Faeroe Islands 3:598
Faint Young Sun Paradox 1:340
fairfieldite 5:122
fair weather wave base 4:570-571, 4:574f
fake fossils 2:169-173
amber 2:172
chimera 2:170-171
creationism 2:172
654
INDEX
fake fossils (continued)

embellishments 2:171, 2:171 f
forgery identification 2:169, 2:169f,
2:173
hoaxes
Piltdown Man 2:170
Falcatus 2:464f
Falkland Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t
falling dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
Famennian stage
extinction events 4:197, 4:197f, 4:198
fish 4:196
glaciation 4:208f
5:517f
non-amniote tetrapods 2:469
tektites 5:454
vegetation 4:195
Farallon Plate 5:461, 5:479-480
Faroe-Shetland Basin, United Kingdom
l:103f, 1:103-104, l:104f
Fassanian stage 3:34Sf
Faujas de St. Fond, Barthelemy
2:181-182
faujasite 3:593t
faulting processes
breccia 3:388t
crustal deformation 1:408, 1:409 f,
5:425-428
fault gouge 3:388t
faults 5:330-338
active faults 1:459
conjugate normal faults 5:354f
definition 3:390?
deltas 4:534f, 4:535, 4:536/
dip-slip fault systems 5:332f
elastic-rebound model 5:33If
fault geometry 5:331, 5:331/, 5:332/",
5:334f
ground displacement 5:331f
Mendocino escarpment 3:198
models 5:336, 5:337f, 5:338f
normal faults 4:23If
northern Andes 1:121 f
plate margin faults 5:360
reverse faults 4:23If
rock friction 5:336, 5:337f, 5:338f
San Andreas Fault Zone, California
4:58-60, 4:59/j 4:343, 4:345f,
5:476-477, 5:479-480
seismological studies 5:332, 5:332f,

5:333f
strain analysis 5:334, 5:335f, 5:336f
strength envelopes 5:335-336, 5:336f
stress analysis 5:334, 5:334/, 5:335f,
5:338f
strike-slip fault systems
basement faulting 5:347-348,
5:348f
fault geometry 5:331, 5:332f
focal mechanism 5:334f
Japan 3:304f
Kuznetsk-Teletskoye strike-slip fault
system 4:466
models 5:333, 5:337f, 5:338f
South-east Asia 1:169, l:170f
stress analysis 4:23If
stress fields 5:335f
Ural Mountains 2:90
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:243 f, 1:245f,
1:246 f
Trans-Eurasian fault system 4:45'8f,
4:464f, 4:467f
Trans-European Fault Zone 3:651,
3:652f
East European Craton 2:39 f^ 2:40f,
2:41f, 2:42f, 2:43f
extent 3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f
transform faults 3:202, 3:203 f, 5:375,
5:386f, 5:396f
types 5:332f
fault zone alteration 3:599
gravity measurements 1:105f
mid-ocean ridges
bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398,
5:404f
fault scarps 5:384f, 5:385f
pseudofaults 5:396, 5:396f
transform faults 5:375, 5:386f, 5:396f
volcanic growth faults 5:386f,
5:386-387
northern Cordillera 4:3 7/i 4:38, 4:41f,
4:43
ocean trenches 4:343f, 4:344, 4:345f,
5:4357, 5:43 6f
seamounts 5:435f, 5:436f
seismotectonic zonation 1:459
See also earthquakes; fractures; orogenic
events; rift valleys; tectonic
processes
favusellids 3:450f
fayalite
See olivine
Feijoo, Benito Jeronimo 3:169, 3:172
feldspars 3:534-539
crystal symmetry 3:534-535

depth effects 5:63f
diaplectic minerals 3:281-282, 3:282f
granites 3:235?, 3:240
igneous rocks 3:536
metamorphic rocks 3:399/", 3:400f,
3:401 f, 3:537
nomenclature 3:534, 3:534f
occurrence 3:534
optical properties 3:536
properties
alkali feldspars 3:536f, 3:536
frequency distribution 3:539f
plagioclase 3:537, 3:537f, 3:538f,
3:539f
refractive indices 3:536f, 3:537f
sand 5:142
sandstones 5:143?, 5:27
spectral data 1:11 If
structure 3:535, 3:535f
twinning 3:535-536, 3:537-538
5:533f
feldspathoids 3:539-541
occurrences 3:541
structure
leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
nepheline 3:539, 3:540f
sodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
fenitisation 3:229
Fennian stage 4:183 f
carbonatites 3:228f
crustal provinces 2:42f, 2:43f
evolution 2:48f
Suess, Eduard 2:238
Triassic 2:108
ferberite (MnWO4) 3:587, 3:5S7?
fernandinite (Cao.6(V8O2o)-10H2O) 3:589t
ferns 4:210
Ferraiolo, James 5:121
ferrallitization 5:196f
Ferrar Basalts 1:135, 3:315f, 3:316t
ferrarisite 3:509?
ferricrete 4:134, 5:588
ferrierite 3:593?
ferrimolybdite (Fe2(MoO4)3-8H2O) 3:552?
ferritungstite ((W,Fe)(O,OH)3) 3:587?
ferroaugite 3:567
ferrosilite 3:567
fertilizers 5:128
Ferussac, Andre de 2:183
INDEX 655
fervanite (Fe4(V4O16)-5H2O) 3:S89t

fianelite (Mn2(V2O7)-2H2O) 3:589t
field mapping 3:43-52
air photographs 1:372, 3:44
base maps 3:44
basic principles 3:43
boundaries 3:50, 3:51f
clothing 3:47
equipment
compass/clinometer 3:45,
3:46f
field notebook 3:45
hammer and chisel 3:45
hand lens 3:45
map board/case 3:45
mapping pens 3:45
miscellaneous equipment 3:46
pencils 3:45
exposures 3:50, 3:51f
field evidence 3:49f, 3:50
field notebook 3:49f, 3:50
formation contacts 3:49/", 3:50
4:423, 4:424f
health/safety issues 3:47
mapping process 3:49f, 3:50, 3:51 f
mapping symbols 3:47, 3:48f
preliminary reconnaissance methods
3:47
superficial deposits 3:52
Field, Richard 3:194
Fiji
Beqa4:118
geology 4:118, 4:119f
Kadavu Islands 4:120
Koro Islands 4:118
Lau Islands 4:120
Quaternary volcanism 4:120
VanuaLevu 4:118, 4:119f
Vatulele 4:118
VitiLevu4:118,4:n9/ r
Yanuca(Serua)4:118
Yasawa Group 4:118
fill
See made ground
fineness 3:118
fingerite (Cu 11 O 2 (VO 4 ) 6 ) 3:589t
Finland 3:363t
fire
Carboniferous 4:209
earthquake effects 5:325
fireclay 1:366-367
Firth of Forth 2:472
fischesserite3:119^
fish 2:462-468
acanthodians 2:465
agnathan diversity 2:462
anaspids 2:458, 2:462
biodiversity 2:464f
Carboniferous 4:212
coelacanth fishes 1:274f9 1:276-278,

2:466
Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368f, 3:369f
3:381, 3:382f
Devonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196
early development 2:462
Eocene 5:469
Haikouichthys 1:351
jawed fish 2:462
conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448
evolutionary relationships 2:460f
galeaspids 2:458
origins 2:455
ostracoderms
Cephalaspis utabensis 2:458f
decline 2:459
Eriptychius 2:457
Ordovician 2:457
reconstruction drawings 2:456f
Silurian 2:457
2:459
Jurassic 3:358
lungfishes 2:467
Onychodontiformes 2:467
osteichthyans 2:466
osteolepiforms 2:467
osteostracans 2:462
Palaeocene 5:463
placoderms 2:465, 2:465f
seamounts 4:482
sharks 2:229f, 2:463
Silurian 4:191
teeth 2:462
teleosteans 2:466/", 2:466-467
tetrapodomorphs 2:469
thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462
Triassic 3:350
Fish Canyon Tuff, Colorado, United States
3:246
fission track analysis 1:43-53
age determination 1:47, I:48f9 1:49f
alpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:52f
applications 1:52
etch pits 1:46, 1:47'f
fossil partial annealing zone 1:45, l:46f
Helium Partial Retention Zone 1:50-51
spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f, 1:45f

thermal history modelling 1:49, L-50/",
l:51f
track-in-cleavage l:45f, 1:49

track-in-track 1:45f, 1:49
Fitton, William Henry 3:62
fjords 4:670, 4:672f
flaser bedding 4:599
fleas 2:297f, 2:300t
Flemish Cap 4:100, 4:101f
flies (Diptera) 2:297/", 2:300t, 5:469
flint
conchoidal fractures 4:384f
nodules 4:385
occurrence 5:35-36
terminology 3:570
Flinton Group 3:155-156, 3:158f, 3:160
floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564f
flood basalts
See basalts
floods
catastrophic floods 4:628-641
causal mechanisms
drainage area 4:63 Of
glacial melt 4:628-629, 4:631f
jokulhlaups. See jokulhlaups
landslides 4:632
rainfall 4:628
snow dams 4:629
snowfall 4:628
spatial/temporal factors 4:63Of
vegetative debris 4:629
definition 4:628
geomorphic impacts
channel morphology 4:636f
ice blocks 4:638f
kettle holes 4:63^
stream power 4:635f
hydrographs 4:634f
impact controls 4:640
turbulent flows 4:634f
Flood Geology
Biblical geology 1:254, 3:170, 3:176
creationism 1:382, 1:384
Smith, William 2:224-225
hazard analysis
frequency 1:517t
mortality rates 1:517t
656
INDEX
floods (continued]
sediment fluxes 5:22, 5:23f
See also fluvial geomorphology
Flora 5:221t, 5:222f
Florida-Bahamas shelf region 4:93f, 4:505,
4:505f, 4:506f
Florida platform 4:100, 4:96f
Florida, United States 3:128, 4:92,
5:460-461
flowering plants
See angiosperms
fluellite 5:126
fluid inclusions
analytical techniques
bulk methods 2:259
microthermometry 2:259
optical methods 2:259
point methods 2:259
applications
as tools in exploration 2:260
gemology 2:260, 2:260f
as geobarometer 2:255, 2:257, 2:2S8f
as geothermometer 2:255, 2:257,
2:258f
nuclear waste repositories 2:260
pitfalls 2:256
aqueous and gaseous inclusions 2:258,
2:258, 2:258f
characteristics
host material 2:254
phases 2:254
daughter minerals 2:255, 2:255f
double bubble inclusion 2:255f
immiscible assemblages 2:256f
crystallization conditions 2:257, 2:257f
definition 2:253
diagenetic quantification 5:146, 5:147f
genetic classification 2:254, 2:254f
halite (NaCl) 5:97
melt inclusions 2:258
recrystallization effects 2:256, 2:257f
fluorine (F)
apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 5:120-128
carbonatites 3:221*, 3:221-222
kimberlites 3:254
3:312f
carbonatites 3:223*
fluorite 3:221*, 3:222
hydrogen fluoride (HF) l:200t
niobium-yttrium-fluorine (NYF)
pegmatites 3:639, 3:640f
1:200*
fluorspar l:438t
flutes 4:676, 4:677f
fluvial geomorphology 4:650-663

abrasion analysis 4:655f
braided river systems 4:656/", 4:657f,
4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139f
channel networks 4:65Of
channel patterns 4:656, 4:656fy 4:657f,
4:658f, 4:659f
deserts 4:541f, 4:542
downstream fining 4:655f
drainage basins 4:657, 4:660f
flood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660f
flood frequency 4:653-654, 4:654f
floodplain classification 4:658t, 4:658f
grain size analysis 4:654, 4:655f
landforms 4:654
material transfer process 4:651, 4:651*,
4:652f, 4:653f
meandering river systems 3:90/j 4:656f,
4:657f, 4:659f
network development
eustatic cycles 4:660-661, 4:662f
models 4:661f
time factors 4:659
sediment transport 4:653f, 4:654f
solute transfer 4:65It
straight river systems 4:656/j 4:659f
fluviokarst 4:682
flying reptiles 2:508-516
pterosaurs 2:508
affinities 2:513
Anhanguera 2:515
body hair 2:511, 2:511 f
Dimorphodon 2:509, 2:511,
2:513-514
Eudimorphodon 2:510, 2:513-514,
2:515
integument 2:511
Istiodactylus 2:510
locomotion 2:515
origins 2:513
palaeobiology 2:514
phylogeny 2:513, 2:S13f
Preondactylus 2:513-514
Pteraichnus 2:515-516
Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515
pterodactyloids
azhdarchoids 2:514
body hair 2:51 If
ctenochasmatoids 2:514
dsungaripteroids 2:514
life restoration 2:509f
lonchodectids 2:514
ornithocheiroids 2:510f, 2:514,
2:514f
soft tissue 2:512f
wing membranes 2:511f
wing skeleton 2:51 Of

Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:511 f,
2:515
Quetzalcoatlus 2:509-510
Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513, 2:514,
2:515
skeletal material 2:510, 2:51 Of,
2:511f
soft tissue 2:511, 2:512f

Flynn Creek impact event 4:199
flysch 4:485
Fogo Seamounts 4:94
folding 5:339-351
bending 5:347
box folds 5:345f
buckle folds
anisotropic materials 5:340f, 5:344,
5:345f
buckle folds 5:340
interface buckling 5:340f, 5:341f
multilayer buckling 5.-340/", 5:343,
5:343f, 5:344f, 5:346f
single layer buckling 5:340f, 5:341,
5:342f, 5:343f
wavelength/thickness ratio 5:341,
5:343f
definitions 5:339
ductile deformation 5:339, 5:348
experimental research 5:344, 5:346f
fault-bend folds 5:348, 5:349f
flow folding 5:348, 5:349f, 5:350f
forced folds 5:347, 5:347f
fractures 5:348, 5:349, 5:350f, 5:351f
geometric features 5:339, 5:339f, 5:340f
mechanisms 5:346f
plains-type folding 4:32, 4:34*, 4:35f
rock properties 5:348, 5:350f
salt domes 5:348, 5:349f
strain analysis 5:349, 5:351f
strike-slip faulting 5:347-348, 5:348f
three-dimensional (3D) geometry 5:346,
5:347jf
foliation, definition of 3:390t
Folk's classification system 3.-527/J 4:645f
foraminifera 3:448-453
allogromids 3:45Of
ammodiscana 3:45If
astrorhizana 3:45If
astrorhizata 3:45If
astrorhizids 3:45Of
5:462, 5:468, 5:470
buliminids 3:450f
classification 3:449, 3:45Of
3:378, 3:378f
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:646*,
5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
Eocene 5:468
favusellids 3:450f
fusulinids 3:45Of
INDEX 657
foraminifera (continued)
globigerinids 3:45Of
hormosinana 3:45If
involuntinids 3:45Of
Jurassic 3:356
lagenids 3:45Of
lagynana 3:45If
lituolids 3:450f
loftusiids 3:45Of
miliolana 3:45If
miliolata 3:45If
miliolids 3:45Of
nodosariana 3:45If
nodosariata 3:45If
Palaeocene 5:462
Permian 4:216
rank 3:449
robertinids 3:45Of
rotaliana 3:45If
rotaliata 3:45If
rotaliids 3:450f
shell morphology 3:451f, 3:452f
silicoloculinids 3:45Of
spirillinana 3:451f
spirillinata 3:45If
spirillinids 3:450f
textulariana 3:45If
textulariids 3:45Of
fore-arc basins
accretionary wedges 5:307, 5:308f,
5:311 f, 5:313f
Andes Mountains
central Andes 1:125, 1:126
southern Andes 1:127
seamounts 4:482, 4:483f
forensic geology 2:261-273
evidence
analytical techniques 2:262, 2:265t
burnt-out car 2:264-f
evidence persistence 2:266
primary transfer modification 2:268
secondary transfer 2:268
trace evidence 2:262f, 2:263f
human remains 2:270, 2:272f
isotope analysis 2:271
Locard exchange principle 2:261
location identification 2:268, 2:269/",
2.-270/", 2:271f
reference sample comparisons
exotic particles 2:267/", 2:268f, 2:270,
2:272f
house brick 2:266f
sample properties 2:265t
soil-stained boot 2:266/", 2:267f
fornacite (CuPb2[(Cr,As,P)O4]2OH) 3:533t
forsterite
See olivine
Forth Metamorphic Complex l:246f
Fort Worth Basin 4:67, 4:68f
Fossa Magna 3:297
fossil fuels
See natural gas; oil; petroleum geology
Fossil Konservat-Lagerstatten 2:274-275
fossils
ammonites 2:396-407
aptychi 2:398, 2:399f
architecture 2:396
3:379, 3:380f
growth stages 2:399
habitat 2:404, 2:406f
2:403f, 2:405f
Jurassic 3:309, 3:352, 3:357
longevity 2:399
3:375f
migration 2:404
organism reconstruction 2:402,
2:403f
2:400f
poise 2:402, 2:403f
predators 2:404
septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401
stability 2:403f
sutures 2:398, 2:399f, 2:401
amphibians
Cenozoic 2:523-526
2:525f
assemblages 2:523
caecilians 2:525
frogs 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525f
2:524f
2:523
Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:521/", 2:523
caecilians 2:521f, 2:522
frogs 2:521, 2:521f
Karaurus sharovi 2:521f

Mesozoic 2:516-523
albanerpetontids 2:521f, 2:523
frogs 2:521f
Jurassic 2:520
Lissamphibia 2:521
salamanders 2:521f^ 2:522
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f9
2:518f
temnospondyls 2:517
temnospondyls
Jurassic 2:520
Rhytidosteroidea 2:517
Siderops kehli 2:519f
2:518f
Tertiary 2:523
angiosperms
2:423-424
Cretaceous clays 2:418, 2:422
origins 2:420, 2:422f
Palmoxylon 2:420f
pollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424 f,
2:426f
658 INDEX
fossils (continued)
Parana oeningensis 2:420f
Quercus 2:420f
water lily 2:425f
Archaeopteris hibernica 2:445
amber 2:274-275, 2:275f
chitin 2:274-275
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Devonian 4:196
ecdysis 2:275
fossil record 2:276
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
biodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:29 6f,
2:298f
Carboniferous 1:204-206,
2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:210-211
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299/,
4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
geological history 2:296, 2:300*
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:298f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
taxonomy 2:2951
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
3:350
morphology 2:274
applications 3:462
Cretaceous 3:460f9 3:461
ecology 3:457, 3:460f
habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461
life cycle 3:457

morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,
3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,
3:45 8f, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa. See Podocopa
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f,
3:462f, 4:191
Tertiary 3:461
relevance 2:279
reproduction 2:278
respiration 2:277
trace fossils 2:279
background information 4:156-159
biodiversity 1:260
biodiversity curves
causes 1:265
diversity changes 1:261, 1:262
measurement methods
ancient species 1:260f
disparity 1:259
diversity 1:259
marine fauna 1:260, l:260f
types 1:259
Phanerozoic
marine change l:260f, 1:262, l:264f
Precambrian 1:261
biozones 1:294-305
biochronozones 1:304, l:304f
5:301f, 5:302f
l:296f
Eocene 5:467f
l:304f
Oppel, Albert 1:295
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
zone types
acme zone 1:302, 1:303f
assemblage zone 1:301, l:301f

concurrent range zone 1:297,1:298f
1:296, 1:297f
Oppel zone 1:299, 1:299f
range zones 1:296
black shales
paper pectens 4:497
affinities 2:303
black shales 4:497
Cambrian 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification 2:303, 2:304*, 2:305f
Craniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,
2:306f
Devonian 4:194
ecology 2:303
Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182
Jurassic 3:356
life styles 2:307f
Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302f,
2:304*, 2:306f
morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,
2:304*, 2:305f
Ordovician 4:179
origins 2:303
Permian 4:216
2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f, 2:309f
Silurian l:173f, l:177f, 4:185-186
stratigraphic distribution 2:306/,
2:309, 2:309f
stratigraphic ranges 2:304*
trace fossils 4:158, 4:158f
Triassic 3:349/", 3:350
classification
Anomalodesmata 2:376*
Cryptodonts 2:376*
Heterodonta 2:376*
Palaeoheterodonta 2:376*
Palaeotaxodonta 2:376*
Pteriomorphia 2:376*
subclasses 2:376*
INDEX 659
fossils (continued)
ecology
swimming bivalves 2:373-374,
2:377-378
Inoceramus 4:3 84f
Jurassic 3:356-357
life habits 4:141f
morphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375f
palaeoautecology 4:140, 4:141 f
palaeosynecology 4:146f,
4:146-147
predation 4.-145/", 4:145-146,
4:161f
predations 4.-145/", 4:145-146
shell morphology
dentition 2:374f
growth bands 2:370f, 2:37If
hinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376t
musculature 2:371, 2:373f, 2:376t
affinities 2:303
Craniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,
2:306f
Devonian 4:194
ecology 2:303
Jurassic 3:356
life styles 2:307f
Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,
2:306f
morphology 2:301, 2:301*; 2:302f,
2:304*, 2:305f
origins 2:303
2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f, 2:309f
Silurian 1:173f, 1:177f, 4:185-186
stratigraphic distribution 2:306f,
2:309, 2:309^
stratigraphic ranges 2:304t
anatomy 2:310, 2:31 If

classification
Cheilostomes l:274f, 2:315, 2:315*,
2:316f, 2:319f
Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f,
2:318, 2:319f
Ctenostomes 2:315, 2:315*, 2:319f
Cyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Cystoporates 2:315*, 2:317/", 2:318,
2:319 f
Fenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Phylactolaemata 2:314-315,
2:315*, 2:319f
Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317,
2:317f, 2:319f
Trepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,
2:319 f

colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f,
2:313 f
Cretaceous l:272f, 1:274*; 1:274-276
3:379
evolution 1:274 f
Jurassic l:274f, 1:274-276, 3:356
morphology 2:315*
occurrence 2:318
palaeoecology 2:320
polymorphism 2:313
1:271 f
radiations 1:272 f
reproduction 2:312
skeletons 2:314
carbonate sedimentation 3:524*", 3:529
Cayeuxia 2:435f
halimedales 2:432
coccolithophorales 2:430, 2:431f
England 4:382, 4:383f
Palaeocene 2:433*; 5:462

reef environments 2:243, 2:244,
2:428, 2:429f
Polystrata 2:430f
classification
Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f, 2:394f
Coleoidea 2:392
Endoceratids 2:392
Nautiloidea 2:391, 2:391 f
Orthoceratids 2:392
Devonian 4:194
condition 4:157
conservation techniques 1:373-381
documentation 1:381
preventive conservation
collection surveys 1:376, 1:376f
environmental conditions 1:375
environmental monitoring 1:375,
1:3 76 f
handling procedures 1:374
importance 1:374
integrated pest management 1:376
lighting effects 1:375
mould 1:376
packaging materials 1:374
reduced oxygen environments
1:377, l:377f
relative humidity 1:375, l:380f
storage 1:374
temperature controls 1:375
remedial conservation
adhesives 1:379
chemical surface cleaning 1:378
consolidants 1:379
gap fillers 1:379
mechanical surface cleaning 1:377
Moabirdl:376/"
sensitive geological material
pyrite(FeS 2 ) l:377f, 1:381
subfossilized bones 1:380, l:380f
surface cleaning
abrasive cleaning methods 1:377
laser cleaning 1:378, 1:378f
steam cleaning 1:378
660
INDEX
fossils (continued)
ultrasonic cleaning 1:378
corals (Cnidarians) 2:321-334
Carboniferous 4:212
3:379, 3:380f
Devonian 4:198
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
Eocene 5:469
Jurassic 3:356
life cycle 2:322f
Miocene 5:482
Ordovician4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
palaeoecology 2:329, 2:331 f
Permian 4:216
Phanerozoic 2:323
Rugosa
anatomy 2:326f
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
Scleractinia
anatomy 2:326f
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
reef-forming corals 2:331 f
stratigraphic ranges 2:325'f
structure 2:327
symbioses 4:146
Tabulata
ecology 2:330, 2:331f
taxonomy 2:327
Crinoidea
anatomy 2:342
ecology 2:348
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
evolutionary history
2:347f, 2:377
Jurassic 3:358
morphology
Aethocrinus moorei 2:346,
2:346f
arms 2:343/", 2:344, 2:345f
calyx 2:343/, 2:344

2:343f
taphonomy 2:348
taxonomy
Camerata 2:344-345, 2-347f
Cladida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Disparida 2:344-345, 2:347f
Flexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347f
crustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f, 1:278,
3:357
Darwin, Charles 2:184-187, 3:180
definition 4:156
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,
3:358-359
3:381, 3:382f
diagnostic characteristics 2:490,
2:491f, 2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
origins 2:492
Ornithischia
Thyreophora 2:493
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Reptilia 2:490
Saurischia
Triassic 2:492, 2:493/", 3:350, 3:3Slf
disarticulation 4:157
echinoderms. See echinoderms
end-Permian extinctions 4:221, 4:221 f
evolution
radiations
abiotic causes 1:273, l:273f
Cretaceous 1:273 f
evolutionary novelties
1:274, 1:274 f

Jurassic 1:273 f
morphological evolution 1:274f,
1:276, 1:276 f
Palaeocene 1:273 f
taxic evolution I:274f9 1:276,
1:2 76 f
triggers 1:269-270
speciation
definition 1:266
fossil record 1:267
phyletic gradualism 1:267, l:268f,
1:269 f9 1:27 Of
Prunum comforme 1:269f
punctuated equilibrium 1:268,
l:268f,l:271f
fake fossils 2:169-173
amber 2:172
chimera 2:170-171
creationism 2:172
embellishments 2:171, 2:17If
forgery identification 2:169, 2:169f,
2:173
hoaxes
PiltdownMan2:170
fish 2:462-468
acanthodians 2:465
anaspids 2:458, 2:462
biodiversity 2:464f
Carboniferous 4:212
coelacanth fishes l:274f, 1:276-278,
2:466
3:381, 3:382f
Devonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196
Eocene 5:469
Haikouichthys 1:351
jawed fish 2:462
Astraspis 2:457, 2:457f
Cephalaspis utahensis 2:45 8f
conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448
Eriptychius 2:457
galeaspids 2:458
Ordovician 2:457
origins 2:455
ostracoderms 2:457, 2:459
2:459
INDEX 661
fossils (continued)
Silurian 2:457
Thelodus macintoshi 2:459f
Jurassic 3:358
lungfishes 2:467
osteichthyans 2:466
osteostracans 2:462
Palaeocene 5:463
seamounts 4:482
sharks 2:229/", 2:463
Silurian 4:191
teeth 2:462
teleosteans 2:466f, 2:466-467
thelodonts 2:459, 2.-459/J 2:462
Triassic 3:350
fossil fuels 4:159
fossil meteorites 5:235
fossil plants 2:436-443
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
2:440-441
2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
lichens
hyphae 2:441-442
Nematophytes 2:441
Rhynie chert 2:441-442
symbiotic relationships 2:441
palaeopathology 4:160
fossil record
evolutionary theory 2:163
pollen 2:420-422
gastropods (Gastropoda) 2:378-388
anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 f
Bellerophontida 2:381f, 2:385, 2:387
characteristics
anatomy 2:378
ontogeny 2:379, 2:386f
shell morphology 2:379f
classification 2:383, 2:385f, 2:386f
Eocene 5:469
evolution
Cenozoic 2:387
freshwater gastropods 2:387

Mesozoic 2:387
origins 2:385
Palaeozoic 2:386
terrestrial gastropods 2:387
Jurassic 3:357
Mimospirina 2:381f, 2:385
occurrence 2:378
Opisthobranchia 2:383-384, 2:385
Ordovician 4:179
Orthogastropoda
Archaeogastropoda 2:384
Caenogastropoda 2:384-385
Heterobranchia 2:385
Neritimorpha 2:384
Palaeocene 5:463
Patellogastropoda 2:380-381, 2:384
predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161f
predations 4:145f, 4:145-146
Prosobranchia 2:383-384
pteropods 4:646;, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75t
Pulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385
shell
coiling direction 2:380, 2:381,
2:382f, 2:384f
colour patterns 2:379/i 2:380,
2:383f
heterostrophic shells 2:382f
homeostrophic shells 2:382f
muscle scars 2:383
operculum 2:380
protoconch stage 2:380, 2:382f
teleoconch stage 2:380, 2:382f
symbioses 4:146
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:357-367
Climacograptus 2:361f, 2:365-366
Dendroidea 2:361, 2:362f
Dictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f,
2:3 64f
evolutionary history 2:357, 2:358f,
2:365, 2:365f
graptoloids 2:3 60f, 2:363f
living colony hypothesis 2:364/", 2:365
Monograptus
rhabdosomes 2:361, 2:361f
speciation 2:366, 2:366f
structure 2:361-362, 2:363f
transverse section 2:361 f
morphology 2:358f
occurrence 2:363
Parakidograptus acuminatus 4:185
periderm structure
bandaging 2:361 f
Kozlowski's classic interpretation
2:3 60f
layered structure 2:360f
transverse section 2:361f
ultrastructure 2:359
preservation 2:363, 2:363/", 2:364f
Pseudoclimacograptus 2:364f, 2:365
Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363f
rhabdosomes 2:361
sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359f
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f
stolon system
dendroids 2:357, 2:359f
graptoloids 2:360f
tuboids 2:357, 2:360f
stratigraphic use 2:366
synrhabdosomes 2:361
thecae 2:358f
gymnosperms 2:443-454
Araucaria mirabilis 2:45Of
Araucarioxylon 2:448f
Archaeopteris hibernica 2:445f
conifer phylogeny 2:448f
Ginkgo gardneri 2:452f
Glossopteris 2:45If
major groups
Bennettitales 2:453/", 2:453
Coniferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451f
Cordaitales 2:449
Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452f
Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451f
Gnetales 2:453
Peltaspermales 2:452
Pentoxylales 2:452
Voltziales 2:449
Metasequoia 2:45If
origins 2:445
Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:45If
Sagenopteris phillipsi 2:452f
Zamites gigas 2:453f
hominids 2:541-545
early hominids 2:541, 2:542f
Homo erectus 2:542, 2:543f
662
INDEX
fossils (continued)
Homo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543f
Homo neanderthalensis 2:542, 2:544f
Homo sapiens 2:543
human understanding 4:158
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
biodiversity 1:263, 1:263f, 2:296f,
2:298f
Carboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,
2:299f, 4:210-211
classification 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300t
Cretaceous 3:368, 3:369^
3:381, 3:381f
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299f,
4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:29S/r
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
taxonomy 2:295?
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
3:350
Lagerstatten 3:307-315
concentration deposits
stratiform deposits 3:307
traps 3:308
conservation deposits
anoxia 3:311
bacteria 3:311
decay experiments 3:309, 3:309f
geographic locations 3:310t
obrution 3:310, 3:31 If
preservation importance 3:308
scavengers 3:309
soupy substrates 3:310
stagnation 3:311
taphonomy 3:308
traps 3:309
definitions 3:307
soft tissue mineralisation
apatite 3:312, 3:312f
calcium carbonate 3:313
clay minerals 3:313
Leancholia 3:313f
nodules 3:313, 3:314f
Notelops3:312f
Offacolus kingi 3:314f

pyrite 3:312, 3:313f
silica 3:313
temporal trends 3:313
Lystrosaurus 4:227, 4:227f
macroevolution
mammals 2:527-534
3:381, 3:382f
diversifications 2:532
evolutionary features
brain size 2:530
diphyodont dental replacement
2:531
inner ear cochlea 2:530
jaw hinges 2:528
mammaliaforms 2:S28f
middle ear 2:528
hominids 2:541-545
marsupials 2:528f, 2:533
monotremes 2:528f, 2:533
placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
microevolution
phyletic gradualism 2:164f,
2:164-165
punctuated equilibrium l:271f, 2:164,
2:164f
2:164f
microfossils
applications 3:427
Cambrian 4:169f
clusters 3:420
flanges 3:419f, 3:420
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 f
occurrence 3:418
3:426, 3:426f, 3:427f
palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469/
preservation 3:419
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f
wall types 3:420

Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369^
biodiversity 1:261
biofilms 1:283, l:283f
biosignatures 1:285, 1:2851
applications 3:434
Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
intervesicle adjustments 3:429,
3:430f
Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:43 If,
3:435f
Margachitina 3:434
morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,
3:436f
palynology 3:468
Prosomatifera 3:430
Pterochitina 3:434
Silurian 4:191
structure 3:428
Coccolithophoridae
chalk 4:556, 5:42, 5:43/i 5:44,
5:45/",5:112
3:378, 3:378f
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f,
5:74, 5:74/i 5:75*
Jurassic 3:356
Oligocene 5:476
conodonts 3:440-448
anatomy 3:441, 3:441f, 3:442f
architecture 3:443/", 3:446
Belodellida 3:446
cladogram 3:445f
Clydagnathus 3:442f
evolution 3:447
morphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443/",
3:444f
INDEX 663
fossils (continued)
Paraconodonta 3:447
preservation 3:441
Prioniodinida 3:446
Promissum 3:44If
Silurian 4:185-186
as thermal maturation
index 3:448
diatoms
5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*
Oligocene 5:476
dinoflagellates
3:378, 3:378f
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:462
algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359f
carbonaceous compression 4:357,
4:358,4:360
early animals 4:360
Ediacaran 4:362-363
heterotrophy 4:360
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4.-361/",
4:3 62 f
Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:3 56f,
4:357
Neoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:358
Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes
4:356f, 4:357
tree of life 1:203f, 4:365f
filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367'f,
4:368
allogromids 3:45Of
ammodiscana 3:45If
astrorhizana 3:45If
astrorhizata 3:45If
astrorhizids 3:45Of
(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
buliminids 3:45Of

3:378, 3:378f
5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f9 5:75t
Eocene 5:468
favusellids 3:450f
fusulinids 3:45Of
hormosinana 3:45If
Jurassic 3:356
lagenids 3:45Of
lagynana 3:45If
lituolids 3:450f
loftusiids 3:45Of
miliolana 3:451f
miliolata 3:45If
miliolids 3:450f
nodosariana 3:45If
nodosariata 3:45If
Palaeocene 5:462
Permian 4:216
rank 3:449
robertinids 3:45Of
rotaliana 3:45If
rotaliata 3:45If
rotaliids 3:45Of
shell morphology 3:451 f, 3:452f
spirillinana 3:451f
spirillinata 3:451f
spirillinids 3:45Of
textulariana 3:45If
textulariids 3:45Of
geographic distribution l:280f, 1:282
geological research (1900-1962)
3:189
microbial effects
precipitation processes 1:284,
l:284t
4:223-224, 4:377
micropalaeontological techniques
3:470-475
nannofossils 3:471, 3:472f
oldest microfossils 1:291, 1:292f
applications 3:462
ecology 3:457, 3:460f

habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461
life cycle 3:457
morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,
3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457,
3:45 8f, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:454f,
3:457, 3:457f, 3:459f, 3:460f
Quaternary 3.-460/J 3:462
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f9 3:461f,
3:462/, 4:191
Tertiary 3:461
palynology 3:464-469
acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
carbonization studies 3:469, 3:469f
climate variability 3:465
coal seams 3:468-469
3:189
interglacial pollen assemblages
3:467f
Knoxisporites stephanephorus
3:464f
peat deposits 3:468-469
pollen 3:473
pre-Quaternary palynology 3:468
Quaternary 3:464
spores 3:473
vegetation reconstructions 3:466f
prokaryotes 4:363-370
biochemical evidence 4:365
biogenicity criteria 4:369
filamentous microbes 4:367f, 4:368
fossil evidence 4:352
origins 4:3 64f
silicified microbiotas 4:367f, 4:368
stromatolites 4:367, 4:367f
sulphate-reducing bacteria 4:366
tree of life 4:3 65f
radiolarians
allopatric-speciation 2:163
biogenic silica 4:500, 5:52
3:378, 3:378f
5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:464
phyletic gradualism 1:27Of
664
INDEX
fossils (continued]
significance 1:282
stromatolites
Archaean stromatolites. See
Archaean; stromatolites
biosediments 1:285
formation processes 1:287f, l:288t
4:223-224
reef environments 3:524f, 4:565
tree of life l:203f, 1:279, l:280f,
4:124, 4:125f, 4:365f
3:470-475
extraction methods
acid-insoluble microfossils 3:472
acritarchs 3:473
calcareous microfossils 3:471
calcareous nannofossils 3:471,
3:472f
conodonts 3:472
diatoms 3:473
foraminifera 3:471
organic microfossils 3:473
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:471
pollen 3:473
radiolarians 3:473
siliceous microfossils 3:473
spores 3:473
sampling procedures 3:470
separation/concentration methods
flotation 3:474
magnetic separation 3:474
sieving 3:474
specimen selection 3:475
Miocene 5:483
molluscs 2:367-369. See also
ammonites; bivalves (Bivalvia);
cephalopods; gastropods
(Gastropoda)
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Jurassic 3:356
life habits 4:141-142
morphology 2:367
palaeoautecology 4:141-142
reproduction 2:368
shell morphology 2:367
Ordovician index fossils 4:176
palaeoautecology
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141 f
4:143 f
molluscs 4:141-142
palaeosols 5:206, S:206f
palaeosynecology
competition 4:144
predation 4:145, 4:145f
symbioses 4:146
Pangaea 4:227, 4:227f
Permian 4:216
anatomy 2:408, 2:409f
Cambrian 2:408-417, 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification
Archaeocyatha 2:408,
2:416, 2:416f
Calcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414f
chaetetids 2:413, 2:416f
Demospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412f
Heteractinida 2:408, 2:413, 2:415f
Hexactinellida 2:408,2:411,2:413f,
2:414f
Sclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413,
2:415f, 2:416f
stromatoporoids 2:413, 2:415f
3:379, 3:380f
hypercalcified sponges 2:412
Jurassic 3:356
megascleres 2:408, 2:410f
microscleres 2:408, 2:411 f
spicules 2:408, 2:41 Of, 2:41 If, 5:57f
structural grades 2:409f
preservation 4:157
reptiles (Reptilia) 2:479-490
amniotes 2:479, 2:480f
archosauromorphs
crocodiles 2:485
rhynchosaurs 2:484-485
Sphenosuchidae 2:485
3:381, 3:382f
diapsids
mosasaurs 2:483
snakes 2:483
Sphenodon 2:483
Squamata 2:483
Younginiforms 2:483
eureptiles
protorothyridids 2:481
Askeptosaurus 2:504
Augustasaurus 2:506
axial swimmers 2:503
Clarazia 2:504
Corosaurus 2:506
3:380, 3:381f
Cyamodus 2:506
Dakosaurus 2:504
Dermochelys 2:505f
Dyrosaurus 2:504
Geosaurus 2:504
Globidens 2:505
Henodus 2:506
Heschelaria 2:504
Hyposaurus 2:504
Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2.-503/",
3:358,3:380
Jurassic 3:358, 3:3S8f
Keichousaurus 2:506
Lariosaurus 2:506
locomotion mechanisms
2:502-503
mesosaurs 2:249, 2:479
Mesosaurus 2:503f
Metriorhynchus 2:504
Mosasauroidea 2:504f, 2:504-505
Mosasaurus 2:504-505
Neusticosaurus 2:506
nothosaurs 2:484
Nothosaurus 2:506
occurrences 2:502
Ophthalmosaurus 2:503-504
Paraplacodus 2:506
paraxial swimmers 2:505, 2:505f
Pistosaurus 2:506
Placodontia 2:484, 2:506
Placodus 2:506
Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:5 07f,
3:358
Plesiosaurus 2:506
Pliosaurus 2:506
Psephoderma 2:506
Rhomaleosaurus 2:507f
Sauropterygia 2:484, 2:506
Simosaurus 2:506
Steneosaurus 2:504
Stenopterygius 2:503f, 2:503-504
Styxosaurus 2:506
Teleorhinus 2:504
Thalassiodracon 2:506
Thalattosauria 2:504
Thalattosuchia 2:504
Trinacromerum 2:506-507
Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505
INDEX 665
fossils (continued)
mesosaurs 2:479
parareptiles
millerettids 2:479-481
pareiasaurs 2:479-481
procolophonids 2:479-481,
2:480f
testudines 2:481
synapsids
2:485
Eothyrididae 2:485
Mesozoic 2:527
Ophiacodontidae 2:487
Sphenacodontia 2:488
Varanopidae 2:486, 2:487f
therapsids 2:489
sandstones 5:27
stratigraphic principle 2:221
tetrapods 1:263, l:263f, l:264f
brachiopods 4:158, 4:158f
burrowing structures 5:520-521,
5:521/, 5:522f
chalk 5:44, 5:47f
Cnidarians 2:324
environmental indicators
endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529/",
5:53 Of
ichnofabric indices 5:531, 5:531f
ichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528f
infaunal ecospace 5:529
palaeo-oxygenation 5:531
ethology
agrichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
behaviour variations 5:526f
cubichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
domichnia 5:524, 5:525/~, 5:526f
electron acceptors 5:527f
ethological classification 5:525f
fodinichnia 5:524, 5:525f
fugichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
pascichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
praedichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
repichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
ichnofabric 5:520-532
endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:52 9/",
5:53 Of
ichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, S:S28f
ichnotaxons 5:521, 5:522f
microbial structures 5:52If
predepositional/postdepositional trace
fossils 5:523f, 5:524
primary trace fossils 5:524
producer identification 5:521, 5:522f
pseudofossils 4:382
secondary trace fossils 5:523f, 5:524
taxonomy 5:521, 5:522f
Treptichnus pedum 4:164, 5:303-304
Vendian 4:373, 4:374, 4:377-378
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:281-295
activities
digging 2:288
swimming 2:288, 2:290f
walking 2:288
anatomical features 2:286, 2:287f,
2:290f
biostratigraphy 2:294, 2:294f
Cambrian
biogeographical distribution
4:173 f
stratigraphic correlation 4:167'f,
4:169 f
cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f,
2:284f
classification
Agnostida 2:29It
Asaphida 2:29It
Corynexochida 2:291t
Lichida 2:291*
major orders 2:292f
Phacopida 2:291*
Proetida 2:291*
Ptychopariida 2:291*
Redlichiida 2:291*
Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 f
ecdysis 2:286-287
enrolled trilobite 2:282f
exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f9 2:282f,
2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292f
extinction 2:281, 2:293
growth stages 2:286, 2:288f, 2:289f
limbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288
morphology 2:281
Mucronaspis 4:1SO~1S1
Ordovician 4:176-177, 4:179,
4:181f
palaeoautecology 4:142
pygidium 2:282f, 2:283, 2:284f
relevance 2:279, 2:288
Rochester Shale, New York 4:189
Silurian 4:185
thorax 2:282f, 2:283
visual systems 2:283, 2:285f, 2:286f,
2:290f
Foundation Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*
Fouque, Ferdinand 3:184

Fourier's law 3:411-412
fractures 5:352-361
definition 3:390*, 5:352
fluid pressure effects
fluid-induced failure 5:356, 5:357^
fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f
folding 5:348, 5:349, 5:350f, 5:351f
formation mechanisms 5:354f
Griffith criterion of tensile fracture
5:354-355, 5:355f
Mohr stress circle 5:353f, 5:355f,
5:356, 5:357/
Navier-Coulomb criterion 5:353
occurrence criteria 5:356
shear fractures 5:352, 5:352f, 5:354f
tensile fractures 5:354, 5:355f
fracture analysis 5:360
fracture networks 5:359, 5:359f
fracture sets 5:358
plumose structures 5:361
rock properties 1:572, l:573f
scale 5:360, S:360f
strain analysis 5:334, 5:335f, 5:336f,
5:349, 5:351f
stress analysis 5:334, 5:334f, 5:335f,
5:338f
surface features 5:361, 5:361 f
tensile fractures
formation mechanisms 5:354, 5:355f
fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f,
5:358f
polygonal arrays 5:358f
See also faulting processes
framestone 3:527f, 4:562f, 4:562-563,
4:568f, 4:569f
France
Campanian-Maastrichtian 3:372
Carboniferous 4:201, 4:202f
Cretaceous 3:361
Jurassic 3:352, 3:352*
marine reptiles 2:502
meteorites 5:280
Pleistocene 5:493
Silurian 4:193
wine geology 3:82
francevillite((Ba,Pb)(U0 2 )(V0 4 )2-5H 2 0)
3:589t
Franciscan Complex, California
1:243-244
francolite 5:99
Franz Josef Land 2:53, 3:344
666
INDEX
Frasnian stage
biodiversity 4:199f
extinction events 4:196, 4:197f9 4:198
fish 2:467, 4:196
Gondwana3.-:Z3S/; 3:139
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
French Guiana 1:311
Friasian stage 5:479, S:479f
frogs
Cenozoic
2:524f
Mesozoic 2:521, 2:521f
Frontenac terrane 3:158f, 3:159f
Froude number 5:548-549
Fuller's earth 1:366-367
fumaroles 3:107, 3:628, 3:634
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
Basidiomycetes 2:437-438, 2:440-441
Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437,
2:438f, 2:439f
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
Furcacauda 2:464f
Furnas volcano, Azores 5:575
Furongian series 5:511 f, 5:517f
fusain 4:134, 4:209
fusulinids 3:450/i 4:216
fuzzy logic analysis 4:428-429, 4:429f
G
gabbros 2:98, 3:237*, 3:550
gadolinium (Gd) 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:242f
concept definition 3:1
criticisms 3:2
influence 3:5
Lovelock, James 3:1
criticisms 3:4
definition 3:4
four components 3:3
molecular biology 3:1
Nisbet's Essay 3:4
superorganism concept 3:2
gainesite (Na 2 Zr2(Be(PO 4 )4)) 5:121-122
Gakkel Ridge 4:456, 4:464f, 4:472f, 4:479,
5:384
Galapagos Marine Iguana 2:505
Galapagos Ridge
heat flux 5:3 63f
hydrothermal vents 5:388, 5:388f
3:316t
propagating rifts 5:397f, 5:397-398
seamounts 4:4771
Galapagos Spreading Center 5:411f,
5:411-412, 5:416f
Galaxaura 2:434
galeaspids 2:458
galena (PbS)
carbonatites 3:221t
crystal structure 3:575*, 3:576f
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630*, 5:394*
occurrence 3:585t
Galeras, Colombia 5:575
Galice-Brittany Ocean 2:80-82, 2:82f
Galicia-Brittany Massif 2:80-82
Galilee Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
Gallileo spacecraft 5:27Of
gallium (Ga) 3:223*, 5:114t
gallobeaudanite 3:508f
Galvinian stage 5:473f
gamagarite(Ba2(Fe,Mn)(VO4)2(OH)) 3:559*
Gamburtsev Mountains, Antarctica 1:132,
1:133 f
Ganderia 4:83f
Gander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
Ganges River 4:65It, 5:19t
gangue minerals 3:630
Ganly, Patrick 3:184
Ganymede 5:284, 5:284t
Gaptank formation, Ouachita Mountains
4:63-65, 4:70
Garden of Ediacara 4:379
Garleton Hills 2:96f
garnets
geographic distribution 3:7*
granites 3:235*, 3:240-241, 3:241f
industrial minerals 3:496
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256*, 3:257f
3:400*; 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405
mineral analysis l:108t, 1:117f
staurolite 3:563
thermodynamic diagram 3:562f

5:534-535, 5:535^
garronite 3:593*
garyansellite 5:125-126
gas chromatography
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
4:252, 4:254/
kerogen classification 4:278, 4:279f
oil 4:250, 4:253f
Gascoyne Margin 3:315f, 3:316*
gas hydrates 4:261-268
accretionary wedges 5:312, 5:314f
bottom-simulating reflection 4:263,
4:264f, 4:266
continental margins 4:647
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 3:38:
distribution 4:263
as energy source 4:264
gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) 4:262
4:262/, 5:313, 5:314f
as a geohazard 4:266
occurrence 4:262f
palaeoclimate 4:266
petroleum reservoirs 4:237*, 4:243
stability diagram 4:262f
structure 4:261 f
GASP
See Geotechnical Area Studies
Programme (GASP), Hong Kong
anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 f
characteristics
anatomy 2:378
shell morphology 2:379*"
Eocene 5:469
evolution
Cenozoic 2:387
Mesozoic 2:387
origins 2:385
Palaeozoic 2:386
Jurassic 3:357
Mimospirina 2:381f9 2:385
occurrence 2:378
Ordovician 4:179
Orthogastropoda
Neritimorpha 2:384
Palaeocene 5:463
INDEX 667
gastropods (Gastropoda) (continued]

predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 f
pteropods 4:646?, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75t
Pulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385
shell
coiling direction 2:380, 2:381, 2:382/",
2:384f
colour patterns 2:379f, 2:380, 2:383f
homeostrophic shells 2:3 82 f
muscle scars 2:383
operculum 2:380
symbioses 4:146
Gault, Donald 3:195
Gauss, K. 3:333-334
1:239 f
Geber 3:500
gedrite 3:504-505
Geer, Gerard Jacob de 3:62
Gegenschein 5:227
Gehlingia 4:376, 4:378f
Geikie, Archibald 2:214, 3:179
Gelasian stage (upper Pliocene) 5:487,
5:487?, 5.-506/; 5:517/
gelisols5:196?
gemology
fluid inclusions 2:260, 2:260f
gemstones 3:6-13
alluvial deposits
eluvial deposits 3:7, 3:10f, 3:603t
mining methods 3:7, 3:9/, 3:10f
panning 3:8, 3:8f
rubies 3:8
ruby deposits 3:9
sapphires 3:8
tracer gems 3:8
diamonds
Canadian Shield 4:11 f, 4:8-9
carbonatites 3:222
geochemical exploration 3:22,
3:23f, 3:24f
kimberlites 3:247-260, 3:492,
4:8-9, 4:11 f, 4:473
Russia 4:473
South-east Asia 1.-178/", 1:196
rocks 5:533/", 5:534f9
5:536-537

garnets
granites 3:235?, 3:240-241
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257f
metamorphic facies 3:398/", 3:399f,
3:400f, 3:401f, 3:404, 3:405
mineral analysis 1:108?, 1:117f
mineral deposit formation 3:496
3:562f
staurolite 3:563
rocks 5:534-535, 5:535f
igneous rocks
pegmatites 3:11, 3:1 If
metamorphic rocks
emeralds 3:12
rubies 3:12
sapphires 3:12
obsidian 3:271, 3:275f
production analysis 3:6
sedimentary rocks 3:13
South-east Asia 1:196
zircon 3:601-608
aeolian placers 3:603?, 3:604
analyses 3:604, 3:605, 3:606
beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f9
3:605f
chemical composition 3:601, 3:602?
gem-quality stones 3:602, 3:603f
hafnium (Hf) 3:601
mining processes 3:604, 3:607f
3:607f9 3:607-608
occurrence 3:602
optical properties 3:602, 3:602?
overgrowths 3:608, 3:608f
placer classification 3:603?
properties 3:601, 3:601?
structure 3.-601/, 3:601
uses 3:604
world production 3:604, 3:606?,
3:606f
xenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f
varietal names 3:500
general circulation models 4:131, 4:135
Genesis Rock (Moon) 5:268
genetics
Darwin, Charles 2:161
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 2:161,
2:16.2f
Hox genes 2:166
macroevolution 2:165
Mendel, Gregor 2:161

microevolution 2:163
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 2:161
geoarchaeology 3:14-21
aerial photography 3:16
archaeomaterial geochemistry 3:17,
3:18 f
archaeoseismology 3:16
ceramic petrology 3:19, 3:20f
characterisation studies 3:17
Dead Sea Rift 1:33
geochronology 3:20
geomorphological studies 3:14, 3:15f
geophysical techniques 1:49It, 3:16,
3:17.f
lithic petrology 3:19

magnetic susceptibility 3:16
metal production 3:18, 3:19f
mineralogical studies 3:18, 3:2Of
palynology 3:16
pottery analyses 3:18f9 3:19, 3:20f
site formation processes 3:14
soils and sediments 3:14
stable isotope analyses 3:18, 3:19f
stratigraphic principles 3:14
geochemical analysis 1:54-76
archaeomaterials 3:17, 3:18f
accuracy analysis 1:55f
analytical protocols 1:55
calibration techniques 1:54f
data production 1:54
detection limits 1:55
precision analysis 1:55f
chromatographic techniques
gas chromatography 1:56?, 1:65?,
1:69, l:69f, 1:7Of
ion chromatography 1:56?, 1:68?,
1:69,l:70.f
liquid chromatography 1:68?
technique description 1:56?, 1:68?
electron microprobe analysis 1:56?, 1:76,
1:110
environmental restoration
2:23, 2:24?
trace elements
abundance 2:22?
occurrence 2:21
toxicity 2:22?
hydrogeology 3:618?
mass spectroscopy
gas chromatography-mass
spectroscopy 1:72, 1:72?, 1:73 f,
4:252, 4:254f
668
INDEX
geochemical analysis (continued)

inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectroscopy 1:72, l:72t
isotope-dilution mass spectroscopy
l:56t, 1:71
schematic diagram 1:7If
technique description l:56t, l:72t
thermal ionization mass spectroscopy
l:72t
miscellaneous techniques 1:56t, 1:76
soi\s3:618t
spectroscopic techniques
atomic absorption spectroscopy 1:56t,
1:64, 1:651, 1:66 f
atomic emission spectroscopy 1:56t,
1:64,l:65t
inductively coupled plasma-atomic
emission spectroscopy 1:5 6t,
1:64, 1:651, 1:67f
infrared spectroscopy l:65t, 1:66
technique description 1:5 6t9 l:65t
ultraviolet spectroscopy 1:5 6t, 1:66
thermal techniques
evolved water analysis 1:56t, 1:73,
l:74t
fluid inclusion microthermometry
1:5 6t, 1:75
pyrolysis l:56t, 1:73, l:74t, l:75f
thermogravimetry 1:5 6t, 1:73, 1:7 4t
vegetation 3:618t
water (H 2 O) 3:618t
X-ray techniques
bremsstrahlung 1:57, 1:59 f
electromagnetic spectrum 1:59f
electron-shell emission 1:57, 1:59f,
l:60f
X-ray diffraction
components 1:62 f
diffraction output data l:63f, 1:64f
diffraction process 1:62f
glauconite identification 3:545
technique description 1:56t, 1:58t
X-ray fluorescence
mineral analysis l:109t, 1:114
schematic diagram 1:61 f
technique description 1:56t, 1:58t
X-ray generation process I:59f9 1:109
X-ray spectrometry
energy-dispersive technology 1:111,
lilllf
wavelength-dispersive technology
1:110, l:110f
X-ray theory 1:57
diamond exploration 3:22, 3:23f, 3:24f
environmental geochemical mapping
3:28f

sulphide minerals 3:21, 3:26f
geochronology 1:77-91
absolute dating techniques
applications 1:90, 1:90 f
methodology 1:90
dendrochronology 1:8 8t, 1:91
historical background 1:78, l:82t
radiometric dating
applications 1:87
isotopic properties l:88t
methodology 1:87
age determination
absolute ages 1:77
astronomical calendars 1:77, l:78f,
l:81t
geological time-scale 1:77, 1:81 f
relative ages 1:77
historical background
absolute ages 1:78, l:82t
1:82-83, l:83f
geomagnetic polarity time-scale l:81f,
l:S2-S3,l:83f
relative ages 1:78
relative dating techniques
biostratigraphy
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
chemostratigraphy
applications l:86f, 1:87
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
magnetostratigraphy
apparent polar wander paths 1:85f^
4:153, 4:153f
applications 1:84, 1:86 f
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
See also stratigraphy
geodurability classification chart 1:578f
4:420-431
applications
earthquakes 4:427
environmental quality 4:424
exploration tools 4:424, 4:425f
field mapping 4:423, 4:424f
geohazards 4:424
landslides 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428t
natural resources 4:424
volcanism 4:426
basic principles
database design and quality 4:422
georeferencing 4:422
spatial data representations 4:421,
4:422f
visualisation process 4:422, 4:423f
Internet applications 4:429
software products 4:430, 4:430t
spatial analysis tools
individual layers 4:427
multicriteria evaluation 4:427, 4:428t
multiple layers 4:427, 4:428f
uncertainty analysis 4:427, 4:429f
geohazards 1:515-524
anthropogenic hazards
ground subsidence 1:519f, l:520f
groundwater 1:519
soil loss 1:519
urbanization l:522f
world population growth l:521f
definitions 1:516
disaster equation l:516f
engineering geomorphology 1:474-481
floods. See floods
gas hydrates 4:266
4:424
hazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, l:522f,
1:523 f
Atlantic Margin 4:94 f, 4:94-95
creep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691 f
5:576t, 5:576f
debris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690f
earthflows 4:690
earthquakes 3:93f
1:476-478, 1:477f
(GIS) 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428t
hazard analysis
earthquakes 5:327
frequency 1:517t
hazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523f
mortality rates 1:5111, l:518t,
4:688
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,
5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f
lidar topography 3:93f
INDEX 669
geohazards (continued)
Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691 f
mud flows 4:689
occurrence 4:687
rockfalls 4:689f, 4:689
Tadzhikistan l:518f
talus 4:689
topples 4:689
volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576t, 5:576f
natural hazards
hazard frequency 1:517t
mortality rates 1:517t, l:518t
risk assessment 1:519, l:523t, 3:103
volcanism 3:328, 4:426, 5:572, 5:573,
5:576*
geoid 1:92, 1:95, 1:97f
geological conservation 3:29-35
Earth heritage conservation 3:29
geodiversity
geotourism 3:30
importance 3:30
public awareness 3:34
soils 3:31
palaeontological techniques 1:373-381
documentation 1:381
preventive conservation
collection surveys 1:376, 1:37'6f
environmental monitoring 1:375,
1:3 76 f
handling procedures 1:374
importance 1:374
integrated pest management 1:376
lighting effects 1:375
mould 1:376
packaging materials 1:374
reduced oxygen environments
1:377, 1:377f
relative humidity 1:375, l:380f
storage 1:374
temperature controls 1:375
remedial conservation
adhesives 1:379
chemical surface cleaning 1:378
consolidants 1:379
gap fillers 1:379
mechanical surface cleaning 1:377
Moabirdl:376/"
sensitive geological material

pyrite(FeS 2 ) 1:377f, 1:381
subfossilized bones 1:380, l:380f
surface cleaning
abrasive cleaning methods 1:377
laser cleaning 1:378, l:378f
steam cleaning 1:378
ultrasonic cleaning 1:378
resource management 2:29
site management
site assessment 3:31
site management techniques 3:33
sustainable management 3:33
geological maps
applications 3:59
basic principles 3:53-59
cross-sections 3:53
geological histories 3:59
importance 3:53
map scale 3:53
quantitative assessments
cross-sections 3:56-57
structure contours 3:57
trigonometric calculations 3:56f
visual assessment
fault traces 3:56f
outcropping formations 3:54f
topographic contours 3:55f
valley contours 3:55f
colonial surveys 1:372
1:463-474
applications l:469t
data collection 1:469
data content 1:467, l:468t
desk study (preliminary sources) 1:472
earthquakes
earthquake effects l:460t
geological profiles 1:460, 1:4611
1:460, l:462t
purpose 1:460
trench logging 1:460, l:462t
field mapping 1:472
hazard mapping 1:467
large-scale engineering geology map
1:466 f
map legend information 1:464t,
l:466f,l:470t
map presentation 1:472
map scale l:467t, 1:468
three-dimensional models I:472f9
1:473
written reports 1:472
zoning maps 1:467-468

3:27, 3:28f
field mapping 3:43-52
air photographs 1:372, 3:44
base maps 3:44
boundaries 3:50, 3:51f
clothing 3:47
equipment
compass/clinometer 3:45, 3:46f
field notebook 3:45
hammer and chisel 3:45
hand lens 3:45
map board/case 3:45
mapping pens 3:45
miscellaneous equipment 3:46
pencils 3:45
exposures 3:50, 3:51f
field evidence 3:49f, 3:50
field notebook 3:49/j 3:50
formation contacts 3:49f, 3:50
(CIS) 4:423, 4:424f
health/safety issues 3:47
mapping process 3:49f9 3:50, 3:5If
mapping symbols 3:47, 3:48f
preliminary reconnaissance methods
3:47
superficial deposits 3:52
geological surveys 3:70
l:480f
hazard mapping 1:467, 1:519, l:522f,
1:523f
map scale l:467t, 1:468, 3:70
mid-ocean ridges 5:373, 5:373f
military geology 3:483, 3:483f9 3:484f,
3:485f, 3:486f
Smith, William 1:463, 2:221, 2:223,
3:39, 3:74, 3:173, 5:297
surficial deposits 3:92f
See also Geographical Information
Systems (CIS)
geological research
See history of geology
geological societies 3:60-64
Geophilists 3:60-61
Irish geological societies 3:63-64
nineteenth century geological societies
3:62
Geological Society of America
2:195,3:64
Geological Society of Australia 3:64
Geological Society of India 3:64
Geological Society of London
founding event 3:60-61
function 3:61
historical background 3:61, 3:73-74,
3:476
Lyell, Charles 2:208
professional organizations 3:75, 3:77t
Sedgwick, Adam 2:216
670
INDEX
Geological Society of London (continued)

Smith, William 2:222-223, 3:173-174
women members 3:61
Geological Society of South Africa 2:190,
3:64
Geological Survey of Canada 3:68
Geological Survey of Great Britain 1:370,
1:373
Geological Survey of the Union of South
Africa 2:190
geological surveys 3:65-72
associations 3:72
Australian Geological Survey 3:68
British Geological Survey 3:67
colonial surveys 1:370-373
Directorate of Colonial Geological
Surveys 1:370, 1:371
Directorate of Overseas Geological
Surveys 1:373
geological maps 1:372
Geological Survey of Great Britain
1:370, 1:373
1:371
overseas geology 1:370
De la Beche, H. T. 3:179
funding 3:72
geological mapping process 3:70
Geological Survey of Canada 3:68
Geological Survey of the Union of South
Africa 2:190
German Geological Survey 3:68
government relationships 3:70
Hall, James, Jr. 2:194-200
historical background 3:69, 3:179
Murchison, Roderick 2:214, 3:476
primary activities 3:65
resources 3:72
size 3:70, 3:71t
Societe Geologique de France 2:183
survey types
federal geological surveys 3:66t, 3:67
national geological surveys 3:66,
3:66t,3:71t, 3:179
state geological surveys 3:67, 3:7It
United Kingdom 3:69, 3:173, 3:476
United States Geological Survey (USGS)
3:67, 3:69, 4:332
See also field mapping; geological maps
geological time-scale 5:503-520
1:82-83,l:83f
boundaries 1:8 If
construction steps
5:517f

scaling concepts 5:516f
sedimentary cycles 5:516
time-scale choices 5:515
data interpolation 5:519
as geochronological tool 1:77
geological time 5:503
l:83f, 3:331
Points (GSSPs) 5:504, 5:506^
human time 5:503
statistics 5:519
Stratigraphic correlation 5:503
geology as a profession 3:73-78
academic education 3:74
disciplinary specialties 3:74
employment areas
academia 3:75
government 3:75
industry 3:75-76
learned societies 3:60, 3:75
professional organizations
3:75, 3:77*
professional qualification system
academic qualifications 3:73f
codes of ethics 3:73/", 3:76
continuing education 3:73f
experience 3:73f
standards 3:76
websites 3:77?
regulations and licensing 3:78
catastrophic floods
channel morphology 4:636f
ice blocks 4:638f
kettle holes 4:638f
stream power 4:635f
definition 3:90
applications 1:474
investigation methods
1:480 f
geomorphological models 1:481
historical records 1:476, 1:4 76/j
1:477f
measurement techniques 1:477'f,
1:478
terrain analysis 1:478, 1:478f,
l:479t
physical systems 1:474, 1:475f

4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139f
channel patterns 4:656, 4:656f,
4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659f
deserts 4:541f, 4:542
flood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660f
floodplain classification
4:658t, 4:658f
flood plains 3:90f, 3:91f
landforms 4:654
material transfer process 4:651,
4:65It, 4:65 2f, 4:653f
meandering river systems 3:90/j
4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659f
network development
models 4:661f
time factors 4:659
petroleum reservoirs 4:23 51
straight river systems 4:656f, 4:659f
glacial deposits 3:94
tectonic terrains 3:93f, 3:94, 3:94f
See also landslides
classical mythology 3:96, 3:97
controversies 3:99
examples
dinosaurs 3:98
earthquakes 3:97-98
flooding 3:98-99
fossils 3:98
landforms 3:99
toxic gases 3:97
volcanism 3:97-98
modern scientific contributions 3:97
oral traditions 3:99
Geophilists 3:60-61
geophysical techniques
engineering geophysics 1:482-499
applications
bedrock depth studies 1:488, l:491t,
' 1:493 f
buried objects I:491t9 1:497, l:498f
containment structures l:491t,
1:495f, 1:496
electromagnetic profiling 1:498f
foundation design 1:489, 1:4911,
1:494 f
INDEX 671
geophysical techniques (continued)

ground penetrating radar 1:488,
1:491*, 1:493'/", 1:498 f
hazard identification 1:491*, 1:493,
1:495 f
military applications 1:495-496,
l:496f
non-destructive testing 1:49It,
1:496, l:497t
pavement studies 1:488, 1:491*,
1:493 f
pipeline investigations 1:490,
1:491*, l:494f
transport infrastructure 1:487,
1:491*, l:492f, 1:493f
methodology
analytical techniques 1:482, l:483t
data processing and interpretation
1:483, l:484f, 1:485f
modeling techniques 1:482, 1:485f,
l:486f
target properties 1:482-483, l:483t
three-dimensional (3D) imaging
techniques 1:484, l:486f
survey design
aliasing l:488f
cost-benefit analysis 1:49If
detection distance plots 1:487f
feasibility studies 1:489f, 1:490f
sampling intervals 1:488f
two-dimensional (2D) modeling
techniques 1:486, 1:489 f,
1:490 f
exploration geophysics 3:190
geoarchaeology 1:491*, 3:16, 3:17f
karst landscapes 1:491*, 1:493, 1:495f
military geology 1:495-496, 1:496f
mining geology 1:491*, 3:617, 3:619*,
3:620f
petroleum exploration 4:296
sandl:490f9l:494f
site investigations 1:590
soils 1:490, 1:49 It
stratigraphy 1:49 It
See also seismology
Georges Bank 4:101 f, 4:93, 4:93f,
4:94f, 4:96f, 4:98-100,
4:103, 4:103f
Georgia 4:471
georgiaites 5:445f
Georgia, United States 4:72, 4:73f, 4:7 Sf,
5:444, 5:445*
Geosaurus 2:504
Geosiphon pyriforme 2:441-442
geosol 5:203
geosphere
feedback mechanisms 1:431
fluxes 1:431, 1:433 f
Gaia hypothesis 1:432
solar radiation 1:431,
l:432f, 1:433 f
geostrophic cycle 2:201, 2:202 f,

5:296-297, 5:542, 5:544, 5:547
geostrophic flow 4:581, 4:582f
geosynclines 3:192-193
Geotechnical Area Studies Programme
(GASP), Hong Kong 1:463, 1:464*,
1:469
geotechnical engineering 3:100-105
basic research areas
foundations 3:103
ground improvement 3:103
3:103
components 3:101, 3:1 01 f
definition 3:100
ground investigation 3:103
hydrogeology 3:104
professional registration 3:38-39
risk analysis 3:103
rock mechanics 3:101, 3:102*
soil mechanics 1:445, 3:101, 3:103*,
3:104*, 5:184-193, 5:558
geothermal systems
energy exploitation
cascading geothermal power
utilization process 3:lllf
liquid-dominated geothermal field
3:lllf
power installation 3:11 Of
soffioni 3:110, 3:110f
temperature requirements 3:109*"
water temperature variations 3:110f
worldwide utilization rates 3:112*
nonvolcanic-related processes
Bath, England 3:1 13*, 3:113f, 3:114
commercial applications 3:116
doublet system 3:114f
geochemical analysis 3:113*
geothermal utilization 3:115f
heat output 3:1 13*
Paris Basin 3:114f9 3:115, 3:1 15 f
seafloor activity 3:115
spas/thermal baths 3:113f, 3:116,
3:116f
volcanic-related processes
bioherms3:109
fumaroles 3:107
geysers 3:107, 3:107f, 3:108f
hot- water waterfall 3:106f
mofettes 3:107
sinter 3: 108
solfataras 3:107
stromatolites 3:109
travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f
Geotrichites glaesarius 2:439 f
gerhardtite (Cu 2 NO 3 (OH) 3 ) 3:556*
German Geological Survey 3:68
Germany
beer brewing process 3:79, 3:80, 3:80*
Devonian 4: 194
gemstones 3:7*, 3:13
gold (Au) 3:123
Holocene2:148
Jurassic 3:352*
marine reptiles 2:502, 2:503f
Oligocene 5:472
pterosaurs 2:513-514
tektites 5:444-445, 5:445*, 5:445f
Triassic 3:344
wine geology 3:82, 3:83f
Gerrothorax rhaeticus 2:5 19 f
gersdorffite ((Ni,Co,Fe)AsS) 3:575*
Gesner, Conrad 5:295
geysers 3:105-117
chert 5:59
East African Rift 1:29 f
ecology 3:105
energy exploitation
utilization process 3:111 f
3:111f
power installation 3:1 10 f

temperature requirements 3:109f
water temperature variations 3:110f
geothermal systems 3:105
mineral deposits 3:628, 3:634
nonvolcanic-related processes 3:114
occurrence 3:105
volcanic-related processes 3:106, 3:107,
3:1 07f, 3:108f
Ghana 5:443-444
Ghazalat Basin 3:129, 3:137f
Gibraltar 2:97, 2:125-126, 3:147, 4:95,
5:481,5:486
Gigantocypris 3:453
Gilbert, Grove K. 2:196, 3:62, 3:181-182,
3:195
Ginkgo biloba 2:451-452
Ginkgo gardneri 2:4 52f
ginorite (Ca^Cbs-SÔ) 3:513*
gismondine 3:593*
Givetian stage
extinction events 4:197 'f
Points (GSSPs) 5:51 If
impact events 4: 199-200
5:517 f
marine environments 4:197 f

palaeoclimate 4:196, 4:19 6f
672
INDEX
Givetian stage (continued)

vegetation 4:195
glaciation
Agassiz, Louis 1:430, 2:176, 2:177f,
2:209,3:181,4:663,5:493
amphibians 2:526
Antarctica 1:139
Arabia 1:151
carbon cycle 1:341, l:342f, l:343f
Carboniferous l:226f, 1:234, 4:207,
4:208f
China 1:351
Devonian 4:197, 4:199f, 4:208f
Flood Geology 1:254
Gaia hypothesis 3:4
3:189-190
glacial deposits
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 4:642f
4:27, 4:28f
quick clays 1:562, 1:563f
South-east Asia 1:172-174, l:178f,
1:182
till
kimberlite indicator minerals 3:23
mineral dispersion 3:21-22, 3:22/",
3:23
problematic soils 1:562
rudaceous rocks 5:139
terminology 4:675
glacial/interglacial periods
aeolian systems 4:626, 4:626f
carbon cycle 1:341, l:342f, l:343f
Eemian interglacial stage 5:506f
Gondwana 3:129
Gunz stage 5:493
Mindel stage 5:493
Ordovician 3:129
Riss stage 5:493
Wurm stage 5:493
glacial isostatic adjustment 2:151 f, 5:427
glaciers 4:663-678
Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663t, 4:664,
4:664t, 4:664f, 4:665f
catastrophic floods 4:628-629, 4:631f

characteristics
deformation mechanisms 4:667,
4:667f
glacier flow 4:667, 4:667f
mass balance 4:665, 4:666f
morphology 4:664
regelation 4:667, 4:668f
thermal regime 4:666, 4:666f
cirque glacier 4:664
debris entrainment 4:671, 4:673f
deposition
braided river systems 4:676
drumlins 4:676
eskers 4:677, 4:677f
flutes 4:676, 4:677f
glacigenic sediments 4:134, 4:675,
4:675f
ice-marginal landforms 4:676
kames 3:95/", 4:676
moraines 3:94/", 4:676, 4:677f
processes 4:671, 4:674f
subglacial landforms 4:676, 4:677f
surficial deposits 3:94
erosion
aretes 4:670, 4:672f
cirques 4:670, 4:672f
fjords 4:670, 4:672f
horns 4:670, 4:672f
icebergs 4:670-671
landforms 4:668, 4:670f, 4:671f
microchannels 4:668-669, 4:670f
processes 4:668
roches moutonnees 4:669-670,
4:671f
striations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671f
tunnel valleys 4:670-671
global distribution 4:663, 4:663t,
4:664f
Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663t, 4:664,
4:664t, 4:664f
ice caps 4:665f
ice sheets 4:664, 5:473-474
Oligocene 5:476-477
sea-level effects 4:664t
valley glacier 4:664, 4:666f
Ice Age 5:493-499
Last Glacial Maximum 1:140, 4:626f,
4:646
Little Ice Age 2:148, 2:148f9 2:153-154,
2:159t
Mars 5:279
Miocene 5:482
Mississippian 4:208f
Murchison, Roderick 2:215
North Africa 1:18
Oligocene 5:473-474, 5:475,
5:476_477
Pennsylvanian 4:208f
Permian 4:208f, 4:216
Pleistocene 2:526, 4:131, 4:663
Pliocene 5:487t, 5:489
solar radiation 5:215
supercontinents 4:14f
Vendian 4:372
Wegener, Alfred 2:251
Younger Dryas event 2:147, 2:152,
2:159t
glaciokarst 4:682, 4:682f
Glarus thrust fault 2:130, 2:130f, 2:131f,
2:241, 2:241f
glass 3:570
Glass Mountain, California, United States
3:270, 3:274f
glaucochroite 3:558
glauconite 3:542-548
chemical indicators 3:543-544, 3:547
composition 3:542, 3:542t
condensed sections 3:547
ferric illite 3:548
formation
appearance 3:543/", 3:545f
glauconitization 3:543
verdinization 3:544, 3:545f
ironstones 5:99
sandstones 5:27, 5:69
spatial distribution 3:546
transgressive sediments 3:546, 3:547
X-ray diffraction identification
techniques 3:545
glaucophane 3:397, 3:398f, 3:404,
3:505-506
gleization 5:195, 5:196f, 5:198f, 5:204
Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:210f
Glenelg Zone, Australia 1:242-243, 1:246f
glimmerites 3:253
Glires 2:539
Points (GSSPs)
Cambrian chronostratigraphy 4:164
Carboniferous 4:201
Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:466
Eocene 5:466
geological time-scale 5:504, 5:506f
Jurassic 3:352, 3:352;
Palaeocene 5:460
5:460
Triassic chronostratigraphy 3:345
global tectonics 2:233, 2:238, 5:426
global warming/cooling
carbon cycle 1:340
Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE) 5:466,
5:467^, 5:470, S:470f
3:383
Devonian 4:197, 4:198
INDEX 673
global warming/cooling (continued]

end-Permian extinctions 4:222, 4:223f
Jurassic 3:354
mid-Pliocene warming 5:4#7?, 5:489
Oligocene 5:473
Palaeocene 5:464
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
Globidens 2:505
Globorotalia bononiensis 5:487
Globorotalia crassaformis 5:486-487
Globorotalia margaritae 5:486-487
Globorotalia menardii 5:77
Globorotalia puncticulata 5:486-487
Globorotalia sphericomiozea 5:486
Globorotalia tumida 5:486
Glossopteris
Carboniferous 4:205
Gondwana 2:451f, 3:128, 3:142, 4:205
Permian 2:451 f, 3:142, 4:217, 4:218f
Triassic 2:451f
gmelinite 3:593?
gnathostomes 2:455
gneiss
4:10f,4:13f,4:15f, 4:350
definition 3:387, 3:388t
geotechnical properties I:545t9 3:102t
Lewisian Gneiss Complex 4:11
3:607f, 3:607-608
Gnetales 2:453
gobbinsite 3:593?
Gobi-Tianshan Belt 1:355
goethite (Fe2O3-H2O)
gleyed soils 5:195, 5:198f
hydrothermal ore deposits S:394t
ironstones 5:98-99
Liesegang banding 4:382, 4:383f
physical properties 4:149>?
Golconda allochthon 4:52
gold (Au) 3:118-127
applications 3:118
assaying techniques 3:126
carats 3:118
carbonatites 3:223?
cyanide heap leaching 3:123, 3:125,
3:12Sf
economic aspects 3:126
fineness 3:118
geochemistry 3:118
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?,
3:635/i 5:394?
mining processes
amalgamation 3:123
hard-rock mining 3:123
placer mining 3:123
natural occurrences 3:118, 3:120f,
3:553, 3:553?
4:33
5:114t
ore bodies
Archaean gold-quartz conglomerates
(palaeoplacers) 3:121, 3:121f
by-product gold 3:123, 3:492-493
Carlin-type gold 3:122
epithermal gold 3:122, 3:122f
Fiji 4:120
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:119,
3:119f, 3:120f9 3:630?, 3:635f
Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea
1:441-442, l:442f, 4:112
orogenic lode gold 3:122
ore processing 3:124
Russia 4:456, 4:472/", 4:473
troy ounce 3:118
Goldich weathering system 5:583f
Goldschmidt, Victor 3:187
Goma, Congo 5:575?
Gonatodus 2:466-467
Gondwana 3:128-154
Antarctic Peninsula I:133f9 I:134f9
1:137
East Antarctic Shield 1:132, 1:135,
1:136
Eastern Antarctic Shield 1:132
Ellsworth Mountains, Antarctica
1:132, I:133f9 I:134f9 1:136
glaciation 1:139
Gondwana disintegration 1:138,
l:138f
Marie Byrd Land I:133f9sdsl:134f,
1:137
meteorites 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236,
5:23 6f, 5:23 7f
palaeoclimate 1:139
Suess, Eduard 2:238, 2:240^
supercontinents 1:132, 1:133 f
Thurston Island I:133f9sdsl:134f,
1:137
Transantarctic Mountains
Reason Supergrooup 1:135
mafic sills l:136f
Ross Orogeny 1:135
Theron Mountains l:136f
volcanism 1:139
West Antarctica
rift system I:134f9 1:139
Appalachians 4:72
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:148
Brazil 1:306-328
cratons
Amazon craton 1:311, 1:311 f,
l:312f
major shields l:238f, l:306f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:310 f9
l:312f
Aracuai orogenic event 1:313 f9
1:315
Araguaia orogenic belt I:314f9
1:319
Borborema strike-slip system
I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323
Brasilia orogenic belt I:314f9 1:320
Mantiqueira orogenic system
I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315
Paraguay orogenic belt I:314f9
1:320
suture zones 1:312f
I:314f9 1:319
1:323 f
Amazonas basin 1:316f9 1:317f
Campos basin 1:321 f, l:322f
Ceara basin 1:325f
continental margin basins 1:316f9
1:325
eastern Brazilian margin basins
l:321f,l:322f, 1:325
equatorial margin basins 1:324f,
1:325f, 1:326, l:326f
Espirito Santo basin 1:321 f9 1:322f
interior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327f
l:319f
Palaeozoic sag basins 1:316f9
I : 3 1 7 f 9 l : 3 1 8 f , 1:324
Parana basin 1:314, I:316fsadI:317f9
I:318f9 I:319f9 I:320f9 1:324
Parnaiba basin I:316fasa1:317f,
1:318 f
Potiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f,
1:327f
674
INDEX
Gondwana (continued]
Santos basin 1:321 f, l:322f
Solimoes basin l:316f, l:317f,
l:318f
stratigraphy 1:317f
tectonic processes 1:306, l:306f,
1:307f, l:308f
thermotectonic events 1:308t
breakup events 1:245, 1:249f
Cambrian
3:133f,4:170f
terranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f
Carboniferous
glaciation 4:208f
Namurian stage 3:139, 3:141f
l:182f, l:184f, 3:140f, 3:141f
2:101f
terranes 3:130f
Cenozoic
3:154
terranes l:172f, 3:131f
3:439
continental stability 1:135
cratons 1:238f, l:306f
Cretaceous
geological evolution 1:18It,,,1:187
mid-Cretaceous 3:147
l:188f,3:153f,3:362f
terranes I:170f9 l:172f, 1:175f
definition 4:225
Devonian
black shales 3:129
Devonian, early 3:129
Devonian, late 3:129
geological evolution 1:178, l:181t
l:182f, 2:78, 2:79, 3:137f9 3:138f
sharks 2:463-465
terranes I:170f9 1:171, I:172f9asdfl:175f,
3:130f
DuToit, Alexander 2:190
Eocene
geological evolution l:181t

I:188f9l:190f
terranes 3:13 If
fades 3:128, 3.-133/; 3:139
Gondwana breakup event 1:138, 1:1 38f,
3:292
l:170f
4:80f
Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16f, 2:102,
4:225
Ho\ocene3:131f
definition 3:289
Gondwana breakup event 3:292
Jurassic
geological evolution 1:18It, 1:186
Indian Sub-Continent 3:292?
Jurassic, early 3:147
Jurassic, end 3:147
I:188f,3:151f93:152f
terranes I:170f9aal:172f, l:175f, 3:131f
Laurussia
Mesozoic 3:129-139
Permian 3:139, 3:142
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:97
mafic sills 1:136f
mantle convection 3:142, 3:143f
Mesozoic 3:13If
Miocene
l:192f, 1:193 f
terranes 3:13If
Neoproterozoic 1:1, l:2f, 3:130f,
4:352-354, 4:353^
New Zealand 4:1-7
Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:89
Oligocene
1:191 f, 1:193 f
Ordovician
glacial/interglacial periods 3:129
glaciation 4:180
Ordovician, early 2:78, 3:128
Ordovician, late 2:78, 3:129
3:134f,3:135f,4:WL
Parana basin l:319f, l:320f
terranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f
palaeoclimate 4:136
Cambrian 4:83f
Carboniferous l:184f
Devonian 1:182f
Ordovician 4:155f9 4:155-156
Tasman Orogenic Belt l:248f,
1:249 f
Palaeo-Pacific margin 1:135
Pan-African orogeny
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, I:2f9asdl:3f,
I:4f9 1:5 f
belt distribution 1:2f
DamaraBelt I:2f9 1:7
Gariep Belt I:2f9 1:8
Kaoko Belt I:2f9 1:9
LufilianArcl:2/;i:7, 1:S/"
Madagascar 1:6, I:6f9 1:7f
Mozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,
l:7f
Rokelide Belt I:2f9 1:10
Saldania Belt I:2f9 1:8
Trans-Saharan Belt I:2f9 1:9,asl:10f
West Congo Belt I:2f9 1:9
Zambezi Belt 1:2/; 1:7, l:8f
Parana basin I:319f9 l:320f
Permian
coal 3:142, 3:145f
early Permian 1:182, l:184f
geological evolution I:181t9 1:182
late Permian 1:182, 1:184f
I:184f93:144f93:146f
Permian, early 3:142
Permian, late 3:142
2:101f
terranes 1.-J70/; 1:2 72/j
1:175 f93:130f
2:96-97
Phanerozoic 1:1, 1:222, 1:306, l:308f
Pliocene 1:193 f
Rodimal:174f
sharks 2:463-465
Silurian
early Silurian 3:129
3:129, 4:191f9 4:192, 4:192f
terranes I:173f93:130f
supercontinents 4:14/, 5:177-178
INDEX 675
Gondwana (continued)
Delamerian Orogeny 1:239 f, 1:240,
l:240t, l:241f, 1:245, 1:248f
fault traces 1:243f, 1:245f, 1:246f
geochronology 1:244 f
geological map 1:238f, l:239f, 1:241 f,
l:244f, 1:245 f
Orogeny
lithofacies 1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243 f
mafic rocks 1:243f
magmatism 1:244, 1:247f, 1:249 f
New England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240?,
1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250
ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247
orogenic events 1:240t
l:248f, 1:249 f
Proterozoic l:223f, l:224f, 1:225-226
Ross Orogeny 1:245
subprovinces l:240t
tectonic evolution
1:250
1:248 f, 1:249
1:248 f9 1:249, 1:249 f
volcanism 1:250
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240?,
1:241 f, 1:242
turbidites 1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243-244
tectonic processes 1:222, 2:82f, 2:83f
terranes
boundaries 5:457f
Devonian 5:458f
3:130f
rifting and separation events
Carboniferous-Permian events
1:175
Jurassic 1:175
timeframes 1:17 5 f
Triassic 1:175
Tertiary l:170f, l:1
Triassic
flora 3:349f
geological evolution 1:181?, 1:184
late Triassic l:184f
l:184f, 3:148f9 3:149f, 3.-150/,
3:346
terranes 1:17Of, I:172f9 I:175f9 3:131f

Triassic, early 3:147
Triassic, late 3:147
Triassic, middle 3:147
See also Australia
Gondwana-Cathaysia Divide 1:169, l:170f
goniatites 4:212, 4:220
gonnardite 3:593?
Goochland terrane 3:157f
Goodnews terrane 4:40 f, 4:46-47
goosecreekite 3:593?
Gorda Ridge 5:399f
Gordon, R. 5:266?
Gorgonosteus 2:466
gormanite 5:125-126
Gorstian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f9 4:189,
5:511f95:517f
Gosses Bluff impact structure, Australia
3:279f, 3:363?
Gothian orogeny 2:41-44
Gotland Basin 2:156f
Gotland, Sweden 4:187f
gottardiite 3:593?
goudeyite 3:508f
Gould, Stephen]. 1:278, 3:2
gowerite (CaB6O10-5H2O) 3:513?
Grabau, Amadeus 2:243, 3:188, 5:542
graben
A\ps2:126f
3:653
definition 3:351
East African Rift 1:27, 1:2 7f
lake basins 4:558, 4:S60f
mid-ocean ridges 5:384-386, 5:386f
North Sea Central Graben 5:44-46,
5:47, 5:48
ocean trenches 5:431/", 5:434-435
rift valleys 5:437, 5:439f
Graham, John 3:194
Graham, Maria
See Callcott, Maria, Lady
grain flows 5:2
grainstone 3:526f9 3:527% 4:586, 5:109f,
5:110, S:lllf
grain whisky 3:82
Grampian Orogeny 2:568f,
Grand Banks, Bahamas 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95,
4:98, 4:101f9 4:102, 4:103f
Grand Canyon Dating Project 1:386
Grand Coupure event 5:476
Grandfather Mountain,
Appalachians 4:73
granites 3:233-247
Appalachians 4:78
batholiths
Coastal Batholith, Peru 3:237?, 3:239
Cordillera Blanca Batholith, Andes

3:246
enclaves 3:238f
Gondwanan margin 1:244, 1:250
4:216
Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt
2:46
Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United
States 3:237?
3:237?, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:55f
3:240-241
tectonic setting 3:237?
biotite 3:550
carbonatites 3:218t
classification schemes
composition 3:237?
crustal differentiation 3:233, 3:234f
densities 5:321f
dykes 3:236-239, 3:237?, 3:238f, 3:240?,
3:244
economic deposits 1:440f
enclaves 3:238f9 3:239, 3:240?
gemstones 3:10
geochemical analysis 3:242f9 3:243f
geotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546f9
3:102?
Gondwana 3:128
magmatism time-scales 3:245, 3:246f
metaluminous granites
classification schemes 3:235?
composition 3:237?, 3:243/", 3:244
mineralogy 3:241
tonalites 3:23Sf
mineral deposits 3:492, 3:493^
mineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241f
muscovite 3:550
origins 4:455
partial melting 3:234, 3:234/i 3:236,
3:242, 3:242/", 3:245
peralkaline granites
classification schemes 3:235?
composition 3:237?
enclaves 3:240?
676
INDEX
granites (continued]
melting phases 3:242f
mineralogy 3:242
peraluminous granites
classification schemes 3:235*
composition 3:237*
cordierite 3:241f
enclaves 3:239, 3:240*
leucogranites 3:238f
melting phases 3:242f, 3:243-244
mineralogy 3:240-241
zircon crystals 3:245-246
petrology 3:238f
phosphate minerals 5:124, 5:124f
pluton formation process 3:246f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
shock metamorphic effects 5:180t,
5:183t
South-east Asia 1:187'f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247f, 1:249f
textures 3:240
Granites-Tanami Complex 1:21 Of, 1:211
granitization 3:187
granodiorites 3:237*
granofels 3:387, 3:388t
Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland, United
Kingdom 2:455-456, 3:308, 3:441,
3:442f
grantsite ((Na,Ca)(V 6 O 16 )4H 2 O) 3.-5S9*
granulite facies
Appalachians 4:74f
composition 3:404
definition 3:387t
3:399*; 3:400f, 3:401f
regional metamorphism 3:396/", 4:409f,
4:410,4:413
graphite
See carbon (C)
Dictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362f, 2:364f
2:365, 2:365f
graptoloids 2:360f, 2:363f
living colony hypothesis 2:364f, 2:365
Monograptus
structure 2:361-362, 2:363f
transverse section 2:3 61 f
morphology 2:358f
occurrence 2:363
Parakidograptus ascensus 4:185
periderm structure
bandaging 2:361 f
2:360f
transverse section 2:361f
preservation 2:363, 2:363/", 2:364f
Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363f
rhabdosomes 2:361
sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359f
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f
stolon system
dendroids 2:357, 2:3S9f
graptoloids 2:360f
tuboids 2:357, 2:360f
thecae 2:358f
grasshoppers 2:297f, 2:298f, 2:300t
grasslands 5:483
gravel, classification systems 4:645f 9 4:646t
gravel, physical properties l:483t
gravity measurements 1:92-107
applications
crustal spreading centres 1:101,1:101 f
density contrasts l:99f, 1:99
isostasy 1:98, 1:98 f
lithospheric strength 1:97f, 1:98, 1:98f
magnetic anomalies 1:101, 1:101 f
mantle convection 1:97f, 1:98
sedimentary basins l:103f, 1:103,
l:104f
seismic surveys 1:101-103, l:102f
small-scale surveys 1:104
submarine topography l:96f, 1:97,
1:98 f
correction measurements 1:95
Earth 1:92, l:94f
extraterrestrial gravity fields 1:106
formulae l:93t
gradiometry 1:105, I:105f9 l:106f
gravity anomalies
Bouguer gravity anomaly
Chicxulub crater, Mexico l:105f
Ouachita Mountains 4:67, 4:68f
Pennsylvania, United States l:100f
Uralide orogeny 2:92-94, 2:93f
density contrasts 1:99f
Faroe-Shetland Basin, United
Kingdom l:103f, 1:103-104,
l:104f
free-air gravity anomaly

Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:105f
mantle convection 1:97f
satellite imagery l:96f
sedimentary basins l:103f,
1:103-104, l:104f
spreading centres 1:101 f
submarine topography 1:97, l:98f
Hawaii 1:98 f
mantle convection 1:97f
satellite imagery l:96f
gravity anomaly map l:96f
measurement techniques 1:93
mineral exploration 3:619*
Newton, Isaac 1:92
Ouachita Mountains 4:67, 4:68f, 4:69f
petroleum exploration 4:296, 4:299f
satellite applications 1:95, 1:96f
Gray, Francis Calley 2:175
Great Artesian Basin 1:242
Great Bahama Bank 4:503f, 4:505f, 4:507,
4:508f
Great Barrier Reef, Australia 4:103
Great Bombardment 5:270-271
Great Dyke 4:95
Great Hungarian Plain 2:152
Great Lakes 4:21
Great Meteor Seamount 3:315f, 3:316*,
5:457
Great Oxidation Event 4:351, 4:366
Great Red Spot 5:282
Great Salt Lake 4:552, 4:553f
Great Sand Dunes, Colorado 4:540-541
Great Slave Lake, Canada 4:22f
Great Smoky Group, Appalachians
4:73-74
Greece 5:462
Green, A. H. 3:476-477
greenhouse world 1:206, 1:340,
3:5,4:131
Greenland
Archaean cratons 4:16
burrowing bivalves 4:224
Caledonian Orogeny 2:68, 2:69/", 2:71f,
3:239
Eocene 5:466, 5:471
Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663*, 4:664/",
4:664, 4:664*
Holocene2:148
Isua Supracrustal rocks, Greenland
4:351,5:39
Permian 4:216
Permian-Triassic boundary 4:219f
physiography 4:22f
Precambrian crust 4:11
Triassic 3:344
vegetation 4:224
zeolites 3:598
Green Mountains massif 3:157f
greenockite (CdS) 3:575*
Greenough, George Bellas 2:222-223, 3:61
INDEX 677
greenschist facies
Appalachians 4:74f
composition 3:403
definition 3:388t
3:399f, 3:400f, 3:401f
Paris Basin 2:84
regional metamorphism 3:396f, 4:409,
4:409f, 4:410, 4:413
greenstone belts l:243f, 3:261, 3:264,
4:459f, 5:39
greenstone, definition 3:388t
Greererpeton 2:474f, 2:475
gregoryite 3:221?, 3:225-226
greigite (Fe3S4) 3:574, 3:580f
Grenville Front Tectonic Zone 3:162
Grenville orogeny 3:155-165
anorthosite-mangerite-charnockitegranite (AMCG) suite 3:155-156,
3:159f, 3:160, 3:161f
Argentina l:156f, 1:161-163
Australia 4:352
geographic distribution 3:155, 3:156f,
3:157f,3:158f
Laurentia 3:155, 4:16
tectonic evolution
Appalachian inliers 3:163
Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:15'8f,
3:159f
Flinton Group 3:159f, 3:160
Grenville Province 3:158f
Ottawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162,
3:163 f
post-Elzevirian activity 3:160
post-Ottawan activity 3:159f, 3:162
greywackes
aggregates 1:35
classification 5:27?, 5:2 8f
Griesbachian stage 3:345, 3:345f
5:354-355, 5:355f
Griffith, Richard 3:179
Griggs, David 3:189, 3:192
grikes 4:680, 4:682f
Grimes Graves, England 1:434
Groenlandibelus 2:394
grospydites 3:253
Gross, Hans 2:261
grossular (Ca3Al2Si3O12) 3:561
Gros Vente Landslide 4:688, 4:689
Groth, P. von 3:500-501
ground penetrating radar 1:488, 1:49It,
1:493f, l:495f, 1:497, l:498f
groundwater
anthropogenic hazards 1:519
Atlantic Margin 4:105-106, 4:107f

chalk beds 5:48
composition 3:80t
environmental restoration 2:23, 2:24?
trace elements
abundance 2:22?
occurrence 2:21
toxicity 2:22?
environmental geology 2:28f
Europe 3:80
4:424
ground subsidence 2:11, 2:13
landfill monitoring 2:14-21
2:15f
2:19 f
isotopic analyses
2:17,2:18f
2:1792:18f
2:17,2:18f
pH2:15, 2.-15/"
2:15f
meteoric water 3:107
phreatic zone 4:684f
resource management 2:28, 2:28f
site investigation techniques 1:590,
l:591f
urban geology 5:558
vadose zone 4:684f
See also permeability; porosity
Grube Messel, Germany 3:310?, 3:312
grunerite 3:504-505
Gruner, Johann Samuel 3:476
grykes 1:5 SOf
Grypania spiralis 4:357
Gryphaea 3:356-357
Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, United
States 4:216-217
Guadalupian series 4:214, 4:215?, 4:219f,
4:221, 4:221 f, 5:511/", 5:517f
Guadalupian stage 4:209f
Guadelupe Seamount Chain
3:315f93:316t
guanine 2:161, 2:162f
guano
phosphate deposits 5:126
Guatemala 3:7?, 5:445f
gudmundite (FeSbS) 3:575?
guerinite 3:509?
Guettard, Jean-Etienne 3:172, 3:174,
3:175, 5:542
Guinness, A. 3:80
Gulf Coast, United States 5:460-461
Gulf of Aden 1:17, 1:148, l:149f, l:150f,
5:481-482
Gulf of Aqaba 1:17, 1:148
Gulf of California 4:48, 4:58
Gulf of Guayaquil l:119f, l:121f, 1:131
Gulf of Guinea 3:315f, 3:316?
Gulf of Maine 4:88-89, 4:93f, 4:96f
Gulf of Mexico 3:346, 4:22f, 4:23f,
4:52-53, 4:95
Gulf of Suez 1:17
Gulf Stream 4:644
Gunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f, 4:367-368
Gunnerus Ridge 3:315f, 3:316?
Gunz stage 5:493
Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270, 3:27If
Gutenberg, Beno 3:192, 3:195
Guyana 1:311
Guyanas Shield l:306f
guyot 4:481, 5:436f
Gwernfelen Formation 4:186f, 4:188
gwihabaite ((NH 4 ,K)NO 3 ) 3:556?
Gymnocodium 2:434
Carboniferous
Cordaitales 2:449
Voltziales 2:449
Cretaceous
Pentoxylales 2:452
Cycadeoidea microphylla 2:453 f
definition 3:351
Devonian
678
INDEX
gymnosperms (continued)
palaeoecological reconstruction
4:195/
Glossopteris 2:451f
Jurassic
Pentoxylales 2:452
terrestrial flora 3:359
Voltziales 2:449
major groups
Bennettitales 2:453, 2:453f
Coniferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451f
Cordaitales 2:449
Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:4Slf
Gnetales 2:453
Pentoxylales 2:452
Voltziales 2:449
Mesozoic 2:422-423
Metasequoia 2:45If
origins 2:445
Pagiophyllum peregrynum 2:451 f
Permian
biodiversity 1:262-263,
1:263 f
Cordaitales 2:449
Voltziales 2:449
Triassic
Coniferales 2:450
Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:4Slf
Gnetales 2:453
Gympie belt 1:242, 1:250
gypcrete 1:562, 5:588
gypsum 3:572-573
occurrence 3:573
porosity l:552t
Gyracanthides 2:464f
Gzhelian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511f,
5:517f
H
Hadean
Earth origins 1:427-429, 4:364f
Hadrocodium 2:528f, 2:531-532
Hadronector 2:464f
Haeckel, Ernst
See Walther, Johannes
haematite (Fe2O3)
carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223t
granites 3:242
ironstones 5:98-99
magnetic properties 4:149t
physical properties 4:149?, 4:149f
stability 3:580f
hafnium (Hf)
carbonatites 3:223?
radiometric dating 1:88t
zircon 3:601
Hagenowia 2:352f
hagfishes 2:455, 2:459
Haikouichthys 1:351, 2:455, 2:462
Haiti 5:445^
halite (NaCl)
carbonatites 3:221t
densities 5:32If
hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629?
porosity 1:5 52t

Halle Volcanic Complex 2:96f
Halley, Edmund 3:171-172, 5:224
Albany laboratory 2:196
biographical background 2:195
expert testimony 3:40
fossil collecting 2:196
mountain-building theory 2:198, 2:199f,
3:182
New York Survey 2:195
personality 2:196
photograph 2:196f
state geological survey activities 2:197
stratigraphic classification 2:195
Vulcanism 3:174
halloysite 1:360?, 1:363, l:363f, 3:631-632
Hall's Creek Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:212-213,
1:239 f
Halobia 3:350
Halycorne 2:433
Hamilton, Edwin 3:198
Hamiltonichthys 2:463-465
Hamilton, Warren 1:402
Hantkenina 5:472-473
Haptodus 2:488-489
hardgrounds 5:44, 5:48f, 5:49
harmotome 3:593?
Harnagian substage 4:183 f
harzburgite 3:253-254, 3:257f
Harz Mountains 2:75, 2.-96/J 2:98
hashemite (BaCrO4) 3:533?
Hastarian subdivision 4:202f
Hauer, Franz von 2:234
Hauterivian stage
Brazil 1.-322/", 1:325 f
5:517f
vegetation 3.-370/", 3:383f
Haiiy, Rene Juste 3:171, 3:178, 3:500
Hawaii
Cretaceous 3:363
Kilauea volcano 3:328, 3:329f, 4:357?
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 1:200?
Mauna Loa, Hawaii 1:343f, 1:343-344,
5:575
seamounts 3:363
zeolites 3:591f
INDEX 679
Hawaiian-Emperor Seamounts
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315f.,
3:316t
3:335-336, 3:336f, 4:348
spatial arrangement 4:476-477
Hawaiian-type volcanoes 5:56#*, 5:570t
hawleyite (CdS) 3:575*
Hawthorne, Frank 5:121
haycockite (Cu4Fe5S8) 3:575*, 3:577f
Hayden, Ferdinand V. 2:196
Hayford, John 3:183
hazards, site classification of 2:4*, 2:6*
HAZUS (software) 4:427
Headonian land mammal age 5:473f
heart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
Heathcote blueschists, Australia 1:246f
heatwaves 1:5171
heazlewoodite (NiS2) 3:575*
Hebrew Scriptures 1:253
Crossing of the River Jordan (Joshua)
1:256
earthquakes 1:256
Exodus
Moses Strikes the Stone to Produce
Water 1:256
Plagues 1:255
Red Sea crossing 1:255
Tablets of Stone 1:256
Genesis
Angel with the Flaming Sword 1:253
Flood 1:254, 3:170
Sodom and Gomorrah 1:255
hechtsbergite (Bi 2 (VO 4 )(OH)) 3:589t
hectorite 1:369
hedenbergite 3:567
hedyphane 3:508f
Heezen, Bruce 3:198
Heim, Albert 2:238, 2:248, 3:62, 3:182
Heinrich events 4:644
heinrichite 3:508f
Heirtzler, James 3:203
Helicoprion 2:465
heliosphere 5:214
helium (He)
atmospheric concentrations 1:1971,
1:198, l:199f
solar composition 5:209
Hellenic Terrane 5:4S8f, 5:458-459
Hellenic Trench 4:353f, 5:430*, 5:430f,
5:433
Hellenides 2:135-146
Helsby Sandstone, England

4:546, 4:547f
Helvetic nappes 2:126f, 2:128f, 2:129,
2:131f, 2:134f
hemichordates 2:335
Hemipedina 2:352f
hendersonite (Ca1.3(V6O16)-6H2O) 3:559*
Hennig, Willi L-266/; 1:267
Henodus 2:506
Henslow,John2:184
Hercynian Belt, Europe 3:237*
Hercynian Orogeny
Arabia 1:151
China l:346f, 1:352
Gondwana 2:102
Mongolia 1:356
North Africa l:149l:16f
Pangaea 4:225
See also Variscides Orogeny
herderite 5:121-122, 5:124-125
Herodotus 3:168
Herrerasaurus 2:492
Herschel, John F.W. 2:198
Herschel, William. 5:289
herzenbergite 3:582f
Heschelaria 2:504
Hesperian Period 5:279
Hesperornis 2:499
Hess Deep 5:406f
Hess, Harry 3:198-199
Hess Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
Heterocentrotus 2:352f, 2:353f
heteropolymolybdates 3:551-552
Hettangian stage 3:352*, 3:354f, 5:506f,
5:517f
heulandite 3:593*, 3:593-594, 3:594f
hewettite (Ca(V 6 O 16 )-9H 2 O) 3:589t
Hexapods
See insects
hexastannite (Cu2Fe2SnS6) 3:575*
heyite (Pb5Fe2O4(VO4)2) 3:589t
3:240-241
hidalgoite 3:508f
highwalls 4:399, 4:401 f
Hikurangi Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*
Hill End Metamorphic Complex l:246f
Himalayan Mountains
geology 3:293, 3:294f
granitic rocks 3:237*, 3:239
lithotectonic units 3:295
Miocene tectonics 1:354, 3:295-296,
5:481
Oligocene 5:477
Palaeozoic 3:295
Pliocene 5:488
sedimentation processes 3:295
sediment fluxes 5:22, 5:22f
tectonic processes 3:295, 5:420, 5:422f
5:536f, 5:538, 5:539

Hippeastrum (Amaryllis) 2:449
Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182, 4:191f
Hirnantian stage 4:183f, 4:187f
history of geology
creationism 1:381-386
Flood Geology 1:254, 1:382, 1:384,
2:182,2:224-225
gap theory 1:383
Cuvier, Georges 2:179-184
Darwin, Charles 2:184-187, 3:180
3:173-179
catastrophism 3:176
crystallography 3:178
geological controversies 3:174
mineralogy 3:178
Neptunism 3:174
palaeoecology 3:175
palaeontological reconstructions
3:176
petrology 3:178
uniformitarianism 3:177, 5:297-298
volcanism 3:178
Vulcanism 3:174
3:179-185
Dana, James D. 3:182
Earth's age 3:183
evolution 3:180
geomorphology 3:181
glaciation 3:181
isostasy 3:182
mountain-building theory 3:182,
3:183 f
national geological surveys 3:179
petrology 3:184
stratigraphy 3:179
3:185-196
CIPW normative classification 3:186
Earth
exploration geophysics 3:190
geochemistry 3:187
geomorphology 3:189
glaciation 3:189-190
global views 3:192
igneous petrology 3:186, 3:187f
impact craters 3:195, 5:179
680
INDEX
history of geology (continued]

International Geophysical Year,
1957-1958 3:196
metamorphic petrology 3:187
palaeontology 3:188
petroleum geology 3:190
sedimentology 3:188
stratigraphy 3:188
structural geology 3:189
geological research (post-1962)
East Pacific Rise 3:198, 3:203-204
magnetic field reversals 3:202
ocean basin exploration 3:197
plate tectonics
current research 3:205
extraterrestrial planets 3:206
milestone research efforts 3:204
plate boundries 3:206f
sea floor spreading 3:198
geological research (pre-1780)
3:167-172
alchemy 3:168
ancient studies 3:167
Christian viewpoints 3:168, 3:170
controversies 3:170
Enlightenment 3:170
Medieval studies 3:168
Renaissance 3:169
Hutton, James 2:200-206
histosols 5:196*
Hjulstrom-Sundborg diagram 4:588,
4:588f
H0' landa 4:83f
Hoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443, 4:444/",
4:445f
Hole-in-the-Ground, Oregon 5:571, S:573f
Holkerian subdivision 4:202f
Holland 2:148, 3:361, 3:372, 4:192-193,
5:506f
Holland, Heinrich 3:2
hollandite5:lS3*
Hollmann, Christian 3:172
Holmes, Arthur
convection model 3:193f
crustal deformation processes 1:407-408
plate tectonics 1:399-400, 3:193, 3:200
radiometric dating 1:81-82, 3:186
holmium (Ho) 3:223*, 3:224/", 3:242f
Holocene 2:147-160
alluvial environments 4:493
Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2:152f, 2:153f,
2:155-159, 2.-156/", 2:159*
climate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159t

Early Holocene Shield Trap Cave,
Montana, United States 3:308
environmental periods 2:159t
Points (GSSPs) 5:S06f
Gondwana 3:131f
human activity
historical developments 2:159t
industrialisation effects 2:155, 2:156f
5:517f
definition 5:425
glacial isostatic adjustment 5:427
North Africa 1:25
Pangaea3:131/"
sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150f,
2:151f,2:154f,2:155f
vegetation 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f, 2:153f,
2:155 f
volcanism 3:657
Homerian Stage 4:186f, 4:187%
4:188-189, 5.-511/", 5:517f
hominids 2:541-545
East African Rift 1:31
Homo sapiens 2:543
Pliocene 5:457*, 5:491, 5:491*, 5:492f
Homo habilis 2:541-542, 2:543f, 5:491t
Homo heidelbergensis 2:542, 2:544f
Homo (Homininae) 5:486, 5:491
Homo rudolfensis 5:491t
Homo sapiens 2:543
Honduras 3:7*
Honey Brook upland 3:157f
Hooke, Robert 3:97
Hooper Orogeny l:211f, 1:212
hopeite 5:121-122
Hopkins, William 2:215
Horda platform 5:44If
Horizon (ship) 3:197
hormosinana 3:451f
hornblende
carbonatites 3:23If
granites 3:235*, 3:242
metamorphic rocks 3:397, 3:398f,
3:401f, 3:403

hornesite 3:508f
hornfels l:545t, 3:102t, 3:388t, 3:406,
3:412f
horns 4:670, 4:672f
Horseshoe basin 4:96f
Horsford, Eben2:195
horsts 5:386f, 5:431f, 5:434-435, 5:437
Morton, Robert 3:189
hotspots
See mantle plumes (hotspots)
hot springs 3:105-117
chert 5:59
ecology 3:105
mineral deposits 3:628, 3:634
Bath, England 3:113t, 3:113f,
3:114
geochemical analysis 3:113t
heat output 3:113t
Paris Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115f
3:116f
occurrence 3:105
bioherms 3:109
energy exploitation
3:lllf
power installation 3:110f
water temperature variations 3:11 Of
sinter 3:108
stromatolites 3:109
Houghton, Douglas 2:195
Houldjinian land mammal age 5:473f
Howard, E. 5:229
howardevansite (NaCu(Fe,Al,Mn) 2 (VO 4 )3)
3.-5S9*
howardites 5:23 It
howlite (Ca4Si2B10O23-5H2O) 3:512*,
3:513*
Howqua blueschists, Australia 1 :246/i
1:249-250
Hox genes 2:166
Hoyle, Fred 2: 172-1 73
Hsandgolian land mammal age 5:473f
hsianghualite 3:593*
INDEX 6S1
Huang Ho River 5:19t

Hubbert, M. King
Hubbert's peak 4:302, 4:305f
laboratory techniques 3:188
petroleum reserve predictions 4:302,
4:336, 4:336f
hubnerite (FeWO4) 3:587, 3:587t
Hudson Bay, Canada 4:22f, 4:23 f
Hudson Highlands 3:157f
Hudsonian Orogeny 4:16
Hudson Shelf Valley and Canyon 4:107,
4:93-94, 4:94f
huemulite (Na4Mg(V10O28)-24H2O)
3:589*
Huene, Freiderick von 2:170
humberstonite
(K3Na7Mg2(N03)2(S04)6.6H20)
3:556*
Humboldt, Alexander von 3:171
hummerite (K2Mg2(V10O28) -16H2O)
3:589*
hummocky cross-stratification
sediment deposition processes 4:574f,
4:576/", 4:578f
storm deposits 4:581-582, 4:582f,
4:5 84f, 4:585f, 4:599f
Hungary 2:152, 3:345-346, 5:506f
Hunsriick Slate, Germany 3:310*,
3:312-313
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny 1:242, 1:250
hurlbutite 5:124-125
Hurley, Patrick 3:204
early career 2:200
Earth's density 1:92, l:94f
geological investigations 1:257, 2:202
geological societies 3:60, 3:73-74
geostrophic cycle 2:201, 2:202 f,
5:296-297, 5:542, 5:544, 5:547
heat theory 2:204
unconformities 2:203, 2:203f, 3:175,
3:175f, 5:542, 5:543f
uniformitarianism 1:430, 2:205,
5:296-297
Vulcanism 3:174
See also Old Red Sandstone
Huxley, Thomas Henry 1:295
Hydaspis Chaos 5:277, 5:277f
hydroboracite (CaMgB6Oir6H2O) 3:512*,
3:513*
hydrocarbons
See natural gas; oil; petroleum geology
Hydroconozoa 2:321
hydrogen (H)
isotopes
deuterium 2:16, 2:17, 2:18f
hydrothermal activity 5:366, 5:366f
landfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18f

solar composition 5:209
solar system occurrences 1:200f
1:200*
hydrogeology
geochemical analysis 3:618*
geotechnical engineering 3:104
rift valleys 5:439
hydrombobomkulite
((Ni,Cu)Al 4 [(N0 3 ) 2 ,(S0 4 )]
(OH)i2-12-14H2O) 3:556*
Hydrophiidae 2:505
hydrosphere 1:43 If
chlorinity 5:370-371, 5:371*
components
fluid sources
circulation system 5:367
fracture/faulting effects 5:367,
5:368f
geochemical thermometers 5:369
isotopic ration measurements 5:366,
5:3 66 f
meteoric water line 5:366, 5:366f
ore deposits-fossil hydrothermal
systems 5:369
permeability 5:364/", 5:367, 5:368,
5:3 68 f
temporal variations 5:364f, 5:368,
5:369,5:370*
water/rock chemical reactions 5:369
heat sources
geothermal gradient 5:365
magmatic heat 5:365
serpentinization 5:365
single-pass circulation model 5:362,
5:3 64 f
early Earth 1:200-201
evaporite deposits 5:95
hydrothermal vents 5:388-395
biological habitats 5:388f, 5:392
black smokers
chlorinity 5:3 71 *
East Pacific Rise 5:366f, 5:388,
5:3 88 f
ecology 3:105
mineral deposits 3:491, 3:628,
5:388
structure 5:39Of
chimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393f
deposit size 5:390
edifices 5:390, 5:390/
formation locations
fast-spreading ridges 5:389

intermediate-spreading ridges 5:389
slow-spreading ridges 5:389
fossil record 5:394
hyperthermophiles 1:202, 4:363-365,
4:365*; 4:365-366
mid-ocean ridges 5:373-375
mineralogy 4:363-365, 5:391, 5:394*
morphology 5:390, S:393f
white smokers 5:365, 5:390f,
5:390-391
metamorphism 3:393
Bath, England 3:113t, 3:113f, 3:114
heat output 3ill3t
Paris Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115f
spas/thermal baths 3:113f,3:116,
3:116f
ore bodies 3:628-637
alteration products 3:631
fluid sources
geothermal gradient 3:635, 3:636f
magma-heated waters 3:634, 3:635f
magma-hydrothermal fluids 3:632,
3:633f
gemstone deposits 3:11
gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,
3:630*, 3:635f
hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629*
hydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630*,
3:630f, 3:631f, 5:388
porphyry ore deposits 3:633f, 5:369
stratiform ores 3:634
sodium chloride (NaCl)/water (H2O)
submarine environments 5:362,
5:370-371,5:371*
heat flux 5:3 63*
two-phase flow 5:370
two-phase flow 5:369, 5:370f
bioherms3:109
energy exploitation
3:lllf
6S2
INDEX
hydrothermal activity (continued)

water temperature variations
3:110f
worldwide utilization rates 3:112t
fumaroles 3:107, 3:628, 3:634
geysers 3:107, 3:107f, 3:108f, 3:628,
3:634
hot springs 3:106, 3:628, 3:634
hot-water waterfall 3:106f
mofettes 3:107
mud pots 3:628, 3:634
sinter 3:108, 3:628
solfataras 3:107
stromatolites 3:109
travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f,
3:628
zeolites 3:404, 3:591, 3:591f, 3:599
hydroxylapatite 5:123
hydroxylherderite 5:121-122, S:122f
Hydrozoa
anatomy 2:321 f
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:322
Hylonomus 2:481-482
Hymenoptera
See insects
Hynerpeton 2:472, 2:472f
Hyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f, 4:468
hyperpycnal oceanic flows 4:582-583,
4:644
hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t, 4:438f
hypersthene 3:404
hyperthermophiles 1:202, 4:124-125,
4:363-365, 4:365f, 4:365-366
hyphae 2:441-442
Hyposaurus 2:504
Hypsilophodon 2:493f
I
lanthasaurus 2:488
lapetognathus fluctivagus 4:176
lapetus Ocean
Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64,
2:65f, 2:67
Cambrian 4:17Of
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Northern Appalachians 4:81, 4:83f
Ordovician 4:182, 4:1 S2/"
4:155/j 4:155-156
Precambrian 4:3 53 f
Silurian 2:78, 4:193
tectonic evolution 2:73 f
lapetus (Saturn) 5:287t, 5:287f, 5:288
lapo formation, South America 3:129
Iberia 2:59, 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f, 2:96f,
3:129,4:193,5:466-468
Iberian Massif 2:75, 3:648-649, 3:654,

3:654f
Ibexian subdivision 4:177-178
Ice Age 2:176, 5:493-499
ice bugs 2:300?
ice caps 4:665f
Iceland
Askja volcano 4:3871
Eocene 5:466
gravity measurements 1:101 f
Heimaey volcano 3:330
Krafla volcano 5:575
Surtsey volcano 4:3871
zeolites 3:598, 3:598f
Iceland-Greenland-Scotland Ridge 3:315f,
3:316t
Icelandic hotspot 3:337, 3:337f, 5:466
Icelandic-type volcanoes 5:568t
ice, physical properties 1:483t
ice sheets 4:664, 5:473-474
chalk 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47f
endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f,
5:530f
ichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528f
Ichthyornis 2:499
Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f, 3:358,
3:380
Ichthyostega
cladogram 2:47Of
Devonian 4:196
limbs 2:471f
4:216
Idaho, United States 4:39-42, 5:480-481
idaite (Cu3FeS4) 3:575?, 3:582f, 5:394?
Iddings, Joseph 3:186-187
igneous processes 3:209-217
differentiation processes
assimilation 3:216
fractional crystallization 3:215, 3:215f
magma mixing 3:216
a'a lava 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326f,
5:567-569, 5:571f
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571f
carbonatites 3:218t
clays 1:545-546
clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f
effusion rate 3:324
eruption characteristics 3:323, 3:324f
flood basalts 3:328

flow speed 3:324
flow volume 3:324
l:546f
igneous processes 3:209
definition 3:260
magma formation 3:261, 3:263f
3:262f, 3:263f
nickel-copper-platinum group (NiCu-PGE) mineralization 3:266
occurrence 3:261
spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f,
3:264f
water content 3:266
lava domes 3:326
lava fountains 3:323
Moon 5:270
natural hazards
3:329f
mitigation methods 5:576?
pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,
3:326f, 5:567-569, 5:571f
pillow lavas 3:327,3:327f, 5:373-375,
5:382-383, 5:567-569, 5:571f
structure
crazing 1:546 f
lava tubes 3:327
pipes 1:546 f
subaerial lava 3:325, 3:325f, 3:326f
temperature 3:323
Venus 3:232f
viscosity 3:323
zeolites 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598f
magma transport
diapirism3:213/", 3:214
dike injection 3.-213/", 3:214
eruptions 3:214
porous flow 3:213f, 3:214
mantle plumes (hotspots). See mantle
plumes (hotspots)
melting processes
INDEX 683
igneous processes (continued)

flux melting 3:212
pyroclastic deposits 4:386-397
characteristics
block and ash flows 4:394, 4:394f
fall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392t
ignimbrites 4:388f, 4:391-393,
4:393f, 4:395, 4:397f
particle size 4:3 9Ot
pyroclastic density currents 4:391,
4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396f
pyroclastic types 4:390t
transport mechanisms 4:394,
4:396f, 4:397f
eruption plumes 4:388, 4:388f, 4:389f
explosive eruption characteristics
4:386, 4:387t, 4:388f, 4:389
generation mechanisms 4:386
See also volcanism
igneous rocks
aggregates 1:35
andesites
4:387t
lava/lava flows 3:325, 3:325/", 3:327
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:241 f
tridymite 3:571
banded ironstone formations (BIFs) 5:40
basalts
Columbia River Flood Basalts 3:315'f,
3:316?, 5:480
geotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546/r,
3:102?
definition 3:260
3:262f, 3:263f
nickel-copper-platinum group (NiCu-PGE) mineralization 3:266
occurrence 3:261
spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f,
3:264f
water content 3:266

lava/lava flows. See lava/lava flows
seamounts 4:475
carbonatites3:21S?
anomalies 4:454
4:454f
lava flows 4:454
dacites
Altiplano-Puna Plateau 1:123 f, 1:126
4:387t
lava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:325f,
3:327-328
tridymite 3:571
feldspars 3:536
gabbros 2:98, 3:550
gemstones
obsidian 3:271, 3:275^
pegmatites 3ill, 3:1 If
geotechnical properties 1:544, l:545t
granites 3:233-247
batholiths
associated rock types 3:237t
enclaves 3:238f
biotite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:550
carbonatites 3:218t
classification schemes
composition 3:237?
densities 5:321f
enclaves 3:238f, 3:239, 3:240?
gemstones 3:10
geochemical analysis 3:242f, 3:243f
geotechnical properties 1:545?, 1:546f9
3:102?

magmatism time-scales 3:245, 3:246f
mineralogy 3:235?, 3:240, 3:241f
muscovite 3:550
origins 4:455
petrology 3:238f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
textures 3:240
igneous petrology 3:186, 3:187f
intrusive igneous rocks 3:492, 3:493f
3:315-323
age dating 3:318
composition 3:317
continental flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,
3:322
Cretaceous 3:363?
3:383
environmental effects 3:320, 3:320f
global distribution 3:315f, 3:317
mantle dynamics 3:319
3:318f
mantle roots 3:317
mass extinctions 3:321f, 3:322, 3:383
ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315,
3:318,3:322
origins 3:320
seamounts 3:316?, 3:318, 3:322
subduction zones 3:3 IS/", 3:319,
3:319f
submarine ridges 3:318, 3:320, 3:322
tectonic setting 3:317, 3:317f
time distribution 3:318-319, 3:319f
types 3:317
volcanic passive margins 3:318, 3:320,
3:322
volcanism 3:317
lava/lava flows. See lava/lava flows
lunar rocks 5:268
magmatism time-scales 3:246f
micas 3:550
obsidian 3:267-277
artefacts
occurrences 3:272
tracing methods 3:272
trade routes 3:276f
transport paths 3:276f
6S4
INDEX
igneous rocks (continued]

composition 3:268, 3:269*
occurrences
California 3:270, 3:272f, 3:273f,
3:274f
Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f,
3:270f
Gutansar volcano, Armenia 3:270,
3:271 f
Newberry Caldera, Oregon, United
States 3:270, 3:271f
Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming,
United States 3:268, 3:269*
as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:275f
pegmatitic crystallization 3:599
plagioclase 3:538
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
rhyolites
Argentina 1:161
4:387t
lava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:326
Mono Craters, California, United
States 3:270, 3:272f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
tridymite 3:571
stratification 4:454
trachyte 3:571, 4:387t, 5:567-569,
5:571f
weathering l:546f
zircon 3:602
See also magma; silicate minerals;
volcanism
ignimbrites
Altiplano-Puna Plateau 1:123 f, 1:126
Argentina 1:161
characteristics 4:393f
geotechnical properties 1:546-547
North German Basin 2:98
Plinian volcanoes 4:388f
radiometric dating 4:202f
iguanas 2:505
Iguanodon 2:493f
ijolite3:219/; 5:569-571
Ilfeld Basin 2:96f, 2:98-99
Illinois Basin 4:33f
Illinois, United States 4:207-208,
4:211
illite
claystones 5:30
crystallinity 5:65

depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f,
5:145 f
ferric illite 3:548
sandstones 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
smectite illitization 5:63, 5:64f, 5:65f
solonization 5:200
structure l:360f
Illyrian stage 3:345f
ilmenite (FeTiO3)
carbonatites 3:221t
granites 3:234-235
kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256*
magmatic ores 3:641
physical properties 4:149f
ilmenorutile (FeTi2O5) 4:149f
Ilustre Colegio Oficial de Geologos 3:75,
3:77*, 3:78
Imandra-Varzuga belt 2:44f
imbricate thrust slices 5:432
impactites 3:388t
impact metamorphism 3:393
impact structures 3:277-285
Alamo impact event 4:199
bolide impact craters 3:363*, 3:383,
4:95, 4:98f
Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, 1:105f,
3:283, 3:363*, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,
5:453-454
Cretaceous 3:363*, 3:383
3:277, 3:283
discovery rates 3:278f
Eocene 5:467f, 5:468
Flynn Creek impact event 4:199
impact craters
Earth 3:195
3:195
shock metamorphism 5:179, 5:182f
Venus 5:246, 5:247f, 5:248f
United States 3:279/", 3:571
Moon 3:283, 5:267
morphology
complex craters 3:279f, 3:280f
simple craters 3:279*"
Oligocene 5:473
planetary evolution 3:283
quantity 3:278f
shock metamorphism
fused minerals 3:281, 3:281f
high-pressure polymorphs 3:282
impact melting 3:281, 3:281 f
planar microstructures 3:282, 3:282f
shatter cones 3:282, 3:282f
Siljan impact event 4:199
terrestrial impact record 3:277
Inari terrane 2:44f
inceptisols 5:196*, 5:198f, 5:199, 5:200
inclination (magnetic) 3:334
incompatible lithophile elements 3:638f,
3:639, 3:639*, 3:640f
inderborite (CaMgB 6 O ir llH 2 O) 3:512*,
3:513t
inderite (Mg 2 B 6 Oi r 15H2O) 3:512*, 3:S12f
India-Australia Rift Zone 3:142-147,
3:146f
India-East Antarctica-West Australia
Craton 3:128, 3:132f
Indian Ocean 3:362f
Indian Sub-Continent 3:285-296
Cretaceous volcanism 3:383
Eocene 5:468
fault systems 3:292, 3:293f
gemstones 3:7*, 3:8, 3:8f
Gondwana 3:128
Gondwana Supergroup
definition 3:289
Gondwana breakup event 3:292
Indian Shield 1:238f, 3:285, 3:286f
Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP)
3:285, 3:296
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363*
meteorites 5:228-229, 5:280
mountain-building processes 3:293,
3:294f
neotectonics 3:296
Oligocene 5:476-477
Palaeocene 5:462
Permian 4:215-216
Precambrian crust
3:288, 3:291*, 3:291^
3:287f9 3:289f
cratonic basins 3:289
Dharwar Craton 3:286, 3:287f,
3:288t, 3:288f
3:289
INDEX 685
Indian Sub-Continent (continued]

rock types 3:29It
Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f,
3:290f,3:291t
3:288, 3:288f
tectonostratigraphical zones 3:291t
3:296
Thar Desert 3:296
Triassic 3:350, 5:506f
zeolites 3:598
See also Asia; Himalayan Mountains
indium (In) 3:553;, 3:554
Indochina 5:445?, 5:446-447
indochinites 5:445/", 5:446-447
Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plain (IGAP) 3:285,
3:296
Indonesia 3:8, 3:123, 3:344, 4:192-193,
5:445/", 5:445?, 5:446-447
Indosinian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348, 1:349 f,
1:352, 1:356
Induan stage
extinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f, 4:224
Points (GSSPs) 3:345, 5:506f, 5:51 If
5:517f
vegetation 3:349f
Indus River 5:19t
industrial minerals 1:434, 1:437, 1:43 8t,
l:438f, 3:489-490, 3:496, 3:510-511
infrared wavelengths 4:436
Inner Piedmont, Appalachians 4:74,
4:76-77, 4:78-79
Inoceramus 3:367-368, 4:384f
insecticides 5:128
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300?
arthropod relationships 2:297'f
biodiversity 1:263,1:263 f, 2:296f, 2:29 8 f
Carboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,
2:299/i 4:210-211
classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?
3:3Sl,3:381f
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
geological history 2:296, 2:300?
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:298f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?
taxonomy 2:295?
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
3:350
Instant Field of View 4:432-433, 4:433f
Institute of Geologists of Ireland 3:75,
3:77?
Insubric Line 2:129, 2:134f
Insular Mountains 4:45
Integrated Global Observing Strategy
(IGOS) 4:426
Interior Plains System 4:37, 4:37f
Intermontane Plateau System
accretion terranes 4:42
evolution 4:44
mountain building 4:43
bedrock features 4:39
Intermountain seismic belt 4:60
International Association of Geological
Sciences 3:75
International Association of
Hydrogeologists 3:75
International Commission on Stratigraphy
(ICS) 4:201
International Geological Congress 3:64
International Geological Correlation
Programme (IGCP) 5:98
International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958
3:196
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 1:448, 1:454
International Quaternary Association 3:64
International Society of Rock Mechanics
1:452
International Society of Soil Mechanics
1:452
5:517f
International Union of Geological Sciences
3:64
interstratal karst 4:686
intrusive igneous rocks 3:492, 3:493f
invertebrates 4:179
applications 3:427
clusters 3:420
morphology
flanges 3:419 f, 3:420
microphotographs 3:42If
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f

wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
3:426, 3:426f, 3:427f
palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
preservation 3:419
Silurian 3:426/", 4:191
ammonites 2:396-407
aptychi 2:398, 2:399f
architecture 2:396
3:379, 3:380f
growth stages 2:399
habitat 2:404, 2:406f
2:403f, 2:405f
Jurassic 3:309, 3:352, 3:357
longevity 2:399
3:3 75 f
migration 2:404
organism reconstruction 2:402, 2:403f
2:400f
poise 2:402, 2:403f
predators 2:404
septa 2:398, 2:398f, 2:401
stability 2:403f
sutures 2:398, 2:399/i 2:401
amber 2:274-275, 2:275f
chitin 2:274-275
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367f, 3:368,
3:369f
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Devonian 4:196
ecdysis 2:275
fossil record 2:276
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?
biodiversity 1:263, l:263f, 2:296f,
2:298f
Carboniferous 1:204-206,
2:296-298, 2:299f, 4:210-211
classification 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300?
686
INDEX
invertebrates (continued)
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299f,
4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:298f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297/", 2:300*
taxonomy 2:295*
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
3:350
morphology 2:274
applications 3:462
ecology 3:457, 3:460f
habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460/", 3:461
life cycle 3:457
morphology 3:455, 3:455/i 3:456/i
3:457f, 3:45 8f, 3:459f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,
3:458f, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa. See Podocopa
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f,
3:462f, 4:191
Tertiary 3:461
relevance 2:279
reproduction 2:278
respiration 2:277
Silurian 4:191
trace fossils 2:279
black shales
paper pectens 4:497
affinities 2:303
Cambrian 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
Craniiformea 2:301, 2:302f, 2:304*,
2:306f
Devonian 4:194
ecology 2:303
Hirnantia 4:180-181, 4:182
Jurassic 3:356
life styles 2:307f
Linguliformea 2:301, 2:302f,
2:304*, 2:306^
morphology 2:301, 2:301f, 2:302f,
2:304*, 2:305/
Ordovician 4:179
origins 2:303
Permian 4:216
2:302f, 2:304*, 2:306f,
2:309^
Silurian 1:173f, 1:177f, 4:185-186
stratigraphic distribution 2:306^,
2:309, 2:309f
stratigraphic ranges 2:304*
Triassic 3:349 f, 3:350
classification
Anomalodesmata 2:376*
Cryptodonts 2:376*
Heterodonta 2:376*
Palaeoheterodonta 2:376*
Palaeotaxodonta 2:376*
Pteriomorphia 2:376*
subclasses 2:376*
ecology
swimming bivalves 2:375,
2:377-378
Inoceramus 4:3 84f

Jurassic 3:356-357
life habits 4:141f
morphology 2:370, 2:374f, 2:375f
palaeosynecology 4:146f, 4:146-147
predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 f
shell morphology
dentition 2:374f
growth bands 2:370f, 2:371f
hinge plates 2:371, 2:374f, 2:376*
musculature 2:371, 2:373f, 2:376*
Triassic 3:349
anatomy 2:310, 2:31 If
Carboniferous 4:212
chalk 5:44, 5:45f, 5:46f
classification
Cheilostomes 1:274f9 2:315, 2:315*,
2:316f92:319f
Cryptostomes 2:315*, 2:317f,
2:318, 2:319f
Ctenostomes 2:315,
2:315*, 2:319f
Cyclostomes 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319f
Cystoporates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319 f
Fenestrates 2:315*, 2:317f, 2:318,
2:319f
Phylactolaemata 2:314-315,
2:3151, 2:319f
Stenolaemates 2:315*, 2:317,
2:317/f,2:319/f
Trepostomes 2:315*, 2:317, 2:317f,
2:319 f
colony growth 2:310, 2:312, 2:312f,
2:313 f
Cretaceous 1:272f, l:274f, 1:274-276,
3:367, 3:367f
3:379
Eocene 5:469
evolution 1:274 f
Jurassic l:274f, 1:274-276, 3:356
morphology 2:315*
occurrence 2:318
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
INDEX 6S7
palaeoecology 2:320
polymorphism 2:313
1:271 f
radiations 1:272 f
reproduction 2:312
skeletons 2:314
Carboniferous 4:210
classification
Belemnoidea 2:392, 2:393f,
2:394f
Coleoidea 2:392
Endoceratids 2:392
Nautiloidea 2:391, 2:391f
Orthoceratids 2:392
Devonian 4:194
Silurian 4:191
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa)
3:428-440
applications
classification
Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,
3:435f
Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431/",
3:435f
Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431/",
3:435f
Ordovician 3:430
Prosomatifera 3:430
intervesicle adjustments
3:429, 3:430f
Margachitina 3:434
morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,
3:436f
palynology 3:468
Pterochitina 3:434
Silurian 4:191
structure 3:428
Cnidarians
anatomy 2:321, 2:321f
Anthozoa
anatomy 2:324f
life cycle 2:322f

Phanerozoic 2:323
Carboniferous 4:212
classification
Anthozoa 2:321
Ceriantipatharia 2:323-324
Hydroconozoa 2:321
Hydrozoa 2:321
Octocorallia 2:323-324
Scyphozoa 2:321
Zoantharia 2:323-324
corals 2:321-334
anatomy 2:324/", 2:326f
3:379, 3:380f
Devonian 4:198
ecology 2:329, 2:331f
Eocene 5:469
4:506f, 4:507
Jurassic 3:356
life cycle 2:322f
Miocene 5:482
north-eastern Atlantic Ocean
4:512f, 4:512-513
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:462
palaeoecology 2:329, 2:33If
Phanerozoic 2:323
Rugosa 2:324, 2:325/", 2:326f,
2:328f, 2:330, 2:331f
Scleractinia 2:324, 2:325f, 2:326f,
2:327f, 2:329, 2:330f, 2:331f,
3:356
structure 2:327
symbioses 4:146
Tabulata 2:324, 2:325f, 2:329f,
2:330, 2:331f
taxonomy 2:327
Hydrozoa
anatomy 2:321f
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:322
Scyphozoa
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:323
crustaceans (Crustacea) 1:277f^ 1:278,
3:357
diatoms
5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75t
Oligocene 5:476
dinoflagellates
3:378, 3:378f
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:462
echinoderms 2:334-341
Ambulararia 2:335
Cambrian 4:171
3:379, 3:380f
Crinoidea 2:342-350
anatomy 2:342
arms 2:343/", 2:344, 2:345f
calyx 2:343/i 2:344
Camerata 2:344-345, 2:347f
Carboniferous 4:212
Cladida 2:344-345, 2:347f
2:343f
Disparida 2:344-345, 2:347f
ecology 2:348
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
evolution 2:355, 2:347f
Flexibilia 2:344-345, 2:347f
Jurassic 3:358
morphology 2:342
P entacrinites fossilis 2:345f
taphonomy 2:348
Triassic 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350
Deuterostoma 2:335
Echinodermata
Asteroidea 2:335, 2:336f
carpoids 2:335, 2:336f
Crinoidea 2:335, 2:336f
Echinoidea 2:335, 2:336f
Holothuroidea 2:335, 2:336/~, 2:355
Ophiuroidea 2:335, 2:336f
echinoids 2:350-356
Arbacioida 2:352/", 2:355, 2:356f
burrowing 2:354
Cassiduloida 2:355, 2:356f
Cidaroida 2:351f, 2:355, 2:356f
Clypeasteroida 2:352f, 2:355,
2:356/", 5:469
Diadematoida 2:355, 2:356f
Echinoida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
Echinothurioida 2:355, 2:356f
688
INDEX
Eocene 5:469
feeding 2:354
heart urchins 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
Holasteroida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
Holectypoida 2:355, 2:356f
locomotion 2:354
morphology 2:350, 2:351f, 2:352,
2:352f9 2:353f
palaeobiology 2:354
Pedinoida 2:352f, 2:355
2:356f
predation and defence 2:354
reproduction 2:355
Salenioida 2:352f, 2:355, 2:356f
sand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
sea urchins 2:350
skeletons 2:350
Spatangoida 2:351f, 2:352f, 2:355,
2:356f
Temnopleuroida 2:35'2/j 2:355,
2:356f
Eleutherozoa 2:335
Jurassic 3:358
morphological evolution l:276f, 1:278
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:463
Pelmatozoa 2:335
2:33 6f
stereom 2:334, 2:335f
taxonomy
asteroids 2:336f, 2:339, 2:340f
blastozoans 2:339
carpoids 2:337
edrioasteroids 2:336f, 2:338f, 2:339
helicoplacoids 2:337
holothurians 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340f,
2:341f
isophorids 2:338f, 2:339
ophiocistioids 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340f
ophiuroids 2:336f, 2:340, 2:340f
stromatocystitids 2:338f, 2:339
end-Permian extinctions 3:348f
Eocene 5:469
allogromids 3:45Of
ammodiscana 3:45If
astrorhizana 3:45If
astrorhizata 3:45If
astrorhizids 3:45Of
(BFE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
buliminids 3:45Of
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72f,
5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
Eocene 5:468
favusellids 3:450f
fusulinids 3:45Of
hormosinana 3:451f
Jurassic 3:356
lagenids 3:45Of
lagynana 3:45If
lituolids 3:45Of
loftusiids 3:45Of
miliolana 3:451f
miliolata 3:451f
miliolids 3:45Of
nodosariana 3:45If
nodosariata 3:451f
Palaeocene 5:462
Permian 4:216
rank 3:449
robertinids 3:45Of
rotaliana 3:451f
rotaliata 3:451f
rotaliids 3:45Of
shell morphology 3:451f, 3:452f
spirillinana 3:45If
spirillinata 3:45If
spirillinids 3:45Of
textulariana 3:45If
textulariids 3:45Of
anagenesis 1:267-268, 1:269 f
characteristics
anatomy 2:378
shell morphology 2:379f
Eocene 5:469
evolution
Cenozoic 2:387
Mesozoic 2:387
origins 2:385
Palaeozoic 2:386
Jurassic 3:357
Mimospirina 2:381f, 2:385
occurrence 2:378
Ordovician 4:179
Orthogastropoda
Neritimorpha 2:384
Palaeocene 5:463
predation 4:145f, 4:145-146, 4:161 f
pteropods 4:646t, 5:72f9 5:74, 5:75?
Pulmonata 2:383-384, 2:385
shell
coiling direction 2:380, 2:381,
2:382f, 2:384f
colour patterns 2:379f, 2:380,
2:383f
homeostrophic shells 2:382f
muscle scars 2:383
operculum 2:380
symbioses 4:146
Dictyonema 2:361-362, 2:362/",
2:364f
2:365, 2:365f
graptoloids 2:360f9 2:363f
living colony hypothesis 2:364f,
2:365
Monograptus
structure 2:361-362, 2:363f
morphology 2:358f
occurrence 2:363
periderm structure
bandaging 2:361 f
2:3 60 f
preservation 2:363, 2:363/i 2:364f
Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363f
rhabdosomes 2:361
sicula 2:357, 2:358f, 2:359f
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f
stolon system
dendroids 2:357, 2:359f
graptoloids 2:360f
tuboids 2:357, 2:360f
INDEX 6S9
invertebrates (continued]
thecae 2:358f
insects 2:295-300
Apterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
biodiversity 1:263, l:263f, 2:296f,
2:298f
Carboniferous 1:204-206, 2:296-298,
2:299f, 4:210-211
3:381, 3:3S1/"
Devonian 2:296-298, 2:299/",
4:195-196
documentation 2:298
Eocene 5:469
geological history 2:296, 2:300?
Jurassic 3:358
life cycles 2:298f
Mesozoic 2:296-298
occurrences 2:295
origins 2:296
Permian 2:296-298, 2:299f
Phanerozoic 2:298f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
taxonomy 2:2951
Tertiary 2:296-298, 2:299f
Triassic 2:296-298, 2:298 f, 2:299f,
3:350
Miocene 5:482
molluscs 2:367-369. See also ammonites;
bivalves (Bivalvia); cephalopods;
gastropods (Gastropoda)
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/~, 3:368,
3:369f
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Eocene 5:469
Jurassic 3:356
morphology 2:367
Oligocene 5:476
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:463
reproduction 2:368
anatomy 2:408, 2:409f
Cambrian 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification
Archaeocyatha 2:408, 2:416, 2:416f
Calcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414f
Demospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412f

Hexactinellida 2:408,2:411,2:413f,
2:414f
Sclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413,
2:415f, 2:416f
3:379, 3:380f
Jurassic 3:356
spicules 2:408, 2:41 Of, 2:41 If, 5:57f
radiolarians
Cretaceous 3:366f
3:378, 3:378f
5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:464
phyletic gradualism 1:270f
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:279f, 2:281-295
activities
digging 2:288
feeding strategies 2:278, 2:288
walking 2:288
anatomical features 2:286, 2:287f,
2:290f
Cambrian
biogeographical
distribution 4:173 f
stratigraphic correlation 4:167f,
4:169 f
cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f9
2:284f
classification
Agnostida 2:29It
Asaphida 2:291?
Corynexochida 2:291t
Lichida 2:291 f
major orders 2:292f
Phacopida 2:291?
Proetida 2:291t
Ptychopariida 2:291?
Redlichiida 2:291*
Deiphon 2:291, 2:291 f
ecdysis 2:286-287

exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f, 2:282f,
2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292f
extinction 2:281, 2:293
limbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288
morphology 2:281
Mucronaspis 4:180-181
Ordovician 2:164, 4:176-177, 4:179,
4:181f
pygidium 2:282/, 2:283, 2:284f
Silurian 4:185
thorax 2:282f, 2:283
Triassic 3:348f
visual systems 2:279, 2:283, 2:285f,
2:286f, 2:290f
inyoite (Ca2B6Oir13H2O) 3:512?, 3:513?
lo 5:283, 5:284t, 5:284f, 5:577/i 5:578
iodine (I) 3:501?, 3:502?, 3:553?, 3:554
Ionian Sea 2:135-146
ionosphere 5:217f
Iowa, United States 2:472
Iran 3:7?, 3:344, 4:215-216, 5:462,
5:466-468
iranite(Pb 10 Cu(CrO 4 ) 6 (SiO4)2(F,OH)2)
3:533?
Ireland
beer brewing process 3:78-81
Carboniferous 4:211
Ordovician 4:182
Potato Blight 2:153
Silurian 4:191-192, 4:192-193
zeolites 3:598
irghizites 5:451
iridium (Ir)
5:114*
world production rates 1:438?
iriginite (UO 2 (Mo 2 O7)-3H 2 O) 3:552?
Irish geological societies 3:63-64
iron (Fe)
berthierine 3:542?, 5:99
carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223?
crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174?
5:119, 5:76, 5:77f
geothermal systems 3:113?
glauconite 3:542?
goethite (Fe 2 O 3 -H 2 O)
gleyed soils 5:195, S:198f
690
INDEX
iron (Fe) (continued)

ironstones 5:98-99
magnetic properties 4:1491
haematite (Fe2O3)
Australia 1:218f, 1:221
carbonatites 3:221?, 3:223t
granites 3:242
ironstones 5:98-99
magnetic properties 4:149t
stability 3:S80f
ilmenite (FeTiOs)
carbonatites 3:22It
granites 3:234-235
kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256?
magmatic ores 3:641
kimberlites 3:248t
limonite 5:98-99
magmatic ores 3:641
magnetite (Fe3O4)
carbonatites 3:221t
magmatic ores 3:641
physical properties 4:149?, 4:149f
stability 3:580f
obsidian 3:269?
5:114t
pseudobrookite (Fe2TiO5) 4:149f
pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) 4:149t
shock metamorphic effects 5:1#0?,
5:183t
siderite (FeCO3)
carbonatites 3:221t
grain analysis 5:31
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 5:108, 5:10St
ulvospinel (Fe2TiO4) 4:149f
Venus 5:247?
wustite (FeO) 4:149f
ironstones 5:97-107
3:494_495

banding 5:38, S:38f
classification 5:37
definition 5:37
metamorphism 5:39
mineralogy 5:38
nomenclature 5:37
occurrence 5:33-34
origins 5:40
Vendian 4:372
diagenesis 5:102
occurrence 5:34
ferruginization process 5:103, S:104f
definition 5:98
diagenesis 5:102f
ferruginization process 5:103, 5:104/1,
5:105f
lithification 5:101
mineralogy 5:98
nodules 4:385
nomenclature 5:98
occurrence 5:33
ooidal ironstones
ferruginization process 5:103-105,
S:WSf
occurrence 5:34
photomicrograph 5:35f 9 5:99f
verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545/",
3:547,5:101
Irrawaddy River 5:19?
Irwin,J. 5:266?
Isacks, Bryan 3:205
Isan Orogeny 1.-213/", 1:218-219
Isaqueena Superterrane 4:74f
island arcs
Cordillera 4:54
Fiji 4:120
New Caledonia 4:116
New Zealand 4:5f
oceanic island arc belts 5:418
Papua New Guinea 4:109, 4:lllf
seamounts 4:479
Tonga 4:120
Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:88, 2:88f, 2:89f,
2:91f, 2:92f
Vanuatu 4:116
Islas Orcadas Rise 3:315f, 3:316?
Isle of Arran 2:202-203, 2:203f, 3:84-85,
3:175, 3:175f, 5:542, 5:543f
Isle of Wight, United Kingdom 5:468f
isoprenoids 4:248-250
isostasy 1:98, l:98f, 1:407, l:407f, 1:408f
Israel 3:344
Issendalenian stage 4:169f
Isthmus of Panama 5:481, 5:487-488,
5:489
Istiodactylus 2:510
Isua Supracrustal rocks, Greenland 4:351,
5:39
Italy
Cretaceous 5:506f
Elba Island 3:238f, 3:599
Eocene 5:466-468, 5:506^
Eocene-Oligocene boundary 5:466,
5:472-473
Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269f9
3:270f
gemstones 3:7?
Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100, 2:134f,
3:244-245
meteorites 5:229
Miocene 5:478, 5:506f
Mount Etna, Sicily 1:200?, 3:329,4:389f,
5:575
Oligocene 5:506f
Palaeocene 5:462
Pleistocene 5:493, 5:506f
Pliocene 5:506f
Sicily 5:478, 5:486, 5:487, 5:506f
Silurian 4:193
Stromboli volcano, Italy 4:3871
Suess, Eduard 2:237, 2:238
Triassic 3:345-346, 5:506f
Vesuvius, Italy 4:3S7?, 5:575
zeolites 3:599
Ivanovia 2:434
Ivorian subdivision 4:202f
Ivory Coast tektites 5:445, 5:445?, 5:445/",
5:447f
Ivrea Zone, Italy 2:100, 2:134f, 3:244-245
INDEX 691
Izhma Zone 2:52, 2:52f, 2:53f, 2:55

Izu-Bonin Trench 5:430?, 5:43 Of
Izu-Ogasawara Arc 4:479-480
J
Jackfork Group, Ouachita Mountains 4:63,
4:66f
Jacksonian stage 5:473f
jade 1:196
jadeite 1:196, 3:7?, 3:567, 5:533, 5:S33f
Jaeger, John 3:192
jahnsite 5:122
James, H. 3:476
Jameson, Robert 2:184, 3:171, 3:174,
5:542
Jan Mayen Ridge 3:315f, 3:316t
Japan 3:297-305
accretion terranes 3:297, 3:300-302
arc-trench system 3:297, 3:298f
biota 3:302
gemstones 3:7t
geology 3:300, 3:301f
gold deposits 3:122, 3:122f
3:240-241
liquefaction 1:525, l:525f, l:526f,
1:531 f, 1:533 f, 1:55 6f, 3:94
Sanbagawa belt 1:243-244
strike-slip fault systems 3:304f
3:303-304
tectonic processes
pre-Neogene terrains 3:300, 3:302f
Triassic 3:344
volcanism 3:297, 3:299f, 3:300f
zeolites 3:598
Japan Trench 3:298f, 5:429f, 5:430?,
5:431f, 5:436f
Jaramillo Magnetic Reversal 5:445-446
jarosite 5:394?
jasper 3:570
Jatoba Basin 3:129
javaites 5:445/", 5:446-447
jawed fish 2:462
conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448
galeaspids 2:458
origins 2:455
ostracoderms
Astraspis 2:457, 2:457^
decline 2:459
Eriptychius 2:457

Ordovician 2:457
Silurian 2:457
phylogenetic relationships 2:455, 2:459
Jeanne d'Arc basin 4:95, 4:96f, 4:98, 4:105
Jefferson, Thomas 3:60
Jeffreys, Harold 3:193, 3:201-202
Jeholornis 2:497
Jeletzkyteuthis 2:395f
jellyfish 2:321f, 2:321-322, 2:322f, 2:323f
Jequie/Rio Das Velhas/Aroense
thermotectonic event l:308t
Jerangle Metamorphic Complex
1:240-242, l:246f
jimboite (Mn 3 (BO 3 ) 2 ) 3:S12f
Jinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348, 1:349f,
1:350
Johns Valley formation, Ouachita
Mountains 4:63, 4:66f
John the Baptist Hypothesis 5:145-146
joints, definition of 3:390?
jokulhlaups
cycle 4:633f
definition 4:632
flood deposits 4:640f
flood flow 4:634f
geomorphic impacts 4:638f
outwash plain 4:637f
tunnel inlet 4:634f
Joly, John 3:183-184
Jones Mountains, Antarctica l:133f, 1:137
Jones, Owen Thomas 3:62
Jones, T. Rupert 3:476-477, 3:477f
Jopling, Alan 3:189
jordanite 5:394?
Juan de Fuca Plate 4:9-11, 4:37f, 4:39f,
4:58-60, 4:59f, 5:479-480, 5:480f
Juan de Fuca Ridge
eruption frequency 5:383
hydrothermal vents 5:3 711
linear anomalies 3:203-204
Raff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:398,
5:399f
seamounts 4:479
seismic structure 5:411-412
Juan Fernandez Archipelago 3:315f,
3:316?
Juan Fernandez Ridge l:119f, l:120f,
1:15 5 f
Juanian stage 5:473f
Jujuyaspis 4:177
Jukes, Joseph 3:62, 3:181
Julian stage 3:345f
Junggur Basin, China 3:344
Jupiter
linear gaseous zones 5:283f
orbital frequencies 1:41 It

physical characteristics 5:282, 5:282?
satellite system
Amalthea 5:284?, 5:285
Callisto 5:284?, 5:285
characteristics 5:284?
Europa 4:13f, 4:14-15, 5:283, 5:284?,
5:284f
Ganymede 5:284, 5:284?
lo 5:283, 5:284?, 5:284/", 5:577f, 5:578
outer icy satellites 5:285
spacecraft missions 5:283?
volcanoes 5:577f, 5:578
Jura Mountains 2:125, 2:126f, 2:128f,
2:238, 3:352
Jurassic 3:352-360
Aalenian stage 3:352?, 3:354f, 5:506f,
5:517f
Mps2:131f,2:132f
amphibians
Lissamphibia
frogs 2:521-522
temnospondyls 2:519f
angiosperms 2:422/", 2:423
anoxic environments 3:355, 4:499
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136, 1:137
Arabia 1:142f, l:144f
Arctic Sea 2:108
Atlantic Margin evolution 4:95, 4:102,
4:103 f,4:104f
Bajocian stage 3:352?, 3:354/", 5:506f9
5:517f
Bathonian stage 3:352?, 5:506/, 5:517f
biota
algae, benthic 3:355
algae, planktonic 3:356
ammonites 2:400-401, 2:401f, 3:352,
3:357
bryozoans(Bryozoa)3:356
cephalopods 2:389/", 3:357
corals 2:325f, 3:356
crinoids 2:346-347, 2:347/", 3:358
crustaceans (Crustacea) 3:357
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:492, 3:358,
3:359f
echinoids 2:354
fish 3:358
foraminifera 3:356
692
INDEX
Jurassic (continued)
gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:357
Ichthyosauria 2:503, 2:503f, 2:507f,
3:358
insects 3:358
mammals 2:538
molluscs 3:356
oysters 2:164-165, 3:356-357
pectenids 3:356-357
protists 3:356
tetrapods 2:165'f
vertebrates 3:358
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141, 4:141f, 4:146f,
4:146-147
Ersizill:317f,l:318f,l:320f
bryozoans (Bryozoa) l:274f, 1:274-276
Callovian stage 3:352;, 3:353-354,
3:354f, 3:355, 5:506f, 5:517f
China 1:347f
chronostratigraphy 3:352, 3:352*,
4:25f
continental evolution 3:354, 3:354f
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f,
4:460-461
Entrada Sandstone, Utah 4:546, 4:547f
Europe 2:108
fish 2:463^
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:1 SI*, 1:186
Jurassic, end 3:147
I:188f,3:151f93:152af
terranesl:170/", l:172f,
1:175 f,3:131f
gymnosperms
Pentoxylales 2:452
Voltziales 2:449
Hettangian stage 3:352*, 3:354f, 5:506f,
5:517f
insects 2:299/i 2:300*, 3:358
5:517f
ironstones 5:106
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Kimmeridgian stage 3:352*, 3:354f,
4:54-55, 5:506f, 5:517f
Lagerstatten
ammonites 3:307-308
conservation deposits 3:310, 3:311

Solnhofen Limestone 3:311
Navajo Sandstone, Arizona 4:547f
New Caledonia 4:116
North Africa 1.-14/", l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,
1:23 f
4:25/", 4:26f, 4:32f
northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40f, 4:41f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460/", 3:461
Oxfordian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354,
3:355, 4:54-55, 5:506f, 5:517f
Page Sandstone, Colorado Plateau
4:545-546, 4:547f
palaeoclimate 3:354
Pangaea 3:131f
Parana basin l:320f
Pliensbachian stage 3:352*, 3:354/",
3:355, 5:506f, 5:517f
4:3 84 f
reef environments 4:567, 4:567f
Sinemurian stage 3:348, 3:352*
Solnhofen Limestone
Archaeopteryx 2:497
2:274-275
Cnidarians 2:323
dendrites 4:3 83 f
Liesegang banding 4:3 83 f
Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:18It, 1:186,
l:188f
1:185 f
stages 3:352*
Tethys Ocean 2:108
Tithonian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354,
5:506f,5:517f
Toarcian stage 3:352*, 3:354/", 3:355,
5:506*; 5:517f
Triassic-Jurassic boundary
3:345-346
Uralide orogeny 2:87f, 2:88f
Uzbekistan 1:167
zone concept 3:352
K
Kaapvaal craton, South Africa 1:132-135,
l:280f, 1:429, 5:39
kaersutite 3:505
Kalahari craton 3:164, 3:164f
Kalahari Desert 1:555-556
kalborsite 3:593*
Kalihari pans 4:615, 4:615f
kamacite 3:553*, 3:554
kamafugite 3:220*
Kamchatka 4:470, 4:47 Of, 5:461
kamenitzas
See solution pans (kamenitzas)
Kamennogorsk anticline 2:51
kames 3:95/i 4:676
Kanimbian contraction 3:139
Kanimblan contraction 3:140f
Kanin Peninsula 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52f, 2:55
kankite 3:505*
Kanmantoo Group 1:240, 1:242, 1:245
Kansas, United States 2:504-505, 4:29/~,
4:30f, 4:31f, 4:32, 4:36f, 5:230f
KaokoBeltl:2/; 1:9
kaolin
claystones 5:30
kaolinite
Atterberg Limits 5:187t
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes
mudrocks 5:65, 5:66f
pseudomorphs 5:66-67
sedimentary rocks 5:145*"
vermicules 5:66f
formation processes 1:363, l:363f,
5:33f
layer type 1:360, 1:361*
occurrence 5:32
physicochemical properties 1:368-369
Karakoram range 5:421, 5:422f, 5:423
Kara Plate 4:464, 4:464f
Kararan Orogeny l:212f, 1:213f,
1:217-218
Kara, Russia 3:363*
Kara Sea 2:50f, 2:52f
Kara Shelf 2:53
Karelia 2:39, 2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f, 4:456,
4:459f
Karnataka Craton 5:39
Karoo 3:315*; 3:316*
INDEX 693
Karoo Basin, South Africa 1:319f,

3:142-147, 3:146f, 3:347, 4:219 f,
4:220, 4:224
Karpinsky Swell 2:35f, 4:471
karst landscapes 4:678-687
caves (endokarst)
paragenetic canyons 4:684f,
4:684-685, 4:685f
vadose canyons 4:684f, 4:685f
classification scheme 4:683f
clints 4:680, 4:682f
cryokarst 4:679
dissolution processes 1:550-551, 1:551 /",
4:679
drainage 4:683
exhumed karst 4:679
fluviokarst 4:682
geophysical techniques 1:49It, 1:493,
1:49 5 f
grikes 4:680, 4:682f
landscape development 4:683
palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686f
petroleum reservoirs 4:235, 4:237f
pseudokarst 4:679
relict karst 4:679, 4:683f
runnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681 f,
4:682f
solution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680,
4:680f, 4:682f
solution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680, 4:682f
surface karst (exokarst)
lacustrine karst 4:680, 4:681f
large-scale karst (karst landscapes)
4:682
limestone pedastals 4:681 f
medium-scale karst (karst landforms)
4:681
small-scale karst (karren) 4:680,
4:680f
solution pits 4:68If
tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683f
Kashmir 3:344
Kasimovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511 f,
5:517f
Kaskaskia sequence, North America 4:25,
4:26f, 4:27f, 4:28
Kattegat 2:98, 2:150
katydids 2:300;
Kazakh-Mongol arc 4:466
Kazakhstan
Cambrian 1:173 f
Carboniferous l:182f, I:184f9 4:201
Devonian 1:182f
geology 1:164
Kokchetav Massif 5:533, 5:535-536,
5:536f, 5:537
Ordovician 1:173 f
Permian l:184f, 5:511f
Silurian l:173f, 4:191-192
tektites 5:451
terranes 3:13Of
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164, 1:165f
Triassic l:184f, 3:344
Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89
kazakhstanite (Fe 5 (V 15 O39)(OH)9-9H 2 O)
3:589t
4:467f
Kazanian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
Keeling curve 1:343f
Keichousaurus 2:506
Keivy domain 2:44f
kelp 5:482
Kelso, Washington 4:688, 4:688f
Kelut, Indonesia 5:575;
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552f,
5:552-553
Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord 1:81,
1:257,3:183-184
Kenya 3:12, 5:204f, 5:491t
Kenya, Mount 1:3Of
Kenyanthropus 2:541
Kenyanthropus platyops 5:49It
Keraterpeton 2:473f
Kerguelen Plateau 3:315 f, 3:316;,
5:473-474
Kerguelen Plume 3:292
Kermadec Trench 5:430;, 5:43 Of
kernite (Na 2 B 4 O7-4H 2 O) 3:512;, 3:512f,
3:513t
kerogenous sediments
classification 4:454, 5:26;
nomenclature 4:274f
optical analytical methods 4:272,
4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276f
4:277f, 4:278f, 4:279f
See also natural gas; oil; petroleum
geology
Kerr Basin 4:67
Kestelek mining district, Turkey
kesterite (Cu2ZnSnS4) 3:575;
Keuper formation, Germany 3:344
Khangai-Khentei superterrane 4:465
Khanka arc 4:466
Khramov, A.N. 3:331
Kick-Em-Jenny seamount
4:479-480
kidwellite 5:126
Kielmeyer, Karl Friedrich 2:179
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 1:200;, 3:328,

3:329f, 4:387t
KilihigokBasin4:17
Kilimanjaro, Mount 1:3Of
Kimban Orogeny 1.-209/", 1.-211/", l:212f,
1:215-216
Kimberella 4:373-374
Kimberley Craton, Australia 1:21 Of, 1:212,
1:239 f
kimberlites 3:247-260
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:1 If
chemical composition 3:248;
definition 3:247
depth distribution 3:255, 3:257f
diamonds
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:1 If
geochemical exploration 3:22, 3:23f,
3:24f
mineral suites 3:255, 3:256;
provenance 3:255
Russia 4:473
geotectonic setting 3:249, 3:252f
intrusion types
diatremes 3:248, 3:249;, 3:249/",
3:250f, 3:251f
dykes 3:249
interrelationships 3:249, 3:251f
sills 3:249
kimberlite indicator minerals 3:22, 3:23f,
3:24f
magmatic system 3:25If
megacrysts 3:255
mineralogy 3:256;
mining techniques 3:257, 3:258f
phlogopite 3:550
radiometric dating 3:250, 3:252f, 3:253f
Russia 4:463f, 4:473
temperature ranges 3:254-255, 3:255f
upper mantle associations 3:255, 3:257f
xenoliths 3:252, 3:254f, 3:255f
Kimmeridgian stage 3:352;, 3:3 54f, 4:54-55
S:517f
Kinderscoutian subdivision 4:202f
King, Clarence 3:184
King, Haddon 3:192
King Leopold Orogeny 1:211, I:215f9
l:239f,3:132f
King, Lester 3:193-194
Kinneya 4:377
Kipchak arc 4:466
Kircher, Athanasius 3:169
694
INDEX
Kirka mining district, Turkey

Kirkidium knightii 4:189
kirschsteinite 3:557-558
Kirwan, Richard 3:178
Klamath Mountains 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:54
Klaproth, Martin 3:178
Klippen nappe 2:132, 2:132f
Knight, Richard 3:61
Knoxisporites stephanephoms 3:464f
Kobe, Japan 1:525, l:525f, 1:531 f, l:533f,
3:94
Koch, Johan Peter 2:246
koechlinite (Bi2MoO6) 3:552?
Kofels Landslide 4:690-691
Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan 5:533,
5:535-536, 5:536f, 5:537, 5:539
Kola Peninsula 2:44f, 2:45, 2:50, 3:599,
4:456
Kolbeinsey Ridge 1:101 f
Kolguev Island 2:51, 2:S2f
Koli Nappe Complex 2:65/", 2:67
kolovratite (NixZny(VO4)z-nH2O) 3:589t
Kolvitsa belt 2:44f
Komandorsky Islands 4:38
definition 3:260
3:262f, 3:263f
nickel-copper-platinum group
(Ni-Cu-PGE) mineralization 3:266
occurrence 3:261
spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261f, 3:264f
water content 3:266
kombatite (Pb14O9(VO4)2Cl4) 3:589t
Konglingiphyton erecta 4:361 f
Kootenay terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46
Kopanina Formation 4:189
Koppen, Wladimir 2:246
Koro Islands 4:118
Koryak Mountains 4:456, 4:470, 4:470^
Korzhinskii, Dmitrii 3:187
Kostov, Ivan 5:121
kotoite (Mg3B2O6) 3:512?, 3:512f
kottingite 3:508f
Koyukuk terrane 4:40f9 4:42, 4:46
Krafla volcano, Iceland 5:575
Krakatau, Indonesia 5:575?
krennerite 3:129?
krettnichite (PbMn2(VO4)2(OH)2) 3:589t
Krige, Daniel 4:323
kriging 4:323
Krumbein, William 3:189

Krynine, Paul 3:188
krypton (Kr) 1:197?, 1:198, l:199f, 3:553?
Kuark belt 1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246f
Kuban foredeep 4:471
Kuenen, Philip 3:197
Kuenen, Phillip 3:188
Kufra Basin 3:129, 3:137f
Kuiper Belt 5:220-221, 5:223, 5:294
Kukri Peneplain 1:135
kulanite 5:125-126
Kula Plate 5:461, 5:466, 5:480
Kullenberg, B. 5:71-72
Kungurian stage 4:208f9 4:209f, 4:215?,
4:468, 5:511/", 5:517f
Kurile Islands 4:470, 4:47Of
Kuril Trench 5:430?, 5:430f
kurnakovite (Mg2B6Oir15H2O) 3:512?,
3:513?
Kuroshio Current 4:644
Kuskowim Mountains 4:45
Kuwait
See Arabia
Kuznetsk-Teletskoye strike-slip fault
system 4:466
Kvarkush anticline 2:51, 2:55, 2:90
kyanite
metamorphic facies 3:397, 3:398f9
3:400f, 3:412f, 4:411 f, 4:412?
weathering processes 3:489f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167, 2:513
L
Labelle shear zone 3:158f
Labrador 3:155, 4:11-12, 5:461-462,
5:466
Labrador Current 4:643-644
labradorite 3:534f9 3:535
lacewings 2:297f, 2:300?
lachatelierite 5:447
Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia 3:237?, 3:238f9
3:241 f, 3:244f
Lachlan Orogeny 1:237-251
back-arc basin closure 1:247, 1:248 f9
1:249 f

deformation processes 1:242
evolution
Andean-type margin development
1:250
back-arc basin closure 1:249
back-arc basin formation 1:247
geological map I:239f9 1:241 f
lithofacies 1:242
magmatism 1:244, 1:247f
metamorphic complexes 1:244, 1:246f
subduction events 1:250
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:239

turbidites 1:243-244
ultramafic rocks 1:243f
Lacian stage 3:345f
Lacroix, Alfred 5:443
Lacus Mortis 5:267?
Lacus Somniorum 5:267?
Ladinian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517f
lagenids 3:450f
lager 3:80-81
amphibians 2:523
traps 3:308
bacteria 3:311
geographic locations 3:310?
stratiform deposits
anoxia 3:311
obrution 3:310, 3:31 If
Opabinia3:311
scavengers 3:309
stagnation 3:311
taphonomy 3:308
traps 3:309
definitions 3:307
Holzmaden, Germany 2:503
apatite 3:312, 3:312f
clay minerals 3:313
Leancholia 3:313f
nodules 3:313, 3:314f
Notelops 3:312f
pyrite 3:312, 3:313f
silica 3:313
See also Burgess Shale; Rhynie chert;
Solnhofen Limestone
lagoons 1:528?, 1:540, 3:524f9 4:564,
4:571f
lagynana 3:45If
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f, 5:576?,
5:576f, 5:577f
Lake Baikal 4:471, 4:472f9 4:550, 4:558
Lake Balkash 1:164
Lake Ladoga 2:40
Lake Magadi 1:30, l:31f
Lake Malawi 4:551-552, 4:557
Lake Michigan 4:558f
Lake Nyos, Cameroon 5:575?
lakes 4:550-561
alkaline lakes 3:596, 3:596f
INDEX 695
lakes (continued)
biological processes
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:556
diatomite 4:556
organic matter 4:557
calcium carbonate (CaCC^) 3:523f,
4:556, 4:557, 4:SS8f
chemical processes
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 4:557
marl 4:557
chert 5:53, 5:58
hydrothermal processes 4:558
petroleum reservoirs 4:2351
physical processes
beaches 4:552, 4:SS4f, 5:135
currents 4:552f
lacustrine deltas 4:552, 4:553f
mass failure 4:554
river inflow 4:552, 4:552f
seiche 4:SSlf, 4:551-552
spits 4:554f
subsurface currents 4:552f, 4:554,
4:555f
surface currents 4:554
thermocline 4:551 f
turbidites 4:552f, 4:554-556, 4:555f
varves 4:554, 4:555f
vertical mixing 4:550, 4:55If
water-column structure 4:550
playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517
rift valleys 5:440f, 5:440-441
tectonic processes 4:558, 4:560f
Lake Tanganyika 4:551-552,
4:556, 4:558
Lake Turkana l:28f, 1:31 f, 5:481-482
Lake Victoria l:26f
Lake Zaysan 1:164-165, l:166f
Laki, Iceland 3:322, 5:575?
Lakshmi Planum, Venus 5:257, 5:261f
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 2:160-161,
2:181-182, 2:208-209, 3:176, 4:123
Lambert-Beer Law 1:64
Lambic beers 3:81
Lamington, Papua-New Guinea 5:575?
Lament Geological Observatory, Columbia
University 3:197
lampreys 2:455, 2:459
lamprophyre 3:220?, 3:237?
landfills
clays. See clays
groundwater monitoring 2:14-21
2:15f

2:19 f

isotopic analyses
2:l7,2:18f
2:17,2:18f
2:17,2:18f
pH2:15, 2:15^
2:lSf
made ground 1:538
sanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30f
Land Mammal Age 5:472, 5:473f
England 4:382, 4:383f
creep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691f
5:576?, 5:576f
debris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690f
earthflows 4:690
earthquakes 3:93f
1:476-478, 1:477f
4:426, 4:426f, 4:428?
hazard analysis
earthquakes 3:93f, 5:327
frequency 1:517?
hazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523f
mortality rates 1:517?, 1:51 #?, 4:688
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,
5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f
Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691f
mud flows 4:689
occurrence 4:687
Tadzhikistanl:518/"
talus 4:689
topples 4:689
volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f
5:479/",5:506/",5:517/'
Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27If
Langsettian subdivision 4:202f
lanthanum (La)
carbonatites 3:223?, 3:224?, 3:224f
crustal composition 5:174?
mineral analysis 1:108?
5:114?
lapilli, accretionary 4:3S7?, 4:390?, 5:572?
Lapland-Kola orogeny 2:38, 2:41f, 2:42f,
2:43f, 2:44f
Lappajarvi, Finland 3:363?
Lapparent, Auguste de 3:190
Lapworth, Charles 2:218, 3:62, 3:180,
4:176,4:185
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f, 5:460-461
Larapintine Sea 3:128, 3:134f, 3:135f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315-323
age dating 3:318
composition 3:317
3:322
Cretaceous 3:363?
3:383
mantle roots 3:317
mass extinctions 3:321 f, 3:322, 3:383
ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315, 3:318,
3:322
origins 3:320
seamounts 3:316?, 3:318, 3:322
subduction zones 3:318f, 3:319, 3:319f
types 3:317
3:322
volcanism 3:317
Lariosaurus 2:506
larnite 3:557-558
Lashly formation 3:147, 3:150f
Last Glacial Maximum 1:140, 4:626f9
4:646
last universal common ancestor (LUCA)
4:124
laterites
formation processes 3:488-489, 3:489f,
5:33f, 5:588
occurrence 1:560-561, 5:31-32
palaeoclimate 4:134
696
INDEX

l:342f
Latimeria chalumnae 2:466
latosols 1:561
Lau Basin 4:53-54, 5:371t, 5:411-412,
5:416f
laueite 5:124-125
Laue, M. von 3:501
Lau Islands 4:120
laumontite 3:397, 3:593*
Laurasia
amphibians 2:516, 2:517, 2:518,
2:521-522, 2:524
biozones 3:438
Carboniferous 4:204, 4:212
China 1:352
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:362, 3:362, 3:362f,
3:365
definition 4:225
Devonian 2:79, 3:438
DuToit, Alexander 2:191
flora 3:348, 3:349f
Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16f, 4:225
mammals 2:532, 2:533, 2:536-537
Pangaea 2:79, 4:225
Permian 1:182, 4:214-215
synapsids 2:485
Triassic 3:346, 3:348, 3:349f
Laurentia
Appalachians 4:72, 4:73
Australia 1:213 f, 1:215f
Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-63, 2:64-74
Cambrian l:173f, 2:56, 4:164, 4:169f,
4:170f
Carboniferous l:182f, 1:184f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:436, 3:439
continental margin 2:65f, 2:67
Devonian l:182f, 2:78, 2:79
4:80f
Grenville orogeny 3:155, 4:16, 4:19
magmatic arcs 4:76f
northern Cordillera 4:39, 4:40f
Notre Dame subzone 4:85
Nuna 4:14f9 4:16
Ordovician
accretion terranes l:173f
4:181-182
passive margin development 4:76,4:76f

4:15'Sf; 4:156
Permian l:184f, 4:215-216
Precambrian 4:8, 4:9, 4:352-354, 4:353f
Proterozoic orogenic events 4:17
Rodinia breakup 4:8
sharks 2:463-465
Silurian l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192
supercontinents 4:14f, 5:177-178
tectonic evolution 2:73, 2:73f, 4:9, 4:12,
4.-13/; 4:19, 4:89
tectonostratigraphic relationships 4:83f
terranes 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f
Laurus 2:419f
Laurussia
Carboniferous 4:204
definition 4:225
Gondwana
Mesozoic 3:129-139
Permian 3:139, 3:142
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:97
Palaeocene 5:463
Pangaea 3:128, 4:225, 4:226f,
4:227-228
Permian basin formation 2:97, 2:100
Silurian 4:193
terranes 1:222, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
Timanide Orogeny 2:50
a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f9
5:567-569, 5:S71f
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, 5:571f
carbonatites 3:218t
clays 1:545-546
clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f
effusion rate 3:324
flood basalts 3:328
flow speed 3:324
flow volume 3:324
l:546f
definition 3:260

3:262f, 3:263f
nickel-copper-platinum group
(Ni-Cu-PGE) mineralization
3:266
occurrence 3:261
water content 3:266
lava domes 3:326
lava fountains 3:323
Moon 5:270
natural hazards
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii 3:328, 3:329f
pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326,
3:326f, 5:567-569, S:S71f
pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327f, 5:373-375,
5:382-383, 5:567-569, S:S71f
structure
crazing 1:546 f
lava tubes 3:327
pipes l:546f
underwater flows 3:326, 3:32 7f
temperature 3:323
Venus 3:232f
viscosity 3:323
zeolites 3:591f9 3:598, 3:598f
Lavinia Planitia, Venus 5:253f
Lavoisier, Antoine 3:175
lawsonite 3:397, 3:398f
Laxmi Ridge 3:315f9 3:316t
layer/layering, definition of 3:390*
Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221f,
4:224, 5:469
lazulite 5:125-126
lead (Pb)
carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*, 3.-225/J
3:226f
5:114t
radiometric dating l:88t, 3:20, 3:604,
4:202^,5:518
toxicity 2:22*
zircon crystals 3:604
INDEX 697
Leancholia 3:313f
learned societies 3:60
Lebombo monocline 3:151f
lechatelierite 3:281
Legendrelepis 2:462-463
Legget, Robert 1:445-446, 3:192
legrandite 3:508t
LeHave platform 4:96f, 4:100
Leidy, Joseph 2:196
Leigh Creek Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150f
Leine graben 3:653-654
Leintwardine Formation 4:186f9 4:189
Leiosphaeridia 4:357
Lemuria 2:249
Lena River 5:19t
leningradite (PbCu3(VO 4 )2Cl 2 ) 3:588-589,
3:589t
lenticular bedding 4:599
Leonardian stage 4:209f
Leonian stage 4:167f
Leopold, Luna 3:189
Le Pichon, Xavier 3:203, 3:204-205
Lepidesthes 2:352-353, 2:353f
lepidocrocite 5:394t
Lepidodendropsis 4:204, 4:206f
lepidolite 3:548, 3:549-550
Lepidoptera
See insects
Lepisosteus 2:176
Lepontine uplift 2:134f
lepospondyls 2:475, 2:478
Leptolepis koontvarri 2:466f
lessivage 5:194, 5:194f9 5:195f9 5:196f9
5:198, S:198f
Lethiscus 2:473f
Letbiscus stocki 2:473-474, 2:474f
leucite 3:540, 3:540f9 3:541, 3:541f9 3:593t
leucogranites 3:238f
leucophosphite 5:124-125
Levinson modifiers 3:500
Levorsen, Arville Irving 5:545
levyne 3:593t
Lewis and Clark line 4:36, 4:37f
Iherzolite 3:253-254, 3:257f
Liassic Series 2:503
Libby, Walter 3:186
libethenite 5:122
Libya 1:12-25, 5:236
Libyan desert glass 5:450
lice 2:297f, 2:300t
lichens
hyphae 2:441-442
Nematophytes 2:441
lidar 4:414, 4:415f
Liebniz, Gottfried 2:228, 3:170, 3:73
life, origin of 4:123-130
atmospheric evolution 1:202
biomolecular processes 4:124, 4:124f
biospheric evolution 4:363, 4:364f

earliest lifeforms 4:123
extraterrestrial organic molecules
4:127-128
hyperthermophiles 4:124-125
origination location 4:128
Pilbara craton, Australia 4:123
RNA world
development process 4:127f
molecular structures 4:127f
origins 4:126
prebiotic organic molecules 4:127
RNA precursors 4:126
theory development 4:123
tree of life l:203f, 1:279, I:280f9 4:124,
4:125f,4:365f
Lightfoot, John 3:170
lignite
4:3 Of
palaeoclimate 4:134
Ligurian Sea 2:126f, 3:654,
3:655f, 3:656
Liguria-Piemont ocean 2:125
1:441-442, 1:442f, 4:112
likasite (Cu 3 NO 3 (OH) 5 -2H 2 O) 3:556t
Limagne graben 3:653-654
aggregates 1:35
A\ps2:131f
classification 4:454, 5:110, 5:26t
densities 5:321 f
depositional environment 5:110, 5:110f,
5:lllf
diagenesis 5:112
dissolution processes 1:550, 1:5 5 Of
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
geotechnical properties 1:549, I:549t9
I:550f93:102t
grain analysis 5:30,
5:30f
5:108,
9 5:107,
5:109f
karst landscapes 1:550-551, 1:5 51 f,
4:679
nomenclature 5:110
nummulitic limestones 1:24, 1:24 f
Ordovician4:lS2/"
porosity l:549t, 4:234f, 5:107-108
Proterozoic 4:351
shorelines and shelves 4:505-506, 5:110,

5:111 f

limonite 5:98-99
lindgrenite (Cu 3 (MoO4) 2 (OH) 2 ) 3:552t
Lindgren, Waldemar 3:192
linear dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f,
4:621f
linear gullies 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535f
lineation, definition of 3:390t
Line Islands 3:315f9 3:316t, 4:479
Lingula 3:356, 4:223-224
linnaeite (Co3S4) 3:575t
Linnaeus, Carl 3:500, 4:157-158
Liopleurodon 3:358, 3:358f
liquefaction 1:525-534
California I:530f9 l:532f, 1:533f
China 1:5 5 6f
contractive behaviour 1:525, l:526f
damage effects 1:532, I:532f9 l:533f
dilative behaviour 1:525, l:526f
hazard analysis
deposition environment 1:528t
earthquakes 1:457, 1:500-501,
I:556f93:9495:32595:328f
flow chart 1:527f
liquefaction potential evaluation 1:528
permanent ground deformation
flow failure 1:530
lateral spreading 1:530, 1:53Of
shear anlysis 1:528, 1:529f9 1:530f
susceptibility criteria 1:527, l:528t
Kobe, Japan 1:525, I:525f9 I:526f9
I:531f9l:533f93:94
Niigata, Japan 1:53If, l:556f
occurrences 1:525
post-depositional sedimentary structures
convolute lamination 4:606
deforming forces 4:604, 4:605f
overturned cross-bedding 4:606
quicksands 1:555, 1:5 5 6f
sand boils 1:526, I:526f9 l:533f
Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis) 1:33-34
stress/strain analyses 1:525, l:526f
Turkey 1:532f
void redistribution 1:526, l:526f
See also earthquakes
liquid chromatography 4:250
Liquine-Ofqui fault system I:124f9 1:127
liroconite 3:508t
Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:521f9 2:523, 2:525,
2:526f
caecilians 2:521f9 2:522, 2:525
698
INDEX
Lissamphibia (continued)
frogs 2:521, 2:521f, 2:524, 2:524f,
2:525f
origins 2:468
salamanders 2:521f, 2:522, 2:524,
2:525f
Litanaia 2:432
lithification 1:393
lithium (Li)
carbonatites 3:223?
pegmatites 3:639
lithofacies 4:485-486
lithophile elements 3:638f, 3:639?
lithosphere
description 1:403, 4:340, 4:343f
earth system science 1:430, 1:431 f
gravity measurements 1:97f, 1:98, 1:98f
heat flux 5:363?, 5:363f
lithospheric flexure 5:428-437
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
mid-ocean ridges 5:383
Mohorovicic discontinuity 3:656, 3:657f
northern Cordillera 4:39f
2:100
strength analysis 5:335, 5:336f
thermal metamorphism 5:499, 5:500f
volcanism 5:565
Lithuania 2:41-44
Little Ice Age 2:148, 2:148f, 2:153-154,
2:259?
Littorina transgression 2:150-151,
2:155-159
lituolids 3:450f
Livoniana 2:469, 2:470f
lixiviation 5:198
lizardite 3:559, 3:566, 3:566f
Llandellian stage 4:183 f
Llandovery Series 4:84f, 4:87f, 4:185,
4:186f, 4:187f, 4:188f, 5:51 If, 5:517f
Llano orogenic belt 3:164f
Llano Uplift 3:157
Llanvirnian subdivision 4:76, 4:84f, 4:87f,
4:175-176, 4:178-179, 4:179-180
Lobaria 2:442

Locard, Edmund 2:261
Lochkov Formation 4:189
Lochkovian stage
Appalachians 4:87f
5:517f
locusts 2:297f, 2:300?
loellingite (FeAs2) 3:575?, 3:576f
loess l:528t, 1:555-556, l:556f, 3:94,
4:28f, 4:616, 4:617f, 5:445f
loftusiids 3:450^
Logan, William 1:370
Lolen Formation 3:129, 3:137f
Loma Blanca mining district, Argentina
London Basin 5:493
Longfengshania stipitata 4:358, 4:359f
Long Island platform 4:9 6f, 4:100
Longobardian stage 3:345f
Long Range inlier, Newfoundland
3:157f,4:12
longshore drift 4:572, 4:573f
Longvillian substage 4:183f
lonsdaleite 3:282
Lonsdale, W. 2:218-219, 3:476
looting 5:328
Lootsbergian faunachron 3:345f
lopezite (K2Cr2O7) 3:533?
Lophelia 4:512f, 4:512-513, 4:569
lophophorates 3:380f
Lopingian series 4:214, 4:215?, 4:219f,
4:221f,5:511f,5:517f
Lord Howe Rise Seamounts 3:315f, 3:326?,
4:116
Lord Rayleigh
See Rayleigh, John William Strutt,
Baron
Los Angeles abrasion value (ASTM C131/
C535) 1:40, 1:568
Louisville Ridge 3:315f, 3:316?
lovdarite 3:593?
Lovelock, James 3:1-6
criticisms 3:4
definition 3:4
four components 3:3
Love waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334f
Lowell, James Avory 2:175
Lowell, Percival 5:293
LUCA (last universal common ancestor)
4:124
Lucas Craton, Australia l:210f, 1:213
Luc, Jean-Andre de 3:176
Lucy 2:541, 2:542f

Ludfordian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,
5:511 f,5:517f
ludlamite 5:124-125, 5:125f
Ludlow Bone Bed 4:185, 4:186f, 4:189
Ludlow Series 4:87f, 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:lS9,5:511f,5:517f
ludwigite ((FeMg)4Fe2B2O7) 3:522?, 3:512f
Lueckisporites 4:220
LufilianArcl:2/; l:7,l:8f
Luna 3 5:266-267
Luna 9 5:266-267
lunar maria
See Moon
Lunar Prospector 5:265
lunettes 4:618-620, 4:619f
lungfishes 2:467
Lungwangmiaoan stage 4:167f
Lunokhods 5:266-267
Lupeosaurus 2:487-488
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:470, 5:506f
5:52 7f
lutetium (Lu) l:88t, 3:223?, 3:224f,
3:242f
Lycopods 4:206f, 4:209f
lycopods 4:204
lycopsids 5:206f
Lydekkerina huxleyi 2:517f
Agassiz, Louis 2:175, 2:177-178
biozones 1:295
caricature 5:299f
creationism 1:382
Darwin, Charles 2:185, 2:209, 5:298
early career 2:206
evolutionary studies 2:209
evolution theory 2:160-161
French geology 2:208-209
geological investigations 1:257
geological societies 3:73-74
Geological Society of London 2:208
Hall, James, Jr. 2:195, 2:196
Huttonian theory 2:207
Lyell Medals 3:62
metamorphic rocks 3:178
palaeoecology 3:175
Pleistocene 5:493
Pliocene 5:486
portrait 2:206f
publications 2:207
species/fossil theory 2:207, 2:208f
stratification 1:430
Tertiary subdivisions 5:466
uniformitarianism 2:207, 3:177,
5:297-298
lyonsite (Cu3Fe4(VO4)6) 3:589?
INDEX 699

lysorphids 2:478
Lystrosaurus 1:352, 3:350, 4:224, 4:227,
4:22 7f
M
maars 5:571, 5:5
biostratigraphy 3:373/", 3:374
fossil record 3:377f
Signor-Lipps effect 3:376-377
terrestrial invertebrates 3:381, 3:381 f
Maastrichtian stage
Brazil 1.-322/", 1:325 f
5:517f
Laramide Orogeny 5:461f
sea-level variations 3:364, 3:364f
Macaubas rifting event 1:3 08t
MacCulloch, J. 3:476
Macculloch, John 3:179
MacDonald, Gordon 3:201-202
MacKenzie, Dan 3:204
Mackenzie Mountains 4:44-45, 4:50
Mackenzie River 5:19t
mackinawite 3:574, 3:575*, 3:580f
macquartite(Pb 7 Cu2(CrO4)4(SiO4)2(OH)2)
3:533*
macroevolution
See evolution
Madagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7f, 2:79, 3:7*,
3:363*
Madagascar Flood Basalts 3.-315/", 3:316*
Madagascar Ridge 3:315 f, 3:316*
Madagascar Traps 3:363*, 4:216
made ground 1:535-542
applications 1:538
collapse compression 1:541-542
compaction 1:540-541, l:541f
creep compression 1:541, l:541f
definition 1:535
embankment dams 1:536, 1:538-539
examples 1:537*
fill placement 1:539, 1:539/", l:540f
fill properties 1:540, 1:541 f
lagoons 1:540, 1:540 f
landfill 1:538
land reclamation 1:537
liquefaction 1:528*
mine wastes 1:538
modern applications 1:536
Silbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:537*,
1:537f
Madeira Rise 3:315f, 3:316*
mafic rocks 1:243 f, 2:41, 2:99, 3:240*,
3:394-396, 3:396/i 3:397, 3:398f
Magdalena River 5:19*
Magellan orbiter 5:244-245, 5:260-261,
5:262-263
Magellan Rise 3:315f, 3:316*
Magellan Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*
Maghrebides 2:135-146
magma
continental margin 3:41 If
explosive eruption characteristics 4:386,
4:387*, 4:388f
igneous processes
assimilation 3:216
fractional crystallization 3:215,
3:215 f
magma mixing 3:216
magma transport
diapirism3:213/; 3:214
dike injection 3:213f, 3:214
eruptions 3:214
porous flow 3.-213/", 3:214
a'a lava 3:325/i 3:326, 3:326*;
5:567-569, 5:571f
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, S:571f
clinker 3:325/", 3:326, 3:326f
effusion rate 3:324
flood basalts 3:328
flow speed 3:324
flow volume 3:324
natural hazards
3:329f

pahoehoe lava 3:325/", 3:325-326,
3:326f, 5:567-569, 5:S71f
pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327/", 5:567-569,
5:571f
structure
lava tubes 3:327
subaerial lava 3:325,
3:325f, 3:326f
underwater flows 3:326, 3:32 7f
temperature 3:323
viscosity 3:323
mid-ocean ridges 5:372, 5:375, 5:378f,
5:382f
plagioclase 3:538
characteristics
fall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392*
ignimbrites 4:388f, 4:391-393,
4:393/i 4:395, 4:397f
particle size 4:390*
4:393/", 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396f
pyroclastic types 4:39Ot
4:396/i 4:397f
4:386, 4:387*, 4:388/", 4:389
magmatic arcs
Aleutian-Wrangell system 4:38
Canada 3:157-160, 3:159f
Gondwanan margin 1:250
Japan 3:297
Laurentia 4:76f
Marie Byrd Land 1:137
northern Cordillera 4:41f, 4:44
Pechora Basin 2:54f
Thurston Island 1:137
magmatic ore deposits 3:637-645
carbonatites 3:640
chromite deposits 3:640
elemental composition 3:638f
fundamental processes 3:637, 3:638f
immiscible oxide liquids 3:641
incompatible lithophile elements 3:638/,
3:639, 3:639*, 3:640f
pegmatites 3:639
magnetite 3:641
700
INDEX
magmatic ore deposits (continued)

sulphide minerals
base metal deposits
characteristics 3:644t
emplacement mechanisms 3:643,
3:643f
magmatic concentrations 3:642f
precious metal sulphide deposits
3:642, 3:642f, 3:644, 3:644f
magmatism
China 1:353
Europe 2:96/", 2:97, 2:101f, 2:102, 3:657
Grenville orogeny 3:161f
mafic magmatism 4:14f
southern Cordillera 4:55, 4:58, 4:59f
supercontinents 4:14f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:244, 1:247f,
1:249 f
See also lava/lava flows; mantle plumes
(hotspots); volcanism
magnesite (MgCO3)
carbonatites 3:23If
occurrence 5:31, 5:108, 5:108t
5:533f
magnesium (Mg)
carbonatites 3:223?
crustal composition L-406?, 5:174t
evaporites 5:94
glauconite 3:S42t
kimberlites 3:248t
komatiites 3:260, 3:261, 3:262/", 3:263f
mid-ocean ridges 5:376, 5:380f
obsidian 3:269?
5:114t
Venus 5:247?
magnetic field
5:506f
Earth
auroras 5:218, 5:219f
magnetic field reversals l:424f
movement trends 1:425f
solar wind 5:217, 5:218f
Jupiter 5:282
Mercury 5:241
Raff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:399f
Sun 5:210
Uranus 5:290
magnetite (FesO^
carbonatites 3:221t
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?, 5:394?
magmatic ores 3:641
stability 3:580f
magnetometers 3:333-334
Appalachians 4:76f
apparent polar wander paths 1:85'/",
4:153, 4:153f
applications 1:84, 1:8 6f
5:506f
cycle charts 5:169f
4:95, 4:96f, 4:99f
Eocene 5:467f
gauss 3:333-334
geomagnetic polarity time-scale l : 8 1 f ,
l:83f, 3:331, 3:332f
Jurassic 3:353
magnetic anomalies l:83f, 1:101, l:101f,
2:37f, 3:200, 3:201f
magnetic field reversals l:424f, 3:202
3:333/i 3:334
methodology 1:84
Palaeocene 5:460f
petroleum exploration 4:296, 4:299f
Raff-Mason magnetic
anomaly 5:399f
Magnitogorsk-Tagil zone 2:86, 2:87f,
2:90-91, 4:467
Magnolia 2:419f
Magnus, Albertus 3:169
Mahanadi Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
Maine, United States 4:91
majorite 5:183t
Makran Trench 5:430?, 5:430f
Maksutovo Complex 2:88f, 2:88-89
malachite 3:13
Malaysia 4:192-193, 5:445?, 5:445f,
5:446-447
Mallet, Robert 2:237-238
malt whisky 3:82
Malvinokaffric Province 2:293
mammaliaforms 2:527, 2:528f

Mammalian Neogene Reference Level
System 5:478, 5:479f
mammals
3:381, 3:382f
Eutheria 2:535-540
Mammalian Dispersal Event
(MDE) 5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f,
5:471
Mesozoic 2:527-534
brain size 2:530
2:531
jaw hinges 2:528
mammaliaforms 2:528f
middle ear 2:528
placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
Miocene
Africa 5:484
Australia 5:484
Eurasia 5:484
North America 5:483
South America 5:484
Oligocene 5:475
placental mammals 2:535-540
anatomy 2:535
bats 2:539
Carnivora 2:539
edentates 2:537/", 2:538
Eocene 5:469-470
epitheres 2:538
evolutionary relationships 2:537f,
2:538
Glires 2:539
hominids 2:541-545
Homo babilis 2:541-542, 2:543f
Homo neanderthalensis 2:542,
2:544f
Homo sapiens 2:543
marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538
mesonychids 2:539-540
Mesozoic 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
molecular evolution 2:536
Perissodactyla 2:540
physiology 2:535
primates 2:538-539
reproduction 2:535
Rodentia 2:539
INDEX 701
mammals (continued)
taxonomy 2:535
tethytheres 2:540
ungulates 2:539
whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,
2:539-540, 5:469
Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f
Mammoth Hot Springs terraces,
Yellowstone, Wyoming, United States
3:108 f
Mammut americanum 4:161 f
Mammuthus 5:498f
manganese (Mn)
carbonatites 3:223t
glauconite 3:542t
kimberlites 3:248t
obsidian 3:269?
5:113-120
compositional variability
Atlantic Ocean 5:119
Indian Ocean 5:119
Pacific Ocean 5:117, 5:118f
distribution
Atlantic Ocean 4:105, 5:117
buried nodules 5:117
Indian Ocean 5:117
Pacific Ocean 5:116
economic potential 5:119
elemental abundances 5:114t
5:76, 5:77f, 5:119
internal structure 5:114, 5:115f,
5:116f
occurrence 5:113
tertiary diagram 5:llSf
pyrolusite (MnO 2 ) 4:382, 4:383f
Venus 5:247?
mangroves 3:524f, 3:530, 4:505-506,
4:506f
Mangyshlak Peninsula,
Kazakhstan 3:344
Manhattan earthquake, Kansas, United
States 4:32
Manihiki Plateau 3:315f, 3:316?, 4:480
Mansan, United States 3:363?
mansfieldite 3:508f
Mantell, G. 2:509
Mantiqueira orogenic system 1:307f^
l:313f, 1:315
mantle 1:397-403
accretion models 1:400f
carbonatites 3:227, 3:227f, 3 : 2 3 I f ,
3:232f
composition
convection 1:401-402, 1:402 f
mineralogy 1:401 f
pyrolite hypothesis 1:399, l:401f
convection model 3:142, 3:143f, 3:193f,
4:348
internal structure 1:397, l:398f, 1:423,
1:423f
kimberlites 3:255, 3:257f, 4:8-9, 4:llf,
4:473
mantle keel 4:8-9
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
mid-ocean ridges 5:376-377, 5:378f
properties 1:424?
sampling techniques
chemical-equilibrium studies 1:397,
1:398 f, 1:399 f
kimberlites 1:398
meteoritic analogies 1:398, 1:400f
peridotites 1:397, 1:399
seismology 1:397
seismic images
D" layer 3:338
tomography 1:402
Columbia River Flood Basalts 5:480
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary 3:383
definition 3:335
Indian Sub-Continent 3:292, 3:293f
3:318f
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
plume formation dynamics 3:341, 3:341f
seamounts 4:477
seismic images
D" layer 3:338

upper mantle 3:337, 3:337/
superplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461
volcanoes 5:566f
Manuel del Rio, Andres 3:171
Maochuangian stage 4:167f
mapping
See field mapping; geological maps
Marasuchus 2:492, 2:493f
Marathon Uplift 4:23f, 4:61, 4:64f, 4:66f,
4:68f
marble 3:102?, 3:387?, 3:396f, 5:534f,
5:535-536
marcasite (FeS2)
crystal structure 3:575?, 3:576f
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630f, 5:394?
nodules 4:385
phase transformation diagram 3:580f
Mare Australe 5:267?
Mare Crisium 5:267?
Mare Fcecunditatis 5:267?
Mare Frigoris 5:267?
Mare Humboldtianum 5:267?
Mare Humorum 5:267?
Mare Imbrium 5:267?
Mare Nectaris 5:267?
Mare Nubium 5:267?
Mare Orientale 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,
5:270-271
Mare Serenitatis 5:267?
Mare Smythii 5:267?
Mare Tranquillitatis 5:267?
Mare Vaporum 5:267?
Margachitina 3:434
margaritasite
((Cs,K,H)2(U02)2(V04)2-H20) 3:589?
Margerie, Emmanuel de 2:238
maria, lunar 5:267?
Mariana Trench 4:344
Marianian stage 4:167f
maricopaite 3:593?
Marie Byrd Land l:133f, l:134f, 1:137,
3:129,3:139
marine geology
See ocean trenches; oceans
Mariner 10 mission 5:238
Askeptosaurus 2:504
Augustasaurus 2:506
Clarazia 2:504
Corosaurus 2:506
3:380, 3:381f
Cyamodus 2:506
Dakosaurus 2:504
Dermochelys 2:505f
Dyrosaurus 2:504
Geosaurus 2:504
702 INDEX
marine reptiles (continued)

Globidens 2:505
Henodus 2:506
Heschelaria 2:504
Hyposaurus 2:504
Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f,
3:358,3:380
Keichousaurus 2:506
Lariosaurus 2:506
locomotion mechanisms 2:502-503
Mesosaurus 2:503f
Mosasauroidea 2:504f9 2:504-505
nothosaurs 2:484
Nothosaurus 2:506
occurrences 2:502
Ophtbalmosaurus 2:503-504
Paraplacodus 2:506
Pistosaurus 2:506
Placodus 2:506
Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f, 3:358
Plesiosaurus 2:506
Pliosaurus 2:506
Psephoderma 2:506
Simosaurus 2:506
Steneosaurus 2:504
Styxosaurus 2:506
Teleorhinus 2:504
Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505
Marion Plume 3:292
marls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401f, 4:557
Marquesas Islands 3:315f, 3:316t
Marriotte, Edme 3:171-172
Mars 5:272-281
aeolian processes 5:273
asteroid bombardment 4:363-365
atmosphere 1:197*, 1:200, 5:273
cratering record 5:274
dust storms 5:273, 5:274f
El Capitan 5:281f
exploration missions 5:280, 5:281f
global hemispheric dichotomy 5:275,
5:2 75 f
Hydaspis Chaos 5:277, 5:277f
interior structure 5:273, 5:273f
large-scale features 5:278
meteorites 5:182-183, 5:234, 5:280
mineralogy 5:275
obliquity 5:274
Olympus Mons 5:278-279, 5:279/",
5:565
petrology 5:275, 5:276f
physical characteristics 5:272, 5:2 73
polar terrain 5:254f, 5:279
properties l:422t
satellites 5:280
Shergottite-Nakhlite-Chassigny (SNC)
meteorites 5:23 It, 5:234, 5:234f,
5:280
Tharsis uplift 5:278
Valles Marineris 5:279
volcanoes 5:565, 5:577/~, 5:578
water concentrations
gully formation 5:277-278
hydrogen concentrations 5:278,
5:2 80 f
outflow channels 5:277, 5:277f
valley networks 5:277, 5:278f
Marsdenian subdivision 4:202f
Marshall Gilbert Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
Marshbrookian substage 4:183f
marshes 4:571f
marshite 3:554
Marsh, O. C. 2:509, 3:180-181
marsupials 2:528f, 2:533, 2:535-536,
2:538, 5:463, 5:465, 5:484
Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, United
States 5:444, 5:445t, 5:445f
Maryland, United States 3:147, 4:73f
Mascarene-La Poile back-arc basin 4:88,
4:91
Mascarene Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t
Maskelyne, N. 1:92
maskelynite 3:281-282
Mason, Brian 1:399-400
Massachusetts, United States 5:444, 5:445t
mass extinctions
Benthic Foraminiferal Extinction (BEE)
5:462, 5:468, 5:470
4:223f
Carboniferous 4:212
3:372-385
amphibians 2:523
causal mechanisms
impact structures 3:277, 3:283-284

pseudoextinction 3:375-376,3:376f
3:377f
stratigraphy 3:373f
3:381f
Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501f
stratigraphy 3:373f
tektites 5:453
Deccan Traps 3:383, 4:198-199
Devonian 1:264f9 4:194, 4:196, 4:197,
4:197f, 4:198
4:221, 4:223, 4:223f
end-Ordovician extinction 4:180
amphibians 2:516
causes
volcanism 4:222
definition 4:219
4:22 If
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
crinoids 4:220
gastropods 2:387
Lazarus taxa 4:221, 4:221f
4:219 f

stratigraphy 4:219f
vegetation 4:220
3:322
Lazarus taxa 3:377-378, 4:221, 4:221f
INDEX 703
mass extinctions (continued]

Vendian 4:379
Massif Central
Palaeocene 2:117
Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:98,
3:657
Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:80, 2:83-84
Mastodonsaurus 2:477f, 2:517f
Mathematicians Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
Mather, William W. 2:195
Mathilde 5:221, 5:22It, 5:223f
Matlockian stage 5:473f
Matterhorn2:133/"
Matthews, Drummond 3:200-201
Mattingly, T. 5:266?
Mauchline basin 2:96f, 2:98
Maud Rise 3:315f, 3:316?, 5:451f,
5:473-474
Mauna Loa, Hawaii l:343f, 1:343-344,
5:575
Maures Massif 2:75
Mawson Continent 1:132-135
Maxwell, Arthur 3:198
Mayer, Josef 5:443
mayflies 2:297f, 2:300t
Mayoan stage 5:479, 5:479^
Mayr, Ernst 1:266, l:266f
mazzite 3:593?
mbobomkulite((Ni,Cu)Al4[(NO3)2,(SO4)]
(OH)12-3H20) 3:556?
mcallisterite (Mg2B12O20-15H2O) 3:513t
mcbirneyite (Cu3(VO4)2) 3:589?
mccrillisite 5:121-122
McGee,WJ. 2:196
McKelvey formation 3:147, 3:150f
McLaren, Digby 3:195
Mcmurdodus 2:463-465
Mcnamaraspis 2:464f, 2:465f
meandering river systems 4:656/1, 4:657f,
4:659f
Mecca 5:228-229
Medieval climatic optimum 2:148f, 2:159?
back-arc basins 3:654
eclogites 3:654
Eocene 5:466-468
fore-arc basins 3:654
Holocene 2:148
Mesozoic 2:135-146
Miocene 5:481
erogenic events
Central Alps 3:654, 3:655f
general discussion 2:135, 3:654, 3:658
Pyrenees 3:654, 3:654^
Pliocene 5:486
subduction zones 2:136, 2:13 7f, 2:141 /,
2:142f
central Mediterranean 2:144
eastern Mediterranean 2:144
lithospheric thinning 2:136
lithospheric westward drift 2:136,
2:141f
palaeogeodynamics 2:138f, 2:139 f,
2:140f
2:135-136
subduction zones 2:136, 2:13 7f,
2:141f, 2:142f
western Mediterranean 2:136, 2:140f,
2:141f
Tethys Ocean 2:135-146, 3:648
Triassic 3:344
Mediterranean Sea 1:254, 2:151, 3:648,
5:455,5:481
Meek, Fielding B. 2:196
Megalocephalus 2:473f
Meghystrichosphaeridium reticulatum
4:361f
Meguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
meimechites 3:260
Meishan, China 3:344, 3:345, 4:219,
4:224-225, 5:506f
Meishucunian stage 4:167f
Mekong River 5:19?
Melanesia
See Oceania
melanization 5:199, 5:199f
melanovanadite (Ca(V4Oi0)-5H2O) 3:589?
melanterite (FeSO4-7H20) 3:573
melilitite 5:569-571
melilitolite 3:220?
melkovite(CaFeH6PO4(MoO4)4-6H2O)
3:552?
melnikovite 5:394?
Melonechinus 2:353f
Melosh, H. Jay 5:449-450
Menard, Henry 3:198
Mendel, Gregor 2:161
Mendocino escarpment 3:198
Mendocino triple junction 4:58-60
mendozavilite (Na(Ca,Mg)2Fe6(PO4)2
(PMo11O39)(OH,Cl)10-33H2O) 3:552?
Merapi, Indonesia 5:575
Mercury 5:238-244
'horns' 5:23 8f
impact features 5:241
magnetic field 5:241
phases 5:23 8f
physical statistics 5:238
properties 1:422?
spacecraft missions
Bepi Colombo 5:242
Mariner 10 5:238
Messenger 5:242
surface terrain 5:239
albedo 5:239-240
Caloris Planitia 5:23 9f
craters
Bach 5:240f
Beethoven 5:242f
Copley 5:240f
Mena 5:241f
Tolstoj 5:240f
Rudaki plains 5:241 f
Tir Planitia 5:240f
volcanism 5:241
Vulcan 5:238
mercury (Hg)
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?
natural occurrences 3:553, 3:553?
5:114?
toxicity 2:22?
world production rates 1:438?
merlinoite 3:593?
Mertrud, Antoine 2:179
Mesenosaurus 2:487
Mesoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517f
mesocataclasite 3:388?
mesomylonite 3:388?
mesopause 1:201 f
Mesoproterozoic
Australia 1:218
East European Craton 2:41 f, 2:48f
Ectasian System 5:511/", 5:517f
eukaryotes 4:356/", 4:357
5:517f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Rodinia 1:218
Stenian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Ural Mountains 2:49-56
mesosaurs 2:479
Mesosaurus 2:249, 2:503f
mesospherel:201f,5:217f
Meso-Tethys Ocean 1:170f, 1:170-171,
1:175 f
Mesozoic
amphibians 2:516-523, 2:524
704
INDEX
Mesozoic (continued]
Lissamphibia
caecilians2:527/; 2:522
Celtedens ibericus 2:521f
frogs 2:521, 2:521f
temnospondyls
Jurassic 2:520
Rhytidosteroidea 2:517, 2:5^ 7f
2:518 f
angiosperms 2:418, 2:422f
Argentina l:156f, 1:161
bedded cherts 5:54
birds (Aves)
Archaeopteryx 2:497
Confudusornis 2:498f
Enantiornithes 2:497-499, 2:498f,
2:500t
Jeholornis 2:497
2:501f
Rahonavis 2:497
Zhenzhoraptor 2:497
brachiopods 2:306f
carbon cycle 1:206
corals 2:325f
Cretaceous
amphibians 2:516, 2:523
China 1:347f

2:523
insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:368, 3:369f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
North Africa I:14f91:15f9 l:19f, l:22f,
1:23, 1:23 f, 1:24 f
predation 4:145-146
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508
2:491f, 2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
origins 2:492
Ornithischia
Thyreophora 2:493
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Reptilia 2:490
Saurischia
Theropoda 2:494, 3:3Slf
Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350, 3:351f
dolostones 5:91
echinoderms 2:336f, 2:337
echinoids 2:354
fish 2:463f
flying reptiles
pterosaurs 2:508
affinities 2:513
Anhanguera 2:515
body hair 2:511, 2:Sllf
Campylognathaides 2:513-514
2:513-514
2:515
integument 2:511
Istiodactylus 2:5W
locomotion 2:515
origins 2:513
palaeobiology 2:514
phylogeny 2:513, 2:513f
Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515
pterodactyloids 2:514
Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:51 If,
2:515
Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513,
2:514,2:515
skeletal material 2:510, 2:51 Of,
2:511 f
soft tissue 2:51 l,2:512f

fossil fungi 2:438-440
glauconite 3:546
gymnosperms 2:422-423, 2:443, 2:446
insects 2:296-298
5:517f
Jurassic
algae, benthic 3:355
algae, planktonic 3:356
ammonites 3:352, 3:357
amphibians 2:516, 2:525, 2:526f
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135,
1:136, 1:137
Araucaria mirabilis 2:450f
bivalves (Bivalvia) 3:356-357, 4:141,
4:141f, 4:146f, 4:146-147
brachiopods 3:356
cephalopods 3:357
China 1:347f
chronostratigraphy 3:352, 3:352t,
4:25f
continental evolution 3:354, 3:354f
corals 3:356
crinoids 3:358
crustaceans (Crustacea) 3:357
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 3:358, 3:359f
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f
fish 3:358
foraminifera 3:356
Gondwana
Indian Sub-Continent 3:292t
Jurassic, end 3:147
l:188f,3:151f,3:152f
terranes 1:170f, 1:172f, 1:175 f,
3:131f
gymnosperms
Pentoxylales 2:452
Voltziales 2:449
Ichthyosauria 3:358
insects 2:299f, 2:300t, 3:358
INDEX 705
Mesozoic (continued)
5:517f
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Lagerstatten3:310
molluscs 3:356
North Africa l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,
1:23 f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:357, 3:460f,
3:461
oysters 3:356-357
palaeoclimate 3:354
pectenids 3:356-357
protists 3:356
radiolarians 3:356
stages 3:352t
vertebrates 3:358
zone concept 3:352
kimberlites 3:253f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
mammals 2:527-534
brain size 2:530
2:531
jaw hinges 2:528
mammaliaforms 2:528f
middle ear 2:528
placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
Mediterranean region 2:135-146
New Zealand 4:2f, 4:5f
orogenic events 1:238'f
palaeoclimate models 4:135
Pangaea3:131/; 4:225
Papua New Guinea 4:109-110
Parana basin l:320f
placental mammals 2:537f
predation 4:145-146
South-east Asia geological evolution
l:181t
Triassic
amphibians 2:516
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136
China 1:347 f
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:181?, 1:184
late Triassic 1:184f
l:184f, 3:148f, 3:149f, 3:150f
terranes 1:170f, l:172f, 1:175f,
3:131f
Triassic, late 3:147
gymnosperms
Coniferales 2:450
Gnetales 2:453
insects 2:300?, 3:350
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
North Africa 1.-14/", l:15f,
l:19f,l:21
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:348f, 3:460f
Pangaea 4:226f, 4:227
predation 4:145-146
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uzbekistan 1:167
vertebrates
See also Cretaceous; Triassic
Messenger 5:242
Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25, 5:481
Messinian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
meta-autunite 3:508f, 5:123f
metabasalts 3:405
metadelrioite (CaSrV 2 O 6 (OH) 2 ) 3:589t
metahewettite (Ca(V 6 O 16 )-3H 2 O) 3:589t
metal deposits 3:553
metalodevite 3:508f
metamorphic rocks
aggregates 1:35
carbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399, 3:400f
classification 3:386-402, 4:453t
anomalies 4:455
differentiation techniques 4:453,4:454f
nomenclature 3:386, 3:3871
structural terminology 3:390?
densities 5:321f
feldspars 3:537
formation processes
duration 3:392
fluids 3:392
geothermal gradient 3:392f
local metamorphism 3:393
mineral structures 3:394, 3:395f
physicochemical reactions 3:393,
3:393/i 3:394f
pressure 3:392
temperature 3:391
gemstones
emeralds 3:12
rubies 3:12
sapphires 3:12
geotechnical properties 3:102?
gneiss
4:10f94:13f94:15f, 4:350
definition 3:387, 3:388?
geotechnical properties 1:545?, 3:102?
3:607f, 3:607-608
3:240-241
mafic rocks 2:41, 3:240?, 3:394-396,
3:396f, 3:397, 3:398f
marls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401f
metamorphic facies 3:402-409
allofacial conditions 3:407
assemblages
amphibolite facies 3:403, 3:403/~,
3:404f, 3:407f
blueschist facies 3.-403/", 3:404,
3:404f, 3:407f
contact metamorphism 3:406
eclogite facies 3:403f, 3:404, 3:404/",
3:407 f
granulite facies 3:403f, 3:404,
3:404/", 3:407f
greenschist facies 3:403, 3:403/~,
3:404f, 3:407f
prehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:405,
3:405f
706 INDEX
metamorphic rocks (continued]

sub-greenschist facies 3:403f,
3:404f, 3:405, 3:407f
facies 3:405, 3:406f
ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic
facies 3:406, 3:406f
zeolite facies 3:404, 3:405f
boundary transitions 3:407f9 3:408
isofacial conditions 3:407
metamorphic intensity 3:402
mineral zones 3:408
volatile components 3:406, 3:407f
water (H2O) 3:406, 3:407f
metamorphic petrology 3:187
micas 3:550
mineral assemblages
carbonates 3:396, 3:396f, 3:399,
3:400f
mafic rocks 3:397, 3:398f
marls 3:396, 3:396f, 3:401, 3:401f
pelitic protoliths 3:396, 3:396f, 3:398,
3:400f
quartzofeldspathic rocks 3:397,
3:399f
ultramafic rocks 3:396, 3:397f
nomenclature
definitions 3:3 #7*
main specific rock name 3:386, 3:387t
minor specific rock name 3:386,
3:388t
naming procedures 3:389f9 3:390
structural root names 3:387, 3:388t
structural terminology 3:390t
3:400f
plagioclase 3:538, 3:539f
3:409-417
3:416f
clockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416f
3:415f
3:414f
3:416, 3:416f
stable geotherm 3:411, 3:411f9 3:415f
3:412f

quartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396, 3:396f,
3:397, 3:399f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
schist l:545t, 3:102t, 3:387, 3:388t
controversies 5:182
impact craters 5:179, 5:182f
impact structures
diaplectic minerals 3:281-282,
3:282f
fused minerals 3:281, 3:281 f
impact melting 3:281, 3:281f
planar microstructures 3:282,
3:282f
3:280f
melting 5:2 SO*, 5:2 S3*
peak pressure magnitudes 5:180t,
5:183
planar deformation features 5:183t
S:183t
vaporization 5:180t
chlorites
iron/magnesium (Fe/Mg) ratios
3:565f
epidote mineral group
cordierite 3:235*, 3:240-241,
3:241f9 3:400f9 3:563
tourmaline 3:7*, 3:563
garnets
granites 3:235*, 3:240-241
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256*, 3:2S7f
3:400f, 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405
3:562f
staurolite 3:563
rocks 5:534-535, 5:535f
slate 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:3S7*, 3:396f
5:533-540
coesite 5:533, 5:533/i 5:534;"

exsolution effects 5:535/", 5:535-536
global distribution
Alps 5:536f, 5:537
Bohemian Massif 5:535-536,
5:536f, 5:538, 5:539
Dabie Shan, China 5:533,
5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:537
Himalayan Mountains 5:53 6/",
5:538, 5:539
Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan
5:533, 5:535-536, 5:536f,
5:537, 5:539
Norwegian Caledonides 5:53 6f,
5:537
occurrences S:S36f
pressure-temperature diagram 5:533f,
5:539f
ultramafic rocks 1:241 f, 1:243f, 3:394,
3:396, 3:396f, 3:397f
zeolites 3:598
zircon 3:602
metamorphism
3:414, 3:415f
hydrothermal metamorphism 3:393
impact metamorphism 3:393
metamorphic facies 3:402-409
allofacial conditions 3:407
assemblages
amphibolite facies 3:403, 3:403f9
3:404f9 3:407f
blueschist facies 3:403 f9 3:404,
3:404f9 3:407f
contact metamorphism 3:406
eclogite facies 3:403f9 3:404,3:404f9
3:407f
granulite facies 3:403 f, 3:404,
3:404f9 3:407f
greenschist facies 3:403, 3:403f,
3:404f, 3:407f
prehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:405,
3:405f
sub-greenschist facies 3:403f9
3:404f9 3:405, 3:407f
facies 3:405, 3:406f
ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic
facies 3:406, 3:406f
zeolite facies 3:404, 3:405f
boundary transitions 3:407f9 3:408
isofacial conditions 3:407
metamorphic intensity 3:402
INDEX 707
metamorphism (continued)
mineral zones 3:408
volatile components 3:406, 3:407f
water (H2O) 3:406, 3:407f
ocean-floor metamorphism 3:392-393
erogenic metamorphism 3:392-393
3:409-417
3:416f
basic principles 3:409, 3:41 Of
contact metamorphism 3:414, 3:415f
3:414f
3:416, 3:416f
stable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f,
3:415'f
3:412f
metamorphic facies
amphibolite facies 3:412f, 4:409,
4:409f, 4:410, 4:413
Barrovian-type metamorphic
complex, Naxos, Greece 4:410,
4:411/", 4:412*
blueschist facies 3:41 If, 4:409f,
4:409-410
contact metamorphism 3:406,
3:414, 3:41Sf
3:414f
eclogite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,
4:409-410
epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409,
4:409f
facies diagram 4:409f
granulite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,
4:410, 4:413
greenschist facies 3:412f, 4:409,
4:409f, 4:410, 4:413
high pressure facies 4:409
low pressure facies 4:410
medium pressure facies 4:410
petrologic studies 4:408
3:412f
very low grade facies 4:410
metasomatism 4:407
mineral relationships 4:408
prograde paths 4:408
retrograde paths 4:408

terranes 4:407
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:242, l:246f
thermal metamorphism 5:499-502
geological settings
fluid-rock interactions 5:502
lithospheric fragments 5:499, 5:500f
magmatic intrusions 5:500, 5:501f,
5:502f
mineral zones 5:501, 5:501f
regional scale processes 5:499
thermal structure 5:499, 5:500f
volcanism 5:501
See also diagenesis
metamunirite (NaVO3) 3:589t
metanovacekite 3:508f
metarossite (Ca(V2O6)-2H2O) 3:589t
Metasequoia 2:45If
metasomatism 3:229, 3:232f, 4:407
metatherians 2:528f, 2:533f, 2:533-534
metatyuyamunite
(Ca(UO 2 )2(VO4) 2 4H 2 O) 3:589t
metavanadates 3:589t
metavanuralite
(A1(U02)2(V04)2(OH)-8H20) 3:589*
Metaxygnathus 2:472, 2:472f
Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona, United
States 3:279f, 3:571
meteorites 5:228-237
age determination
cosmic ray exposure 5:233
formation age 5:233
formation interval 5:233
terrestrial age 5:231, 5:232f, 5:233f
Antarctica 5:233f, 5:235f, 5:236, 5:236f,
5:237f
Australia 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:232f, 5:236
classification
achondrites 5:234f
chondrites 5:23 Of
differentiated meteorites 5:23It
iron meteorites 5:229f, 5:230f, 5:231*,
5:233t
meteorites within meteorites 5:230
Shergottite-Nakhlite-Chassi
(SNC) meteorites 5:231*, 5:234,
5:234f, 5:280
stony-iron meteorites 5:23Of, 5:23It,
5:233t
stony meteorites 5:228f, 5:23It,
5:233t
undifferentiated meteorites 5:2311
cratering 5:235
current discovery locations 5:236
Earth origins 1:398, l:400f, 1:423,1:427
fossil meteorites 5:235
historical record 5:228
Middlesborough Meteorite 5:228f
Moon 5:268-270
Mundrabilla iron meteorites 5:232f
Murchison meteorite 4:127-128
occurrences 5:233*
olivine 3:560
origin of life 4:127-128

phosphorus occurrences 3:554
provenance
asteroidal sources 5:233, 5:234f
lunar sources 5:235, 5:235f
Martian sources 5:234, 5:234f
research areas 5:236
shock metamorphic effects 5:182-183,
5:183t
Sikhot-Alin meteorite fall 5:228f
tektites 5:235
meteorological hazards 1:516, 1:5171
Meteor Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
methane (CHU)
atmospheric concentrations l:197t,
1:207
3:383
long-term carbon cycle l:336f
natural gas content 4:258, 4:259*, 4:259f
oil composition 4:259f
Oligocene 5:475
short-term carbon cycle 1:335
See also gas hydrates
methanogenic bacteria 4:365, 4:367
Methow terrane 4:40f, 4:46
Metrarabdotus 1:268-269, l:271f
Mexico
Chicxulub crater, Mexico 1:104, l:105f,
3:283, 3:363*, 3:383, 5:179, 5:235,
5:453-454
gemstones 3:7*, 3:11
Miocene 5:480
Oligocene 5:475, 5:476-477
southern Cordillera 4:48, 4:54, 4:58
meyerhofferite (Ca2B6Oir7H2O) 3:512*,
3:513*
Mezen Basin 2:41f, 4:456
micas 3:548-550
crystal structure l:360f, 3:549, 3:549f,
3:5 5 Of
granites 3:235*, 3:240-241
igneous rocks 3:550
layer type 1:361, 1:361*
3:401 f, 3:550
paragenesis 3:550
sandstones 5:143*
vine nourishment 3:87f, 3:88
Michel-Levy, Auguste 3:184
Michigan Basin 4:33f
Michigan, United States 4:33-34
Micraster 2:352f
70S
INDEX
micnte
carbonate matrices 3:525-526, 3:527f
limestones 5:110
microbial mats 1:284, l:284f, 4:223-224,
4:377
Microbrachis 2:476f
microcline 3:88, 3:534f
microevolution
See evolution
microflora 3:419, 3:420-421, 3:427f
microfossils
applications 3:427
Cambrian 4:169f
clusters 3:420
morphology
flanges 3:419f, 3:420
microphotographs 3:42If
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f
wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
3:426, 3:426f9 3:427f
palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
preservation 3:419
biodiversity 1:261
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
biofilms 1:283, 1:283 f
biosignatures 1:285, 1:28 5t
filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f,
4:368
microbial effects
precipitation processes 1:284, l:284t
4:223-224, 4:377
oldest microfossils 1:291, 1:292f
significance 1:282
stromatolites
biosediments 1:285
biosignatures 1:28 5t
formation processes l:287f, l:288t,
3:109
tree of life 1:279, I:280f9
4:124, 4:125f
applications
classification
Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:43If,
3:435f
Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431 f,
3:43Sf
Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
Ordovician 3:430
Prosomatifera 3:430
intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:43Of
Margachitina 3:434
morphology 3:428, 3:429f9 3:435f,
3:436f
palynology 3:468
Pterochitina 3:434
Silurian 4:191
structure 3:428
Coccolithophoridae
chalk 4:556, 5:42, 5:43f, 5:44, 5:45f,
5:112
3:378, 3:378f
deep-ocean pelagic deposits 5:72/",
5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
Jurassic 3:356
Oligocene 5:476
conodonts 3:440-448
anatomy 3:441, 3:441 f, 3:442f
architecture 3:443f, 3:446
cladogram 3:445f
classification
Belodellida 3:446
Paraconodonta 3:447
Prioniodinida 3:446
Clydagnathus 3:442f
evolution 3:447
morphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,
3:444f
preservation 3:441
Promissum 3:44If
Silurian 4:185-186
diatoms
deep-ocean pelagic deposits
4:646t, 5:72f, 5:74f, 5:75,
5:75t
Oligocene 5:476
dinoflagellates
3:378, 3:378f
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:462
algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359f
biodiversity 1:261
4:358, 4:360
heterotrophy 4:360
Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,
4:357
early animals 4:360
early Neoproterozoic
4:358, 4:359f
Ediacaran 4:362-363
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 f,
4:362f
Palaeoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,
4:357
tree of life l:203f,4:365f
allogromids 3:450f
ammodiscana 3:451f
astrorhizana 3:45If
astrorhizata 3:45If
astrorhizids 3:45Of
(BEE) 5:462, 5:468, 5:470
INDEX 709
microfossils (continued]
buliminids 3:450f
3:378, 3:378f
5:72f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
Eocene 5:468
favusellids 3:45Of
fusulinids 3:45Of
hormosinana 3:45If
Jurassic 3:356
lagenids 3:45Of
lagynana 3:45If
lituolids 3:45Of
loftusiids 3:45Of
miliolana 3:45If
miliolata 3:45If
miliolids 3:450^
nodosariana 3:45If
nodosariata 3:451f
Palaeocene 5:462
Permian 4:216
rank 3:449
robertinids 3:45Of
rotaliana 3:45If
rotaliata 3:45If
rotaliids 3:45Of
shell morphology 3:451 f, 3:452f
spirillinana 3:45If
spirillinata 3:45If
spirillinids 3:45Of
textulariana 3:45If
textulariids 3:45Of
3:470-475
extraction methods
acritarchs 3:473
3:472f
conodonts 3:472
diatoms 3:473
foraminifera 3:471
pollen 3:473
radiolarians 3:473
spores 3:473
flotation 3:474
sieving 3:474
applications 3:462
ecology 3:457, 3:460f
habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461
life cycle 3:457
morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,
3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457,
3:458/, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa
ecology 3:457
shell morphology 3:457/~, 3:458f,
3:459f
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,
4:191
Tertiary 3:461
acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
3:189
Knoxisporites stephanephorus 3:464f
pollen 3:473
Quaternary 3:464
spores 3:473

origins 4:3 64f
radiolarians
3:378, 3:378f
5:72/i 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:464
phyletic gradualism 1:270f
stromatolites
attributes l:286f, 1:289?
domical stromatolite 1:290f
photograph 4:367f
biosediments 1:285
biosignatures 1:285?
formation processes 1:287f, 1:288?
Micropalaeontological Society 3:75
3:470-475
extraction methods
acritarchs 3:473
calcareous nannofossils 3:471, 3:472f
conodonts 3:472
diatoms 3:473
foraminifera 3:471
pollen 3:473
radiolarians 3:473
spores 3:473
flotation 3:474
sieving 3:474
Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:S20f
Microraptor 2:495
710
INDEX
microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476f

microtektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f,
5:447-448, 5:45If, 5:452-453
Microwave Imager 4:439
microwave radiation 4:414
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
divergent plate boundaries 4:342, 4:344f
fractional crystallization 3:215f,
3:215-216
heat flux S:363f
hydrothermal vents 5:371?, 5:390
magma supply 5:379
seamounts 4:477?, 4:479
seismic structure 5:412
seismic velocities 5:415f
shaded relief map 5:3 73 f
spreading centre topography 5:3 74f
Middle America Trench 5:430?, 5.-430/",
5:435f
Middlesborough Meteorite S:228f
Midland Valley terrane 2:60, 2:96f,
2:97-98, 2:99
mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum 5:482,
5:483
divergent plate boundaries 4:342,
4:343f, 4:344f, 5:374f
faulting processes
abyssal hills 5:384-386, S:386f
fault scarps 5:384f, S:38Sf
transform faults 3:202, 3:203f, 5:375,
5:386f
5:386-387
fractional crystallization 3:215-216
heat flux 5:363f
black smokers
chlorinity 5:3 711
East Pacific Rise 5:366/", 5:388,
5:388f
ecology 3:105
growth stages 5:392f, S:393f
5:388
structure S:390f
chimneys 5:390, 5:390/~, S:393f
deposit size 5:390
edifices 5:390, 5:390f
formation locations

fossil record 5:394
growth stages 5:391, 5:392f9 S:393f
mineralogy 5:391, 5:394?
white smokers 5:365, 5:390f,
5:390-391
mantle plumes (hotspots). See mantle
plumes (hotspots)
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, 5:404f
causal mechanisms 5:398, 5:399f
continental propagators 5.-402/", 5:403,
5:403f, 5:404f
evolution 5:396
implications 5:403
microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401f
oceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396/",
5:397^
ridge segmentation
axial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:3 78f,
5:379f
axial variations 5:381f
discontinuities 5:374f, 5:375, 5:376?,
5:377/",5:37S/;5:379/
geochemical correlations 5:380f
hierarchies 5:377f
magma supply 5:375, 5:378f, 5:382f
mantle upwelling 5:376-377, 5:378f
transform faults 5:375, 5:386f,
5:396f
rift valleys 5:438
seamounts 4:475, 4:477?, 4:479
axial magma chamber
characteristics 5:408f, 5:409f,
5:410, 5:414f
crustal structure 5:411f
crustal thickness 5:415f, 5:416f
magma chamber depths 5:415
seismic layer 2A
characteristics 5:407, 5:408f, 5:409f
crustal structure 5:41 If, 5:415f
structural variations 5:414, 5:415f,
5:416f
spreading centres
axial depth profiles 5:3 75f
faulting processes 5:385f
gravity measurements 1:101, l:101f
heat flux 5:363f
magnetic anomalies 1:83f
morphology 5:373
overlapping spreading centres 5:374f,
5:375, 5:396-405
Pangaea 3:143f
sea floor spreading
astronomically calibrated
time-scales 1:83 f
continental drift theory 3:204-205
Eocene 5:466
topography 5:374f, 5:384-386
thermal metamorphism 5:501
volcanoes 5:566f
Mid-Pacific Mountains 3:315f, 3:316?
Migliorini, Carlo 3:188
migmatites 1:242-243, 3:238f, 3:388t,
3:396f, 3:407
Migneintian stage 4:183f
Milankovich cycles 1:410-421
chalk sea 5:48
eustatic cycles 5:170, 5:270?
orbital variations 1:413/, 4:131
palaeoclimate 1:206, 4:131, 4:208
Pliocene 5:457?, 5:489
tidal forces 1:422
Triassic 3:345-346
Milankovich, M. 1:410, 4:131, 5:494
miliolana 3:45If
miliolata 3:45If
miliolids 3:450f
engineering geology
dugout construction map 3:483f
tunnelling 3:481, 3:482f
World War II 3:481
geophysical techniques 1:495-496,
1:49 6f
German military geologists
3:484f
INDEX 711
military geology (continued)

water supply 3:479, 3:481f
present-day activities 3:486-487
3:480f, 3:484f
remote sensing 3:486-487
specialty geological maps 3:483, 3:483f,
3:484f, 3:485f, 3:486f
water supply 3:479, 3:479f, 3:481f,
3:482f
Miller, Hugh 1:383
Miller indices 3: 178
millerite (NiS) 3:575t
Miller, Stanley 4: 123
Miller, William 3:178
millisite 5:126
Milner, Henry 3:188
Mimas 5:287, 5:287t
mimetite 3:508f
Mimia 2:464f
Mindel stage 5:493
mineral analysis 1:107-118
analytical transmission electron
microscope 1:109*, 1:113
chemical analyses l:108t
compositional mapping 1:116, 1:117 f
electron microprobe analysis
chemical analyses l:108t
electron scattering 1:109, 1 :110f
general discussion 1:109, l:109t
matrix corrections 1:112
X-ray generation 1:109
X-ray spectrometry
energy-dispersive technology 1:111,
1:111,f, 1:111,t
energy resolution 1:111
germanium detectors 1:112, l:112t
performance ranges 1:112t
silicon drift detector (SDD) 1:112,
l:112t
silicon-lithium (Si-Li) detectors
1:112,1:112*
wavelength-dispersive technology
1:110, l:110f, l:112t,l:117f
X-ray bolometry 1:112, l:112t
element plots l:108f
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy 1:117
ion microprobe 1:115
laser ablation 1:108*, 1:109*, 1:114,
l:114f,l:116f
microanalytical techniques 1:107-108,
1:109*
Mossbauer spectroscopy 1:117
proton induced X-ray emission 1:109*,
1:113
sample preparation 1:108
scanning electron microscope 1:109*,
1:113, l:116f
X-ray fluorescence 1:109*, 1:114
mineral deposits
applications
industrial minerals 1:437, 1:438*,
l:438f
metallic mineral deposits 1:437,
1:438*, 1:43 8f
Arabia 1:152
biological habitats 5:388f, 5:388-389
deposit characteristics
deposit development
flowchart 1:43 6f
economic attributes 1:436
geological attributes 1:436
exploration trends 3:497
genetic processes 3:488-497
3:493, 3:495f
bacterial action 3:490-491
basic igneous rock associations 3:491
felsic igneous rock associations 3:492,
3:493f
industrial minerals 3:489-490, 3:496
metamorphic rock associations 3:496
meteoric waters 3:491
tectonic deformation 3:496
ultrabasic igneous rock associations
3:491
weathering 3:488-489, 3:489f
3:27, 3:28f
global distribution 1:438, l:439f
fluid sources
magma-heated waters 3:634, 3:63Sf
3:633f
gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,
3:630*, 3:63Sf

3:630f,3:631f, 5:388
porphyry ore deposits 3:633/i 5:369
life cycle activities
end of life studies 1:440*, 1:443
feasibility studies 1:440*, 1:441,
l:442f
mine development 1:440*, 1:441,
l:442f
mineral extraction 1:440*, 1:442,
2:26, 2:27f
new deposit discovery 1:440, 1:440*,
1:441 f
relevant geological knowledge 1:439,
1:440*
mineral extraction
engineering services 1:443
environmental impacts 2:26, 2:27f
life cycle activities 1:440*, 1:442
mineral reserves 1:442
mining procedures 1:443
North American continental
interior 4:33
plate tectonics 1:440f
potash deposits 5:94
Russia 4:472f, 4:473
South-east Asia 1:190, l:19Sf
4:497f
3:583f
crystal structure 3:574, 3:575*, 3:576f,
3:577f
geobarometry 3:583
hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:393/",
5:394*
limestones 5:112
new deposit discovery 1:441 f
ore deposit types 3:584, 3:585*
phase transformation
diagram 3:580f
physical properties 3:576, 3:577*
stability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580f
world production rates 1:438*
See also economic geology; mining
geology; ore bodies; specific
minerals
1:371
minerals
See specific minerals
mineral species 3:498-503
amorphous structure 3:499
classification
Dana classification system 3:502,
3:502*
712
INDEX
mineral species (continued]

3:501*, 3:501-502
Lima-de-Faria classification system
3:502, 3:502?
modern classification systems 3:501
Strunz classification system 3:502t,
3:502-503
Commission on New Minerals and
Mineral Names (CNMMN) 3:499
crystal structures 3:499
definition 3:498
mineraloids 3:500
naming procedures 3:500
polytypes 3:499
validation process 3:499
varietal names 3:500
mining geology
borehole analysis 3:609-612
core recovery
borehole inclination 3:612f
counterflush drilling 3:612f
double-tube core barrel 3:611 f
flushing media 3:611 f
tubular drill rod 3:61 If
drilling technology
drill bits 3:61 Of, 3:612
hydrogeological borehole casing
3:610f
rotary core drilling 3:609f,
3:609-610
underground exploration drilling
3:610f
wire-line drilling 3:609-610
mineral exploration 3:617, 3:620,
3:621f
fluid inclusions
bulk methods 2:259
microthermometry 2:259
optical methods 2:259
point methods 2:259
applications
as tools in exploration 2:260
gemology 2:260, 2:260f
as geobarometer 2:255,2:257,2:25 8 f
as geothermometer 2:255, 2:257,
2:2S8f
nuclear waste repositories 2:260
pitfalls 2:256
aqueous and gaseous inclusions 2:258,
2:2S8f
characteristics
daughter minerals 2:255, 2:255f
double bubble inclusion 2:255f
host material 2:254
immiscible assemblages 2:256f
phases 2:254, 2:258f
crystallization conditions 2:257,
2:257f
definition 2:253

genetic classification 2:254, 2:254f
melt inclusions 2:258
recrystallization effects 2:256, 2:257f
gemstones 3:6-13
alluvial deposits
eluvial deposits 3:7, 3:10f, 3:603t
mining methods 3:7, 3:9f, 3:10f
panning 3:8, 3:8'f
rubies 3:8
ruby deposits 3:9
sapphires 3:8
tracer gems 3:8
igneous rocks
pegmatites 3:11, 3:1 If
metamorphic rocks
emeralds 3:12
rubies 3:12
sapphires 3:12
production analysis 3:6
zircon 3:601-608
aeolian placers 3:603t, 3:604
analyses 3:604, 3:605, 3:606
beach placers 3:602, 3:603t, 3:604f,
3:605f
chemical composition 3:601, 3:602t
hafnium (Hf) 3:601
mining processes 3:604, 3:607f
3:607f, 3:607-608
occurrence 3:602
optical properties 3:602, 3:602t
placer classification 3:603t
properties 3:601, 3:601t
structure 3:601f, 3:601
uses 3:604
world production 3:604, 3:606t,
3:606f
xenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f
3:28f
geophysical techniques l:491t
ground subsidence l:S20f9 2:9
fluid sources
magma-heated waters 3:634,
3:635f
3:633f
gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f, 3:120f,
3:630t, 3:635f
hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629t
hydrothermal minerals 3:630, 3:630t,
3:630f, 3:631f, 5:388
porphyry ore deposits 3:633/", 5:369
made ground 1:538
carbonatites 3:640
elemental partitioning 3:637, 3:639t
incompatible lithophile elements
3:63 8f, 3:639, 3:639t, 3:640f
pegmatites 3:639
magnetite 3:641
sulphide minerals
base metal deposits 3:643, 3:644t
3:643f
3:642, 3:642f, 3:644, 3:644f
mineral exploration 3:613-623
environmental issues 3:622
exploration groups and companies
3:613
exploration tools
aerial photographs 3:616t
electromagnetics 3:619t
geochemical techniques 3:616,
3:618t,3:618f
(CIS) 4:424, 4:425f
geological techniques 3:616, 3:616t,
3:617f
geophysical techniques 3:617,
3:619t,3:620f
gravity measurements 3:619t
induced polarization 3:619t
magnetic field 3:619t
radiometric dating 3:619t
resistivity measurements 3:619t
satellite images 3:616t
seismology 3:619t
spectral data 3:616t
INDEX 713
mining geology (continued)

importance 3:613
ore bodies
drilling technology 3:62If, 3:622f
feasibility studies 3:620
recognition process 3:617
testing procedures 3:620
success rate 3:620
mineral reserves 3:623-628
calculation procedures 3:624, 3:626
classification
Classification of the State
Commission of Reserves of the
Russian Federation 3:625-626,
3:626t
feasibility studies 3:624, 3:625t
reserve base 3:624-625, 3:626t
United Nations International
Framework Classification
3:624, 3:625f, 3:625t
United States Resource/Reserve
Classification for Minerals
3:624-625, 3:626t
geostatistics 3:627
world mineral reserves 3:627
opencast mining 1:538, 1:539, 3:258f
See also economic geology; mineral
deposits
Minnesota, United States 3:598, 4:33-34
Miocene 5:478-485
Alps 2:134f
amphibians
frogs 2:525f
angiosperms
Quercus 2:420f
Antarctica 1:140
Aquitanian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Arikareean stage 5:478, 5:479f
Atlantic Margin 4:99f, 4:104f
Burdigalian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Clarendonian stage 5:478, 5:479^
climate
sea-level 5:482
seasonality 5:482
temperature 5:482
Europe 2:120
Friasian stage 5:479, 5:479f
Points (GSSPs) S:506f
Gondwana
geological evolution 1:1 Sit
l:192f, 1:193 f
terranes 3:13If
5:517 f
S:479f,5:S06f,5:S17f
Lau Islands 4:120
marine life 5:482
Mayoan stage 5:479, 5:479f
Messinian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum 5:482,
5:483
New Caledonia 4:117
New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f, 4:7
4:25f
oceanic circulation 5:478, 5:479, 5:481
Pangaea3:131/"
predation 4:145f
reef environments 4:568/, 4:569f
Serravallian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,
5:479f, 5:506f,5:517f
South-east Asia 1:181t, l:192f, 1:193f
Stratigraphic boundaries 5:478
tectonic processes
Africa 5:481
Eurasia
Himalayan Mountains 1:354,
3:295-296, 5:481
Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25, 5:481

North America
Cascade Range 5:481
Columbia River Flood
Basalts 5:480
South America
tektites 5:444, 5:445t
terrestrial life
animals
Africa 5:484
Australia 5:484
Eurasia 5:484
North America 5:483
South America 5:484
plants 5:483
Tonga 4:120
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Vanuatu 4:116
Miocidaris 2:352-353, 2:355
Miranda 5:290-291, 5:2911
Mississippian
chronostratigraphy 4:25f, 4:201
glaciation 4:208f
5:517 f
jawless fish 2:460f
Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary
4:201
Namurian stage 4.-202/", 4:208f, 4:209f
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
Pangaea 4:226f
Tournaisan stage 4.-202/, 4:208f
Visean stage 4:202f, 4:208f, 4:209f
See also Carboniferous
Mississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532f,
4:651t,5:19t,5:20f
See also deltas
714
INDEX

Missouri, United States 4:21, 4:32
Mitchell, E. 5:266;
Mitschelich, Eilhard 3:178, 3:500-501
Mitushev Bay 2:53
mixite 3:508f
Moa bird 1:376f
modderite (CoAs) 3:575;
Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 4:616
modified Mercalli (MSK) intensity scale
5:322, 5:323;
Modoc fault 4:79
Moeritherium 2:540
Moesia 5:458 f, 5:458-459
mofettes 3:107, 5:572
Mogok rubies 3:9
Mohorovicic, Andriya 3:195
Europe 3:645-659
Cenozoic European Rift System 3:653
depth map 2:104f, 3:649f
Adriatic Sea 3:654, 3:655f, 3:656
Central Alps 3:654, 3:655^
Ligurian Sea 3:654, 3:655/", 3:656
structural features
Baltic Shield 3:650, 3:651f
eastern Europe 3:650, 3:65If
East European Craton 3:650, 3:651 f
morphology 3:65Of
northern Europe 3:650, 3:651f
subcrustal lithosphere 3:656, 3:657f
2:36
Ural Mountains 3:652, 3:653f
western/central Europe 2:104f, 3:650f
geophysical techniques 3:646, 3:646/",
3:647f
mantle structure 1:397, l:398f, 1:399,
1:423, l:424t
mid-ocean ridges
olivine 3:646-647
3:646-647
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 1:573,
5:185, 5:309f, 5:433
Mohr stress circle l:574f, 5:353f, 5:35'5f,
5:356, 5:357f
Mohs, F. 3:500
Moine Schists 2:214
Mojave Desert, United States 4:50, 4:52,

4:624f
molasse 4:485
Molasse basin 2:125, 2:126f, 2:128f,
2:134f
Moldanubian region 2:79, 2:81f
moldavites 5:444-445, 5:445f, 5:446f
Molengraaff, Gustaaf 2:190
mollisols 5:^96;, 5:199,
5:199f, 5:200
molluscs 2:367-369
Cretaceous 3:367, 3:367/", 3:368,
3:369f
3:379, 3:380f, 3:381, 3:381f
Eocene 5:469
Jurassic 3:356
morphology 2:367
Neopilina 4:141-142
Oligocene 5:476
Ordovician 4:179
Palaeocene 5:463
reproduction 2:368
See also ammonites; bivalves (Bivalvia);
cephalopods; gastropods
(Gastropoda)
Molteno Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150f
moluranite
(H4U(UO2)3(Mo04)7-18H20(?))
3:552;
molybdenite (MoS2) 3:575;, 3:555;,
3:630;, 3:631f
molybdenum (Mo)
carbonatites 3:223;
hydrothermal ore deposits 5:394;
3:502;
molybdate minerals 3:551-552
S:114t
toxicity 2:22;
molybdofornacite
(CuPb2[(Mo,Cr)O4][(As,P)O4]OH)
3:552;
Monashee Complex, northern Cordillera
4:39-42
monazite 3:221, 3:22?;, 5:120-128
Monet, Antoine Grimoald 3:172
Mongolia 1:345-358
fish 2:463
geological history 1:347f, 1:356
Oligocene 5:476
tectonic megastages 1:347f
Neoarchaean-Neoproterozoic 1:354
Neoproterozoic-Triassic
Caledonian stage 1:355
Gobi-Tianshan Belt 1:355
Indosinian Orogeny 1:356
Salairian stage 1:355
post-Indosinian 1:356
tectonic units 1:354, 1:355f
Monian terrane 2:60
3:270, 3:272f, 3:273f
Monograptus
stratigraphic controversy 5:505
structure 2:361-362, 2:363f
Monograptus parultimus 4:189
Monograptus uniformis 5:505
monophyletic species 1:267
Monotis 3:348, 3:350
Montana, United States 3:10-11, 4:39-42,
4:56-57
Mont Blanc 2:125
montesommaite 3:593;
montgomeryite 5:126
monticellite 3:557-558
montmorillonite
claystones 5:30
monzodiorites 3:237;
mooihoekite (Cu9Fe9S16) 3:575;, 3:577f
Moon 5:264-272
Aristarchus 5:271
asteroid bombardment 4:363-365
atmosphere 1:200, 5:265
crater origins 5:270
Danjon Scale 5:272;
eclipses 5:271, 5:272;
Great Bombardment 5:270-271
ice occurrences 5:271
Langrenus crater 5:271, 5:27'If
life 5:271
lunar missions 5:266, 5:266;
lunar rocks 5:268, 5:270f
maria 5:2671
meteorites 5:235, 5:235f, 5:268-270
moonquakes 5:265, 5:329
occultations 5:271
orbit 5:265
origin 5:264
origins 1:199, 4:363-365
properties l:422t, 5:264;
rotation 5:265
INDEX 715
Moon (continued]
surface features 5:267, 5:267?, 5:268f,
5:270t
tidal forces 1:422, l:422f
transient lunar phenomena (TLP) 5:271
view from space 1:421 f
Moore, Paul 5:121
Moornambool Complex, Australia
1:242-243, l:246f
Moradisaurus 2:481
moraesite 5:121-122
moraines 3:94f, 4:676, 4:677f
mordenite 3:593?
Morgan, Jason 3:204
Morganucodon 2:528f, 2:531-532
Moridunian stage 4:183 f
morinite 5:122, 5:124-125
Morley, Lawrence W. 3:200
Morlot, Adolf 3:181
Morocco 1:12-25, 3:147, 4:169 f, 5:236,
5:506f,5:511f
Morris, Henry M. 1:384
Morris Jesup Rise 3:315f, 3:316?
mortar 1:42
Morveau, Guy ton de 3:171
mosasaurs 2:483, 2:504f, 2:504-505
Moscovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511/",
5:517f
Moscow Basin 4:456
Moses Strikes the Stone to Produce Water
(Exodus) 1:256
Mother Lode District, California 3:122
moths (Lepidoptera) 2:297f,
2:300?, 5:469
mottramite (Pb(Cu,Zn)VO4(OH)) 3:589?
Moulton, Forest 3:184
mounanaite (PbFe2(VO4)2(OH)2) 3:589?
5:42 If
Alps
Oligocene 5:477
orogenic process 2:134f
subduction zones 2:133 f
Andean-type mountain building 1:137,
1:250, 5:419, 5:419f
Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183f
geological research (1835-1900) 3:182,
3:183 f
Hall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182
Himalayan-type mountain building
3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422f
Central Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655f

Western Alps 2:117
motive forces 2:251
ophiolites 5:418
Ordovician 4:182
Tibetan Plateau 5:423, 5:424f
See also granites; igneous rocks
Mount Darwin glass 5:451
Mount Etna, Sicily 1:200?, 3:329, 4:389 f,
5:575
Mount Kenya 1:3 Of
Mount Kilimanjaro 1:3Of
Mount Lofty Ranges, Australia 1:242-243,
l:246f
Mount Macedon, Victoria, Australia 5:451
Mount Pelee, Martinique 5:567, 5:569/1,
5:575?
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines 4:387?, 5:575?
Mount Rainier, United States 5:575
Mount Rogers formation, Appalachians
4:73
Mount Saint Helens 1:200?, 4:690, 4:691 f,
5:568f, 5:574
mourite (UMo5O12(OH)10(?)) 3:552?
Mowry Sea 3:364
Moythomasia 2:466-467
Mozambique Basin 1:138-139, 3:315f,
3:316?
Mozambique Belt 1:2/", 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f, 1:7f
Mozambique Ocean 1:132-135, 3:128
mpororoite (WA1O3(OH)3-2H2O(?)) 3:587?
Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, United
States 4:72
Much Wenlock Limestone Formation
4:186f, 4:188-189
mud 4:507, 4:642f, 4:645/", 4:646?, 5:8,
5:14,5:15
mud diapirs 4:237?, 4:237-238, 4:238f,
4:534f, 4:535, 4:537f9 5:312-313
mud drapes 4:594, 4:597
mudflows 4:5 34f, 4:535, 4:535f, 4:537f,
4:689, 5:2
mud lumps 4:237-238, 4:238/", 4:535-537,
4:537-539
mud pots 3:628, 3:634
mudrocks
illite crystallmity 5:65
mudstone
classification 3-.527f, 5:28
depositional environment 5:11 If
grain analysis 5:109f, 5:110

See also clays
mud volcanoes 4:480, 4:647, 5:312-313,
5:313 f
mukkara structure 5:199, 5:200^
mullite 1:368
Mulucca 1:249
Mundil, R. 4:219
Mundrabilla iron meteorites 5:232f
munirite 3:589?
Muong Nong-type tektites 5:447, 5:451
Murchison meteorite 4:127-128
Murchison, Roderick 2:210-216
Agassiz, Louis 2:177-178
geological studies 2:211
geological surveys 2:214, 3:476
Hall, James, Jr. 2:195
influence 2:213
Murchison Medals 3:62
portrait 2:21 If
Russian geology 2:212
Sedgwick, Adam 2:211, 2:217, 4:176,
4:185
Silurian stratigraphy 2:211, 2.-212/",
4:185
stratigraphic controversy 2:211, 3:179,
4:176
stratigraphic subdivisions 4:194
Murmansk terrane 2:44f, 4:456, 4:459f
Murravechinus 2:352f
Murray-Darling River 5:19?
Murray, John 5:70-71, 5:77
Muschelkalk formation, Germany 3:344
muscovite
granites 3:235?, 3:241, 3:550
vine nourishment 3:87f, 3:88
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University 2:175
Musicians Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?,
3:336-337
Mustersan land mammal age 5:473f
mutinaite 3:593?
Myanmar (Burma) 3:7?, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12
mycobionts 2:441
Mycterosaurus 2:486-487
Myllokungmingia 2:462
Myllokunmingia 2:455
mylonite 3:388?
Mylonite Zone 2:43f, 2:44
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454?, 3:457, 3:458f,
3:460f
myriapods (Myriapoda) 4:210-211
Mystic terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46
N
nabesite 3:593?
nacrite 1:363
Naefia 2:394
716
INDEX
nagyagite 3:119t
Nakhla, Egypt 5:234f9 5:280
Nakhlite meteorites 5:234f, 5:234-235,
5:280
Namacalathus 4:373
Namapoikia 1:261
Namaqua orogenic belt 3:164f
Namibia 3:7*, 3:363*, 4:164
namibite (Cu(BiO) 2 (VO 4 )(OH)) 3:589t
Namurian stage
glaciation 4:208f
magmatism 2:96f
vegetation 4:209f
Nan/inophycus 2:434
Nankai Trench 5:430*, S:430f
nannofossils 2:430, 3:471, 3:472f, 4:646t
Nanpanjiang Basin, China 3:345
Napier Complex 1:132-135
Narryer Gneiss Complex, Australia 3:607f,
3:607-608
Natal Basin 3:147
National Academy of Sciences 2:175
National Association of State Boards of
Geology 3:78
National Geographic Magazine 2:170-171
native elements 3:553-555
allotropes 3:553*, 3:554
liquid elements 3:553
mineral classification systems 3:50It,
3:502t
occurrences 3:553, 3:553*
solid metal occurrences 3:553
solid non-metal occurrences 3:554
natrocarbonatites 3:220-221, 3:224*,
3:225-226, 3:229f
natrolite 3:591-593, 3:593*, 3:594f
natural gas
biogenic gases 4:257-258
carbon isotopic ratios 4:258, 4:2S9f
deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537, 4:538f
environmental geochemistry 2:23
European sedimentary basins 2:124
fossils 4:159
generation parameters 4:28 51, 4:28Sf
hydrocarbon gases 4:257
maturation parameters 4:28Ot
non-hydrocarbon gases
average compositions 4:259*
carbon dioxide (CO2) 4:259*, 4:260
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 4:259*, 4:260
nitrogen (N) 4:258, 4:259*
4:33
Russia 4:472f, 4:473
sources 4:258, 4:2S9f

thermogenic gases 4:258
Naturaliste Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t
natural selection 2:160, 2:161
Nauru Basin 3:315f, 3:316t
Nautiloidea/Nautiloids 2:391, 2:391f9
2:392, 2:396
Nautilus 2:391, 2:396-407
Navajo Sandstone, Arizona 4:547f
Nazca Plate 1:119, 1:119f, l:120f, l:125f,
1:130, 1:153, l:155f
Nazca Ridge I:119f9 I:120f9 3:315f,
3:316t, 5:397-398
nebkhas 4:618-620, 4:619f
Nebraska, United States 4:28f
Necomian stage 4:468
nectrideans 2:473f, 2:475, 2:477f9 2:478
nekton 4:158, 4:499f
Nemagraptus 4:178
Nemagraptus gracilis 4:176-177
Nemaha anticline 4:3 4f
Nemaha Uplift 4:32f
Nemakit-Daldynian stage 4:167f
Nematophytes 2:441
Nematothallus 2:441
Neoacadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f9 4:78,
4:90f9 4:91
Neoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517f
Neocomian-Aptian stages 1:229f, 1:235
Neocomian stage 4:56
Neodiversograptus nilssoni 4:189
neodymium (Nd)
carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:226f,
3:227f,3:228f
radiometric dating l:88t
Neogene
borate deposits 3:516f9 3:518
bryozoans(Bryozoa)1:271f
China 1:347f
fish 2:463f
5:517f
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
neon (Ne)
1:198, l:199f
Neopilina 4:141-142
Neoproterozoic
Australia 1:220, 1:225, 1:225f, 5:51 If
biodiversity 1:261
Brazil
cratons
Amazon craton 1:311, 1:31 If,
l:312f
major shields l:306f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, 1:31 Of,
l:312f
orogenic domains
Aracuai orogenic event 1:313f9
1:315
Araguaia orogenic belt l:314f,
1:319
I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323
l:307f, l:313f, 1:315
1:320
suture zones 1:312f
Tocantins orogenic system l:307f,
l:314f, 1:319
1:323 f
Amazonas basin I:316f9 l:317f
Campos basin 1:321 f9 l:322f
Ceara basin 1:325f
continental margin basins I:316f9
1:325
1:321 f9 I:322f9 1:325
I:325f9 1:326, l:326f
Espirito Santo basin l:321f, l:322f
interior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327,
1:327f
l:319f
Palaeozoic sag basins I:316f9
I:317f9 I:318f9 1:324
Parana basin 1:314, I:316f9 l:317f,
I:318f9 l:319f, 1:320f, 1:324
Parnaiba basin 1:316f9 I:317f9
l:318f
Potiguar basin 1:325f9 l:326f,
1:327f
Santos basin 1:321 f9 1:322f
Sergipe-Alagoas basin 1:322f
Solimoes basin l:316f, 1:317f9
l:318f
stratigraphy 1:317f
INDEX 717
Neoproterozoic (continued)
tectonic processes 1:307, 1:307f,
1:308 f
Cambrian
Transition 4:172
trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f
China 1:347f
early Neoproterozoic 4:358
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 2:40f,
2:41/", 2:48f
Ediacaran
eukaryotes 1:261, 4:362-363
eukaryotes
early animals 4:360
Ediacaran 1:261, 4:362-363
late Neoproterozoic 4:360, 4:361 f,
4:362f
glaciation 4:358, 4:663
Points (GSSPs) 5:5llf
Gondwana 3:13 Of
5:517 f
4:360, 4:361f,4:362f
4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
palaeogeography 4:352-354, 4:353f
Pan-African orogeny
l:4f, 1:5 f
central Africa 1:10, 1:11 f
LufilianArcl:2/; 1:7, l:8f
Madagascar 1:6, l:6f, 1:7f
Mozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4,
1:5 f, 1:7 f
pre-Jurassic configuration 1:3 f
Rokelide Belt 1:2^, 1:10
Saldania Belt l:2f, 1:8
Trans-Saharan Belt l:2f, 1:9, 1:10f

Pechora Basin 2:53f, 2:54f
Riphean 4:350
Rodinia 1:220, 1:245
Russia 4:463
Vendian 4:350, 4:353f
See also Proterozoic
Neornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501f
definition 5:425
glacial isostatic adjustment 2:15If,
5:427
Neotethys Ocean 3:144f, 3:145f, 4:215f,
4:215-216, 4:219f, 5:455
Nepal Geological Society 3:64
nepheline 3:539, 3:540/", 3:541
nephelinite 3:220*, 5:569-571
Neptune
physical characteristics 5:290*, 5:291
ring system 5:292, 5:292t
satellite system 5:292, 5:292*
Neptunism 2:184, 3:167, 3:171, 3:174
Nereid 5:292, 5:292t
Netherlands 2:148, 3:79, 3:80-81, 5:506f
Net-Oil-Sand (NOS) maps 4:323, 4:326f
Nevada, United States 2:506, 3:122,
3:352*, 4:199, 4:201, 5:476-477,
5:506f,5:511f
Nevadites secedensis 3:345-346
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 5:572, 5:574f,
5:575, 5:575*
Newark Supergroup, United States 3:344,
3:345-346, 3:347, 4:98
Newberry Caldera, Oregon, United States
3:270, 3:271f, 4:60
New Britain 3:23 7t
New Britain Trench 4:109,
5:430*, 5:43Of
New Brunswick, Canada 2:463, 4:91
newburyite 5:126
New Caledonia
geology
basement terranes 4:116
Miocene 4:117
ophiolites 4:116, 4:117
successor basin sediments 4:116,
4:117 f
New England Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240*,

1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250, 4:202f
New England Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*
Newfoundland
Appalachians 4:72, 4:81
biodiversity 1:261
Cambrian chronostratigraphy 4:164
Silurian 4:192-193
Newfoundland Ridge 3:315f, 3:316*
New Guinea 1:249, 3:237*
New Guinea Orogeny 1:238f
New Hampshire, United States 4:72, 4:95
New Jersey Highlands 3:157f
New Jersey, United States 3:344, 3:598,
4:105
New Madrid earthquake, Missouri, United
States 4:32
New Mexico, United States 3:351/",
4:48-50, 4:56-57, 5:236, 5:461f,
5:476-477
New River Belt 4:82f
New South Wales, Australia 3:598,
4:191-192, 5:203 f, 5:204f
Newton, Isaac 1:92, 1:257
New Town Coal Measures 3:147, 3:15Of
New York-Alabama Lineament 4:32f,
4:76f
New York Survey 2:195
New York, United States 4:72, 4:73 f,
4:187 f
New Zealand 4:1-7
basement rocks
age ranges 4:5f
batholiths 4:4f, 4:6
Eastern Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,
4:5f
geological map 4:2f, 4:4f
metamorphic overprints 4:4*", 4:6
overlap sequences 4:5
plutons 4:6
Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4 f^
4:5f
continental crust 4:1, 4:1 f
cover strata
active margin development 4:7
intracontinental rifting 4:6
passive margin 4:6
Quaternary 4:7
Devonian 3:129
gemstones 3:7*
geological map 4:2f
Oligocene 5:474
4:3f, 4:5f
Phanerozoic 4:1-7
Silurian 3:129, 4:191-192
71S
INDEX
New Zealand (continued]

Taupo Volcanic Zone 3:246, 4:387t
tectonic processes 4:4f9 4:6
Triassic 3:344
zeolites 3:597
Niagara Falls, New York, United States
4:189, 4:190f
niccolite (NiAs) 3:575?, 3:576f, 3:S77f
nickelalumite((Ni,Cu)Al4[(SO4),(NO3)2]
(OH)12-3H2O) 3:556?
nickel (Ni)
carbonatites 3:223?
hydrothermal ore deposits 5:3 94t
S:114t
oil content 4:257, 4:257f
toxicity 2:22?
Nicol, James 2:214
Nier, Alfred 3:186, 3:604-605
Nigeria 3:7?
Niger River 5:19?
See also deltas
Niggli, Paul 3:188
Nile Craton 1:10
Nile River 4:65It
Ninety East Ridge 3:315f9 3:316?,
4:476-477
Nininger, Harvey 3:195
niobium (Nb)
carbonatites 3:221, 3:221?, 3:223?,
3:224?
mineral classification systems 3:501?
Nipponide collage 4:470, 4:470f
Nisbet, Euan 3:4
Nisbet's Essay 3:4
Nitella 4:375
niter (KNO3) 3:556?
nitratine (NaNO3) 3:556?
nitrobarite (Ba(NO3)2) 3:556?
nitrocalcite (Ca(NO3)2-4H2O) 3:556?
nitrogen (N)
atmospheric concentrations 1:197?,
3:553, 5:246?
3:502?
natural gas content 4:258, 4:259?
natural occurrences 3:553?
nitrate minerals
mineral types 3:556?
solubility 3:555
oil composition 4:253/", 4:256, 4:2S6f
Venus 5:246?
nitromagnesite (Mg(NO3)2-6H2O) 3:556?
Nitzschia joussaea 5:487
Nixon Fork terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46
Noachian epoch 5:273
Noah 1:254
nobleite (CaB6O10-4H2O) 3:513?
nodosariana 3:45If
nodosariata 3:451f
nodular cherts 5:55, 5:57ft S:5Sf
nodular ore deposits
See ore bodies
non-amniote tetrapods 2:468-478
Carboniferous
adelogyrinids 2:475
amniotes 2:473f
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids 2:473/", 2:474/i 2:475
lepospondyls 2:475
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
nectrideans 2:473/, 2:475
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
Permian
anthracosaurs 2:476-477
baphetids 2:476-477
capitosauroids 2:476-477, 2:477f
diadectomorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478
dissorophoids 2:477f
lepospondyls 2:478
nectrideans 2:477/", 2:478
seymouriamorphs 2:477/", 2:477-478
synapsids 2:477-478
temnospondyls
general description 2:476-477
Micropholis 2:519-520, 2:520/
non-barred coastline 4:574/", 4:575, 4:576f
Nonesian faunachron 3:345f
nontronite 1:369, 5:394?
Norian stage 2:508, 4:221 f, 4:95, 5:506/,
5:517f
Norilsk complex, Russia 3:491-492
norites 3:550
Atlas Mountains 1:13, I:15f9 I:16f9 1:17
Cambrian I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, I:18f9 1:19f
Carboniferous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
Cretaceous I:14f9 I:15f9 I:19f9 I:22f9
1:23, 1:23f, l:24f
Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, 1:18 f,
1:19f, l:20f
Campanian-Maastrichtian 1.-22/", 1:23,
1:24, 1:24 f
I:22f9 1:23
Cretaceous 1:19f, I:22f9 1:23, l:23f,
1:24 f
Devonian I:19f9 l:20f, 1:21, l:22f
Eocene 1:24, l:24f
Holocene 1:25
Jurassic 1:19f, 1:23, 1:23 f
Miocene 1:24
Permo-Triassic l:19f, 1:21
Silurian 1:18, I:19f9 l:20f, l:22f
Devonian l:14f, 1:15f, 1:19f, 1:20f,
1:21, 1:22 f
Eocene 1:24, 1:24 f
glaciation 1:18
Holocene 1:25
Jurassic I:14f9 1:15'f, 1:19f, 1:23, 1:23f
Miocene 1:17, 1:24
Oligocene 1:17
Ordovician 1.-14/", l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19f, l:20f
Permian I:14f9 I:15f9 I:19f9 1:21
petroleum reserves 1:12, I:14f9 1:24
rift valleys 1:16, 1:16f9 1:17
Saharan Platform 1:13, I:15f9 1:17, 1:23
sedimentary basins 1:13, 1:13'f
Silurian I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, I:19f9 I:20f9
l:22f
Alpine Orogeny 1:17
Hercynian Orogeny 1:14, l:16f
Infracambrian tectonic processes 1:13
l:16f
tectonic map 1:15f
Tertiary 9 I:14f
l:15f
Triassic I:14f9 1:15f9 1:19f, 1:21
volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17
North American geology
Appalachians
INDEX 719
North American geology (continued)

4:82f, 4:85, 4:89
4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88, 4:90f
Dunnage tectonostratigraphical
zone 4:82f, 4:84, 4:87f
Exploits tectonostratigraphical
subzone 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f
4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
Humber tectonostratigraphical zone
4:82f, 4:83, 4:84f
Meguma tectonostratigraphical
zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Notre Dame tectonostratigraphical
subzone 4:82f, 4:84f, 4:85,
4:87f
orogenesis 4:83
Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82/, 4:87,
4:87f
tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57f, 4:89,
4:90f
tectonostratigraphical zones 4:81,
4:82f
4:84f
4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
Permian 4:216
Southern/Central Appalachians
4:72-81
Carolina terrane 4:74f, 4:7Sf, 4:78
Cat Square terrane 4:74f, 4:7'5f,
4:77
4:80f
occurrence 4:72
origins 4:72
4:76f
sedimentary depositional processes
4:73
superterranes 4:74f, 4:75f
Atlantic Margin 4:92-108
carbonate shorelines and shelves
4:102, 4:103f
crustal stretching 4:100, 4:101f
crustal transition zone 4:100

deposition centres 4:104f, 4:104-105
(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96/", 4:99f
energy resources 4:105, 4:106f
groundwater 4:105-106, 4:107f
morphology
landslides 4:94f, 4:94-95
submarine canyons 4:93-94, 4:94f
palaeoenvironments 4:102, 4:103f,
4:104f
passive margin structure 4:95, 4:96f,
4:99f
placer deposits 4:105
postrift unconformity 4:98, 4:99f,
4:101f
research issues 4:106
salt tectonism 4:102, 4:102f
seamounts 4:93f9 4:94, 4:95
sedimentary history 4:102
tectonic evolution 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f
continental interior 4:21-36
anticlines 4:34^
burial-history diagram 4:3If
craton foundation 4:22
cross-sections 4:33f, 4:34f, 4:35f
earthquakes 4:32
geological provinces 4:24f
overburden removal 4:3It
petroleum reserves 4:33
plains-type folding 4:32, 4:34?, 4:35f
4:8-21
Acasta Gneisses, Canada
1:427-429, 4:10f, 4:13f, 4:15f,
4:350
Archaean cratons 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f,
4:16, 4:23f
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:10f, 4:11 f
4:19 f
crustal aggregation 4:14f
Grenville orogeny 4:19
Laurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:19
mantle keel 4:8-9
Rae craton 4:16
Rodinia breakup 4:8
Sask craton 4:16
Slave craton 4:10f, 4:11 f, 4:12,
4:13f,4:16,4:18f
structure 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:14f
Superior craton 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13f,

4:16, 4:17f, 4:19f
tectonic map 4:9f
Proterozoic crustal provinces 4:23f
sediments
bentonite 4:29, 4:29f
chalk 4:28, 4:29f
chert 4:29, 4:30f
coal 4:28, 4:3 Of
cyclothems 4:30, 4:31 f
erosion 4:29-30
glacial deposits 4:27, 4:28f
loess 4:28f
Phanerozoic sedimentary sequences
4:2 7f
rhythmites 4:30-31
salt deposits 4:28, 4:29f
sedimentary veneer 4:23
seismites 4:32, 4:36f
sequence stratigraphy 4:25f, 4:26f
volcanic ash 4:29, 4:30f
structural development 4:30
structural features 4:31, 4:32f, 4:33'f,
4:34f
tectonic map 4:23f
unconformities 4:30
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f
Miocene
mammals 5:483
tectonic processes
Cascade Range 5:481
5:480
Newark Supergroup, United States
3:344, 3:345-346, 3:347
Newfoundland 1:261, 4:164
bedrock features
accretion terranes 4:40f, 4:41 f, 4:42,
4:46
arc terranes 4:46
autochthonous rocks 4:39
back-arc basin terranes 4:46
continental margin terranes 4:40f,
4:45
parautochthonous rocks 4:39
boundaries 4:36
Cretaceous 3:364
evolution 4:44
neotectonics 4:37f, 4:38
720 INDEX
North American geology (continued]

Nova Scotia 4:164
Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68/
Cambrian 4:62
metasediments 4:67f
Palaeozoic 4:61
regional geophysics 4:67
regional subdivisions 4:62f, 4:65
seismic reflection data 4:69-70
stratigraphy
pre-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:64f
sedimentary facies 4:64f, 4:66f
syn-orogenic sequences 4:63, 4:66f
tectonic processes
diachronous collision events 4:61,
4:70
fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62f
imbrication zones 4:65
tectonic map 4:23f
tectonic synthesis 4:70
accreted terranes 4:53
Archaean 4:48
Cambrian 4:50
Cenozoic 4:58, 4:60
Cretaceous 3:364, 4:52, 4:55, 4:55f
definition 4:48
Devonian 4:50
Eocene 4:58
Jurassic 4:52, 4:54
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f
Laurentia 4:48
magmatic arcs 4:53
magmatism 4:55, 4:58, 4:59f
Miocene 4:58
Oligocene 4:58
ophiolites 4:53-54
Pennsylvanian 4:50
Permian 4:50
physiographic provinces 4:48, 4:49f
Proterozoic 4:48
Rodinia 4:48, 4:50
seismicity 4:60
Sevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55f, 4:56
tectonic evolution 4:58, 4:59f9 4:60
tectonic map 4:5If
Triassic 4:52
Wasatch line 4:50
tektites 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f
North American Land Mammal Age
5:479f
North American Plate 4:37f, 4:39f,
4:58-60, 4:59f
North Atlantic Deep Water 5:474-475
North Atlantic Volcanic Province 3:315f,
3:316t
North Australia Craton 1:208, 1:209f,
1:211, I:211f9 3:128, 3:132f
North Cape 3:645-646
North Carolina, United States 4:72, 4:73f,
4:75f
North China Craton 5:39
North China terrane 1:234, 3:130f, 5:455,
5:457f, 5:458f
North-east Georgia Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
ophiolites 4:82f, 4:84f9 4:89
orogenesis 4:83
tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57/", 4:89,
4:90f
Avalon zone
general discussion 4:81-83, 4:87f,
4:88
orogenic events 4:90f
Dunnage zone
description 4:84
Exploits subzone 4:82f,
4:85, 4:87f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f9
4:85, 4:87f
tectonostratigraphic map 4:82f
4:87f
Exploits subzone
Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
4:82f9 4:87, 4:87f
Gander zone
general discussion 4:81-83, 4:87
4:87f
Humber zone 4:82f9 4:83, 4:84f
map 4:82f
Meguma zone
general discussion 4:81-83, 4:87f,
4:88
orogenic events 4:9Of
Notre Dame subzone
4:82f9 4:85, 4:89
4:84f
4:84f
northern lights
See auroras
North German Basin 2:96f9 2:97,
2:99-100, 2:101f9 3:648-649
North New Hebrides Trench 5:430t,
5:430f
North Sea 2:96f9 2:97, 2:125, 2:150,
3:648-649
North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,
2:119f92:121f92:122f
North Sea Central Graben 5:44-46, 5:47,
5:48
North Victoria Land I:133f9 3:139
North-west Georgia Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
North-west Hawaiian Ridge 3:315'/",
3:316t
Northwind Ridge 3:315f9 3:316t
Norway 2:41-44, 3:155, 3:156f9 4:187f9
4:191-192
Nostoc 2:441-442
Notelops 3:312f
nothosaurs 2:484
Nothosaurus 2:506
Notofagus 1:139
Notozero domain 2:44/
Notre Dame arc 4:85, 4:87f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f, 4:85,
4:87f
Nova Scotia 2:472, 3:147, 3:598, 4:164,
4:211,4:88-89,4:95
Novaya Zemlya 2:49, 2:50f9 2:53, 2:86,
2:87f9 4:214-215, 4:464, 4:464f
Novosalenia 2:352f
nuees ardentes 5:568t, 5:572, 5:574f
Nullarbor Plain, Australia 5:231-233,
5:232f, 5:236
Nuna4:14/",4:16
nunataks 4:664
Nurek dam, Tajikistan 1:537, 1:5371,
l:537f
Nyak terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46
nyerereite 3:221t9 3:225-226
Nyiragongo volcano, Congo 3:329, 5:575
o
obduction 5:315
Oberon 5:290-291, 5:291*
Obik Sea 5:476-477
obradovicite (H4(K,Na)CuFe2AsO4
(MoO4)5-12H20) 3:552t
Ob River 5:19t
obsidian 3:267-277
artefacts
occurrences 3:272
trade routes 3:276f
INDEX 721
obsidian (continued)
composition 3:268, 3:269t
occurrences
California 3:270, 3:272/", 3:273/",
3:274f
Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269/",
3:27 Of
3:271f
States 3:270, 3:27If
Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National
Park, Wyoming, United States
3:268, 3:269t
as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:275f
tridymite 3:571
Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming, United States 3:268, 3:269*
Occidens 2:472
Ocean Drilling Program 5:72-73
Oceania 4:109-122
Fiji
Beqa 4:118
geology 4:118, 4:119/"
Koro Islands 4:118
Lau Islands 4:120
Quaternary volcanism 4:120
VanuaLevu 4:118, 4:119f
Vatulele4:118
VitiLevu4:118, 4.-119/"
Yanuca (Serua) 4:118
Yasawa Group 4:118
New Caledonia
geology
basement terranes 4:116
Miocene 4:117
ophiolites 4:116, 4:117
successor basin sediments 4:116,
4:117f
New Zealand 4:1-7
basement rocks
age ranges 4:5f
4:5f
geological map 4:2f, 4:4f
metamorphic overprints 4:4*", 4:6
plutons 4:6
Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,
4:5f
continental crust 4:1, 4:1 f
cover strata
passive margin 4:6
Quaternary 4:7
geological map 4:2 f
4:3f, 4:5f
Phanerozoic 4:1-7
tectonic processes 4:4/", 4:6
Papua New Guinea
geology
collision zones 4:110
foldbelt 4:109
geological map 4:11 If
northeastern province 4:112
stable platform 4:109
natural gas 4:113
natural hazards 4:113
oil production 4:113
ophiolites 4:112
porphyry ore deposits 4:112
ultramafic rocks 4:110-112
physiographic map 4:11 Of
Samoa
geology 4:121
seismicity map 4:110f
small ocean basins 4:109, 4:112,
4:115-116
Solomon Islands
geology 4:113, 4:114, 4:114f
obsidian 3:274-275
Tonga
geology 4:120
Vanuatu
geology 4:115, 4:115f
obsidian 3:274-275
volcanoes 5:567f
ocean islands
See seamounts
oceans
anoxic environments 3:363, 3:370-371,
4:497
atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations 5:475
circulation system 4:643, 5:481
Circum-Antarctic current 5:474, 5:476
3:528, 5:73, 5:73f
composition 5:70

geographic distribution 4:642f,
4:643f, 5:71f
sediment types
calcareous oozes 4:642/1, 4:648,
5:70, 5:71f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
carbonates 3:528
continental margin sediments
4:642f
diatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54,
5:54f
5:76, 5:77/i 5:119
mud 4:642f
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/", 4:646*
5:47f
red clays 4:642f, 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f,
5:74f, 5:75*, 5:76
siliceous oozes 4:642f, 5:53, 5:55f,
5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75*
sources 4:642f, 5:72f
continental slopes 4:642/", 4:646
oozes 4:648
4:641-642, 4:642f
sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f,
4:646*
transport processes
biota 4:645
volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645
global circulation pattern 4:517f
Jurassic 3:354
4:343f, 4:344f
faulting processes
722
INDEX
oceans (continued)
fault scarps 5:384f9 5:385f
transform faults 5:375, S:386f
5:386-387
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211 f
S:404f
causal mechanisms 5:398, S:399f
continental propagators 5:402f,
5:403, 5:403f, 5:404f
evolution 5:396
implications 5:403
microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401f
oceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396f,
5:397f
ridge segmentation
axial depth profiles 5:375f, 5:378f,
5:379f
characteristics 5:3 76*
discontinuities 5:3 74/", 5:375,
5:376*, 5:377/i 5:378f9 5:3 79f
hierarchies 5:3 77f
magma supply 5:375, 5:378f9 5:382f
S:396f
rift valleys 5:438
seamounts 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479
axial magma chamber
5:407, 5:413f
crustal thickness 5:415f9 5:416f
5:413f
seismic layer 2A 5:406
seismic velocities 5:406f, 5:410,
5:411f
5:416f
spreading centres

Eocene 5:466
faulting processes S:385f
morphology 5:373
overlapping spreading centres
5:374f, 5:375, 5:396-405
Pangaea 3:143f
sea floor spreading 1:83f, 3:198,
3:203, 3:204-205, 3:362-363
topography 5:374f, 5:384-386
North Atlantic Deep Water 5:474-475
ocean-floor metamorphism 3:392-393
oceanic crust 1:404f
axial magma chamber
characteristics 5:408f9 5:409f,
5:410, 5:414f
crustal structure 5:41 If
chemical composition determination
1:406, l:406t
heat flux 5:363*
seismic layer 2A
characteristics 5:407, 5:408f9 5:409f
5:416f
transition zone 4:101 f
5:113-120
Indian Ocean 5:119
Pacific Ocean 5:117, 5:118f
distribution
Indian Ocean 5:117

Pacific Ocean 5:116
5:119, 5:76, 5:77f
5:116f
occurrence 5:113
tertiary diagram 5:115f
ocean island basalts 3:339
Pacific Ocean 4:1
petroleum reservoirs 4:235*
thermohaline circulation 4:224,
4:514-515, 4:517f9 4:643-644,
5:464, 5:470-471, 5:489
controlling factors 5:317t
decollement 5:309, 5:309f9 5:310f,
5:311f95:315f95:316f
fluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f9
5:311f, 5:315, 5:316f
5:309, 5:310f95:311f9
5:431-432
major trenches 5:430*
obduction 5:315
occurrences 5:307
seamounts 5:435f
stability 5:3 09f
subcretion5:309/",5:314
tectonic erosion
basement topography 5:314,
5:315 f
tuxbi6ites5:310f95:311f
chemosynthetic communities 5:433-434
convergent plate boundaries 4:343f,
4:344, 4:345fy 5:429f, 5:429-430
faulting 5:435f, 5:436f
geographic distribution 5:430, 5:430f
island arcs 5:431
maximum depth 5:430*
morphology 5:431, 5:43If
Oceania 4:109
outer rise 5:434
5:435f
water volume 5:433
INDEX 723
Oceanus Procellalrum 5:267?

Ocoee Supergroup, Appalachians 4:73
odinite 1:360, 1:361?, 1:364, 3:542
Oedaleops 2:485
Offacoluskingi3:314f
offretite 3:593?
offshore transition zone 4:572f, 4:574,
4:575-577, 4:576f
Ohio Range 3:129, 3:137f
Ohio, United States 4:211
Oi 1 event (Oligocene) 5:473
oil 4:112
asphaltene separation 4:250
gas chromatography 4:250, 4:253f
gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry 4:252, 4:254f
liquid chromatography 4:250
Angel with the Flaming Sword (Genesis)
1:253
biomarkers 4:250, 4:2Slf
bulk properties
API gravity 4:252, 4:255f
distillation fractions 4:256, 4:257f
gas/oil ratio 4:255
metal content 4:257f, 4:257
nitrogen content 4:256, 4:256f
sulphur content 4:256, 4:256f
viscosity 4:256
wax content 4:255, 4:256f
aromatic compounds 4:250, 4:252f,
4:253f
asphaltenes 4:250
average composition 4:248, 4:249f
nitrogen compounds 4:253f
oxygen compounds 4:253f
polar fractions 4:250
saturated compounds 4:248, 4:249f
sulphur compounds 4:253f
condensate 4:248, 4:252-255
crude oil classification 4:252, 4:254f,
4:255?
environmental geochemistry 2:23
exploration geophysics 3:190-192,
3:191f
fossils 4:159
generation parameters 4:2 S4?, 4:285f
maturation parameters 4:280t
molecular maturity indicators 4:250,
4:252f
oil cracking 4:292?
petroleum reserves 4:331-339
definitions 4:331
deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537,
4:53 8f
depletion models 4:337
discovery rates 4:337, 4:338f
economic forecasts 4:337
energy consumption levels 4:337f
fossils 4:159
Hubbert peak 4:336f
limestones 5:112
peak oil forecasts 4:338f, 4:339f
production data 4:33 6f
recoverable reserve predictions
global reserves 4:334f
oil field recovery distributions
4:334f
oil production forecasts 4:335f
oil recovery estimates 4:333f
United Kingdom oil field reserves
4:335f
resource distributions 4:332f
Russia 4:472/i 4:473
supply and demand debates 4:334,
4:33 6f
value approximations 4:332f
ojuelaite 3:508f
Oklahoma, United States 2:477-478, 4:21,
4:61-71
Old Faithful geyser, Yellowstone,
Wyoming, United States 3:107f
Oldham, Richard 3:194f, 3:194-195
3:224f, 3:225, 3:230f
Old Red Sandstone
alluvial fans S:138f
braided river systems 5:138, 5:139f
Caledonian Orogeny 2:59, 2:66, 2:68-70
conglomerates 5:139f
Devonian 4:194
geological controversies 3:180
Hutton, James 2:203
Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:212,
2:214
photograph 3:175f
Silurian 4:185, 4:193
whisky production 3:84
Olenekian stage
Points (GSSPs) 3:345, S:S06f
5:517 f
vegetation 3:349f
Oligocene 5:472-478
Alps 2:134f
amphibians
2:525f

2:524f
angiosperms 2:420f
Baltimore Canyon trough 4:104 f
biostratigraphical correlations 5:472
biota
algae 5:476
Coccolithophoridae 5:476
diatoms 5:476
foraminifera 5:473, 5:476
plankton 5:476
boundaries 5:472-473
carbon dioxide (CO2) 5:475
Chattian stage 1.-322/", 1:325f, 5:473,
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
Europe 2:120, 2:121f
glaciation 5:473-474, 5:475, 5:476-477
global warming/cooling 5:473
Gondwana 1:1S1?, 1:191 f, 1:193f
insects 2:299 f, 2:300?
5:517 f
Lagerstatten 3:310?
New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f
North Africa 1:17
4:25^
oxygen isotope ratios 5:473, 5:474f
palaeoclimate 5:473
palaeosols 5:475
precipitation 5:475
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
sea-level 5:473, 5:474f
South-east Asia 1:1S1?, l:191f, 1:193f
vegetation 5:475
oligoclase 3:403, 3:534f, 3:535
olivenite 3:508f, 3:508?
Oliver, Jack 3:205
olivine 3:557-561
carbonatites 3:221?
724
INDEX
olivine (continued]
crystallography 3:557, 3:558f, 3:S60f
hydrothermal alteration 3:559
kimberlites 3:256?
metamorphic grade 3:396f
meteorites 3:560
nomenclature 3:558
shock metamorphic effects 5:1831
stability 3:559
ultramafic rocks 3:394, 3:396, 3:396f,
3:397f
Olmo, Jose Vicente del 3:170
Olympic terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47
Olympus Mons 5:278-279, 5:279f, 5:565
Omalius d'Halloy, Jean-Baptiste d' 2:183,
3:360-361
Oman
See Arabia
Omori, Fiusakichi 3:195
omphacite 3:397, 3:404, 3:405, 3:567
Onnian substage 4:183f
Ontario, Canada 3:119f, 3:155-156,
3:160, 4:33-34, 4:189, 4:190f
Ontong-Java Plateau 3:315f, 3:326?, 3:317,
3:363?, 3:370-371, 4:111 f, 4:113,
4:480
Onychodus 2:467
ooidal ironstones
diagenesis5:102-103
5:105 f
occurrence 5:34
photomicrograph 5:35f, 5:99f
ooids 4:508, 4:508f, 5:108-110, 5:109f
Oort cloud 1:426, l:428f, 5:224
Opabinia 3:311 f
opal
occurrence 3:13, 5:35-36, 5:51
Opdyke, Neil 3:203
Operation Sealion
See military geology
Ophiacodon 2:487
ophiolites
Andes Mountains l:125f, 1:128
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2-3
Argentina 1:161-163
Bay of Islands ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84f
China 1:350
copper deposits 5:388
crustal structure 1:405-406

Koli Nappe Complex 2:67
New Caledonia 4:116, 4:117
Northern Appalachians 4:82f9 4:84f,
4:89
pyrite (FeS2) 3:585
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:242, 1:245-247
terranes 4:84
Thetford Mines ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84f
Ophthalmian Orogeny 1:208-209, l:210f
Oppel, Albert 1:295, 2:235, 3:180, 3:352
Oquirrh Basin 4:50
orangeites 3:252f
Orbigny, Alcide d' 1:295, 2:182, 3:180,
3:352
Orbiter 1 5:266?, 5:266-267
Orbiter 5 5:266?, 5:266-267
Ordos Basin, China 3:344
Abereiddian stage 4:183 f
Actonian substage 4:183f
Appalachians 4:76
apparent polar wander paths 4:153f
Arenigian subdivision 4:175-176, 4:177,
4:2 77 4:178-179
Armorica 2:78
Ashgillian stage 4:175-176, 4:179,
4:2 79/", 4:180-181
Aurelucian stage 4:183 f
Avalonia 2:78
Baltica2:273/;2:78
biodiversity l:264f, 4:179, 4:180f
Kr2izill:317f,l:318f,l:32
Burrellian stage 4:183f
Canadian subdivision 4:176, 4:177
Caradocian subdivision 4:175-176,
4:178, 4:179-180, 4:180f, 4:182f,
4:182-184
Cautleyan stage 4:183f
cephalopods 2:389f
Cheney an stage 4:183 f
China l:347f, 4:178-179, 4:180-181,
4:181-182, 5:511f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430, 3:434,
3:435/",3:436/r,3:437/'
chronostratigraphy 4:182, 4:183f, 4:25f

conodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:175-184
Constonian substage 4:183f
corals 2:325f
corals (Cnidarians) 4:179
Cressagian stage 4:183f
Darriwillian stage 4:176-177, 5:511 f,
5:517f
East European Craton 2:36,
2:38f, 4:459
echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336/", 4:179
echinoids 2:355
Fennian stage 4:183f
fish 2:462, 2:463f
glaciation 3:129, 4:131, 4:180, 4:663
glauconite 3:546
Gondwana
glaciation 4:180
3:134f,3:135f, 4:181
terranes 1:171, l:173f, 3:130f
Grampian Orogeny 2:56, 2:58f
2:365f, 2:366, 4:142, 4:143f,
4:175-184
Harnagian substage 4:183f
Hirnantian stage 4:183f
lapetus Ocean 2:78
Ibexian subdivision 4:177-178
5:517f
ironstones 5:106, 5:98f
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Kazakhstan 1:173 f
Lagerstatten 3:320?, 3:313
Laurentia
accretion terranes l:173f
4:76f
limestones 4:182f
Llandellian stage 4:183 f
Llanvirnian subdivision 4:175-176,
4:178-179,4:179-180
Longvillian substage 4:183 f
Marshbrookian substage 4:183f
Migneintian stage 4:183 f
molluscs 4:179
Moridunian stage 4:183f
INDEX 725
Ordovician (continued]
correlations 2:219f
North Africa l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19f, l:20f
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
Northern Appalachians 4:81
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Meguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f, 4:84f,
4:85, 4:87f
Onnian substage 4:183 f
ostracoderms 2:457
oxygen concentrations l:206f
Ozarkian subdivision 4:176
4.-155/", 4:155-156, 4:181, 4:181f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Pusgillian stage 4:183 f
Rawtheyan stage 4:183 f
Rheic Ocean 2:78
Siberia 1:173 f
Soom Shale, South Africa 2:274-275,
3:441, 3:441f
Soudleyan substage 4:183f
South-east Asia 1:178, l:183f, l:185f
Streffordian stage 4:183f
subdivisions
Arenigian 4:177, 4:177f
Ashgillian4:179, 4:179f
Caradocian 4:178
index fossils 4:176
Llanvirnian 4:178
Tremadocian 4:177
Tornquist Ocean 2:78
Tremadocian stage 4:175, 4:176, 4:177,
4:179-180, 4:184, 5:511/", 5:517f
trilobites 2:164
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:293,
4:176-177,4:179
Velfreyan substage 4:183f
volcanism 4:182
Wales 4:177f, 4:177-178, 4:178-179,
4:179^,4:182
Whitlandian stage 4:183 f
Woolstonian substage 4:183 f
ore bodies
3:493
arsenates 3:506-510
alteration 3:508
crystal structure 3:506
nomenclature 3:506
occurrence 3:509
solubility 3:508
stability 3:506
borates
Argentine borate deposits 3:513*
chemistry 3:514
commercial borate minerals 3:512t
commercial refined borate products
3:519*
definition 3:511
magmatic sources 3:517
marine evaporites 3:517
non-marine basins 3:517
occurrences 3:515
playa lakes 3:516/", 3:516-517
exploration techniquew 3:518
geological environment 3:511, 3:512f
life estimates 3:521t
mining operations 3:519
origins 3:512f
processing techniques 3:519
reserve deposits 3:521t
Turkish borate deposits 3:5131
uses 3:511, 3:520, 3:520f
world production rates 3:521f
chromates 3:532-533
crocoite (PbCrO4) 3:533, 3:533*
general discussion 3:532, 3:533*
dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) 5:30
economic deposits 1:437, 1:435*, 1:438f
felsic igneous rock associations 3:492
gold (Au)
Archaean gold-quartz conglomerates
(palaeoplacers) 3:121, 3:121f
by-product gold 3:123, 3:492-493
Carlin-type gold 3:122
epithermal gold 3:122, 3:122f
Fiji 4:120
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:119,
3:119/", 3:120f, 3:630*, 3:635f
1:441-442, l:442/i 4:112
orogenic lode gold 3:122
Russia 4:472f, 4:473
fluid sources
magma-heated waters
3:634, 3:635f

3:633f
gold deposits 3:119, 3:119f9 3:120f,
3:630*, 3:635f
3:630/",3:631/~, 5:388
porphyry ore deposits 3:633f, 5:369
carbonatites 3:640
incompatible lithophile elements
3:638f, 3:639, 3:639*, 3:640f
pegmatites 3:639
magnetite 3:641
sulphide minerals
base metal deposits 3:643, 3:644*
3:643f
3:642, 3:642/i 3:644, 3:644f
molybdate minerals 3:551-552
nitrate minerals
mineral types 3:556*
solubility 3:555
4:33
5:113-120
Indian Ocean 5:119
Pacific Ocean 5:117, S:118f
distribution
Indian Ocean 5:117
Pacific Ocean 5:116
5:76, 5:77f, 5:119
5:116f
occurrence 5:113
tertiary diagram 5:115f
726
INDEX
ore bodies (continued)

phosphate deposits 5:126, 5:127f
porphyry ore deposits 3:633/", 4:112,
4:120, 5:369
quartz (SiO2) 3:569-571
chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51,
5:52f
cristobalite 1:368, 3:569, 3:570f9
3:571
industrial uses 3:570
United States 3:571
silica 3:570, 3:S70f
structure 3:570
tridymite 3:540f9 3:569,
3:570f9 3:571
types 3:570
weathering 5:17
Russia 4:472f, 4:473
3:583f
crystal structure 3:574, 3:575t, 3:576f,
3:577f
geobarometry 3:583
ore deposit types 3:584, 3:585t
physical properties 3:576, 3:577t
stability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580f
sulphur occurrences 3:554
tungstate minerals 3:586-588
vanadate minerals 3:588-590
See also economic geology; mineral
deposits; specific minerals
Oregon, United States 4:53, 5:476-477,
5:480-481
Orellan land mammal age 5:472, 5:473f
Oresound 2:150
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) 4:333-334
Oriental mountain system 4:48
Orinoco River 5:2 9
Orkhon arc 4:466
Ornithischia
Thyreophora 2:493
Ornithuromorpha 2:498f9 2:499, 2:501f
Acadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f9 4:88,
4:90f9 4:91
Albany Eraser Orogeny 4:352
Alleghanian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:79,

4:88-89, 4:90f, 4:91
Alpine Orogeny 1:17, 2:113, 2:117,
4:471
Ancestral Rocky Mountains orogeny
4:52
Andean Orogen 1:238f
Antler orogeny 4:50
Argentina l:156f
Australia
Albany Eraser Orogeny 1:209'/,
1:210-211, l:213f, l:214f, 1:219,
1:239f, 4:352
Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:211 f,
4:352
Capricorn Orogeny 1:209f,
1:209-210, 9I:211f
I:212f9
1:239 f
Chewings Orogeny 1:212 f, 1:215
l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f
Ewamin Orogeny 1:213 f9 1:218-219
Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, 1:21 Of
Hall's Creek Orogeny 1:21 If,
1:212-213, l:239f
Hooper Orogeny l:211f, 1:212
Kararan Orogeny I:212f
1:213f,
9
1:217-218
Kimban Orogeny 1:209f, 1:21 If,
l:212f, 1:215-216
King Leopold Orogeny 1:211, l:215f,
1:239 f93:132f
Orogeny
New England Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,
1:241 f, 1:242, 1:249 f, 1:250,
4:202f
l:210f
Paterson Orogeny l:215f, 1:220,
1:239 f
Petermann Orogeny l:215f, 3:132f
Pine Creek Orogeny 1:209f, l:210f,
1:211
Pinjarra Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211
Proterozoic 1:208
reactivation 1:214f9 1:219-220
Ross Orogeny 1:135, 1:238f, 1:245,
1:248 f
Strangways Orogeny 1:211 f,
1:214-215
Tanami Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:213
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,
1:241 f9 1:242
Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16,
4:19f, 4:352
Wickham Orogeny l:215f
Yapungku Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:214-215
Baikalide Orogeny 4:463, 4:464, 4:464f
Barramundi Orogeny 4:352
Brazil
Brasiliano-Pan-African orogeny
1:307-308, 1:308 f
Aracuai orogenic event l:313f,
1:315
1:319
I:307f9 I:315f9 1:323
I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315
1:320
l:314f, 1:319
Cadomian Orogeny 2:75-78, 3:133f9
3:648, 4:352
Caledonian Orogeny
British Isles 2:56-63
Monian terrane 2:60
2:57f
Silurian 4:191
tectonic evolution 2:57f, 2:61
terranes 2:59
China 1:349f, 1:351
Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 3:239
Scandinavia 2:64-74
Arctic Caledonides 2:71f, 2:72f
Baltica continental margin 2:65f,
2:67, 3:648
Barents Shelf 2:50f9 2:64, 2:64f9
2:70
eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69f, 2:71 f
geographic location 2:3 5 f
Koli Nappe Complex 2:6Sf, 2:67
Laurentian continental margin
2:65/", 2:67
Lower Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66
Middle Allochthon 2:65f9 2:66
Seve Nappe Complex 2:65f, 2:67
Silurian 4:191
Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f9 2:71 f
INDEX 727
erogenic events (continued]

Tertiary 2:64 f
Uppermost Allochthon 2:65f, 2:67
Suess, Eduard2:238
Circum-Pacific orogenic collages 4:468
crustal provinces 4.-23/J 5:175, 5:176f
Danopolonian orogeny 2:44
Grenville orogeny 3:155-165
anorthosite-mangerite-charnockitegranite (AMCG) suite 3:155-156,
3:159f, 3:160, 3:161f
Argentina l:156f, 1:161-163
Australia 4:352
geographic distribution 3:155, 3:156f,
3:157f
Laurentia 3:155, 4:16, 4:19
nomenclature 3:158f
tectonic evolution
Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f,
3:159 f
Flinton Group 3:159f, 3:160

3:163 f

post-Ottawan activity 3:159f, 3:162
Hercynian Orogeny
Arabia 1:151
China l:346f, 1:352
Gondwana 2:102
Mongolia 1:356
Pangaea 4:225
Hudsonian Orogeny 4:16
Hunter-Bowen Orogeny 1:242, 1:250
Indosinian Orogeny 1.-346/", 1:348,
l:349f, 1:352, 1:356
Jinningian Orogeny l:346f, 1:348,
1:349f, 1:350
back-arc basin closure 1:247, l:248f,
1:249 f

characteristics l:240t
evolution
1:250
geological map l:239f, 1:241 f

lithofacies 1:242
magmatism 1:244, 1:247 f
metamorphic complexes 1:244, l:246f
Lapland-Kola orogeny 2:38, 2:41 f,
2:42f, 2:43f, 2:44f
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:57f,
5:460-461
Laurentia 4:19
Central Alps 3:654, 3:655/
general discussion 2:135, 3:654, 3:658
Mesozoic l:238f
5:42 If
Alps
crystalline basement rocks 2:133 f
orogenic process 2:134f
1:137, 1:250, 5:419, S:419f
Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183f
3:177
3:182, 3:183f
Hall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182
3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422f
Central Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655f
Western Alps 2:117
motive forces 2:251
ophiolites 5:418
Neoacadian orogeny 4:72, 4:74f, 4:78,
4:90f, 4:91
New Guinea Orogeny 1:238'f
North American continental nucleus
4:9f, 4:16, 4:17
Acadian orogeny 4:88, 4:90f, 4:91

Alleghanian orogeny 4:88-89, 4:90f,
4:91
Neoacadian orogeny 4:90f9 4:91
Penobscot orogeny 4:85-87
Salinic orogeny 4:90f, 4:91
Taconic orogeny 4:82f, 4:83-84, 4:85,
4:89, 4:90f
tectonic evolution 2:56, 2:57/, 4:89,
4:90f
Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68f
Cambrian 4:62
metasediments 4;67f
Palaeozoic 4:61
regional subdivisions 4:62/", 4:65
stratigraphy
sedimentary facies 4:64/, 4:66f
syn-orogenic sequences
4:63, 4:66f
tectonic processes
4:70
fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62f
tectonic map 4:23f
Palaeocene 5:460
Palaeozoic l:238f
l:4f, 1:5 f
Cambrian 4:165
Damara Belt l:2f, 1:7
GariepBeltl:2/; 1:8
Lufilian Arc L-2/; 1:7, l:8f
Madagascar 1:6, l:6f, 1:7f
Mozambique Belt l:2f, 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,
l:7f
Precambrian 4:378
SaldaniaBeltl:2/, 1:8
Trans-Saharan Belt I:2f9 1:9, l:10f
5:53 6f
Precambrian 4:352
728
INDEX
orogenic events (continued]

Precambrian continental nucleus 4:9f9
4:16
Proterozoic orogenic events 4:17, 4:352
Ross Orogeny 1:135, I:238f9 1:245,
1:248 f
Russia 4:463
Scythian Orogeny 4:471
Sleafordian Orogeny 4:352
Sonoma orogeny 4:52
Sveconorwegian orogeny 2:44
Tabberabberan Orogeny 3:139
Taconic orogeny
Northern Appalachians 4:82f9
4:83-84, 4:85, 4:89, 4:90f
Southern/Central Appalachians 4:72,
4:74f, 4:77
Taimyr Orogeny 4:464, 4:464f
Taltson-Thelon Orogeny 4:17
cross-sections 1:224 f
Delamerian Orogeny 1:239 f9 1:240,
I:240t9 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248f
fault traces 1:243 f9 1:245f, 1:246f
geological map 1:23 8f9 1:239f, 1:241 f,
1:244f, 1:245 f
Orogeny
lithofacies l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243 f
mafic rocks 1:243f
magmatism 1:244, l:247f, 1:249f
New England Orogeny 1:239f, l:240t,
1:241 f9 1:242, 1:249f9 1:250
ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247
1:248f9 1:249 f
Proterozoic 1:223 f, 1:224f, 1:225-226
Ross Orogeny 1:245
subprovinces l:240t
tectonic evolution
1:250
1:248 f, 1:249
1:248f, 1:249, 1:249 f
volcanism 1:250
1:241 f, 1:242
turbidites l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243-244

Tertiary 1:23 8 f
Barents Shelf 2:50f9 2:53
East European Craton 2:49-50, 2:53,
2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
2:51
Pechora Basin 2:50/", 2:51, 2:52f9
2:53f, 2:54f
Polar Ural Mountains 2:50f9 2:52
Precambrian 4:352
tectonic relationships 2:50f
terranes 2:5Of
Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16,
4:19f9 4:352
5:53 6f
aeromagnetic map 2:87f9 2:93f
Bouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94,
2:93f
East European Craton 2:34-35, 3:648
East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f9
2:91f9 2:92f
2:90-91, 4:467
3:653f
Pre-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f
seismic profile 2:91f9 2:92f
tectonic evolution
island arcs 2:88
Trans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f9 2:88f9
2:91 f9 2:92f, 4:468
West Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f
Variscides Orogeny 2:75-85
angular unconformity 2:75, 2:77f
central Europe 2:79,2:SO/;2:^/; 3:651
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Europe 2:95

gravitational collapse 2:100
Iberia 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f
2:76f, 2:77f
palaeomagnetism 2:75
evolutionary history 2:101 f, 2:95,
3:653
foreland 2:97
North German Basin 2:101 f, 2:97,
2:99-100
Oslo Rift 2:101 f, 2:97
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:101 f, 2:96, 2:97,
2:98-99
Silurian 2:78
Suess, Eduard 2:238
tectonic processes 2:7 6f, 2:79, 2:80f9
2:81f
3:652f, 5:455
5:538
western Europe 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f9
3:651
Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic collage
4:468, 4:469f
See also tectonic processes
orogenic metamorphism 3:392-393
Orosinian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Orrorin 2:541
Orthoceras 2:392
Orthoceratids 2:392
orthoclase 3:88, 3:534f
orthoenstatite 5:533f
orthopyroxenes 3:567-569
granites 3:240-241
kimberlites 3:256t
metamorphic facies 3:398f9 3:399f,
3:400f, 3:404
5:534-535, 5:535f
Oruanui volcano, New Zealand 4:3871
Osborn Knoll 3:315f9 3:316t
Oskol-Azov Block 2:45, 2:45f
Oslo, Norway 4:187f
Oslo Rift 2:45, 2:96/i 2:97, 2:101 f
osmium (Os)
natural occurrences 3:553t, 3:554
osmotrophy 4:379
Osnitsk-Mikashevichi Igneous Belt 2:45f,
2:46
Ossa Morena Zone 2:83
INDEX 729
Ossinodus 2:472
osteichthyans 2:466
osteostracans 2:462
ostracoderms
Astraspis 2:457, 2:457f
decline 2:459
Eriptychius 2:457
Ordovician 2:457
Silurian 2:457
applications 3:462
ecology 3:457, 3:460f
habitat 3:457, 3:459
Jurassic 3:357, 3:460f, 3:461
life cycle 3:457
morphology 3:455, 3:455f, 3:456f,
3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459f
Myodocopa 3:453, 3:454*, 3:457,
3:458f, 3:460f
Permian 3:460f, 3:461
Podocopa
ecology 3:457
shell morphology 3:457f, 3:458f, 3:459f
relevance 2:279
reproduction 3:457
Silurian 3:459, 3:460f, 3:461f, 3:462f,
4:191
Tertiary 3:461
Otischalkian faunachron 3:345f
Ottawa Orogeny 3:159f, 3:162, 3:163f
Bouguer gravity anomaly 4:67, 4:68f
Cambrian 4:62
metasediments 4:67 f
Palaeozoic 4:61
regional subdivisions 4:62f, 4:65
stratigraphy

tectonic processes
diachronous collision events 4:61, 4:70
fold and thrust belts 4:32f, 4:62, 4:62f
tectonic map 4:23f
Ovetian stage 4:167 f
Ovid 3:168
Owen, David Dale 2:197
Owen, Sir Richard 2:160-161, 2:502
Oxford Clay, United Kingdom 3:310-311
Oxfordian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354, 3:355,
4:54-55
Points (GSSPs) S:S06f
5:5 17 f
oxisols5:196*
oxygen (O)
atmospheric concentrations 1:197*,
3:553, 4:205-207, 5:246*
2:19 f
isotopes
Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE)
5:467f, 5:470
chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86f, 1:87
Cretaceous 3:366
diagenetic quantification 5:146,
5:148f
dolomite formation 5:85, 5:89f
geoarchaeology 3:18, 3:1 9f
hydrothermal activity 5:366, 5:366f
landfills 2:16, 2:17, 2:18f
marine carbonates 4:133-134
Palaeocene 5:464
Pliocene 5:487*, 5:489-490
oil composition 4:253f
Phanerozoic atmosphere 1:206, 1:206 f
Venus 5:246*
oysters 2:164-165, 3:356-357
Ozark Dome 4:33 f
Ozarkian subdivision 4:176
Ozarkodina eosteinhornensis 4:189
Ozarks, Missouri, United States 4:21
ozone (Os)
atmospheric concentrations l:197t
Earth's structure 1:424, 1:425 f, 5:217f
p
Pachelma Basin 4:456
Pacific Mountains System
accretion terranes
evolution 4:44
external system 4:45
internal system 4:45
physiography 4:37, 4:37f
Pacific Ocean 3:362f, 4:1, 5:116, 5:117,
5:118f
Pacific Plate 4:37f, 4:38, 4:39f, 4:58-60,
4:59f, 4:109, 4:472f
Pacific Rim terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47
packstone 3:526/", 3:527% 5:109f, 5:110,
5:11 If
Page Sandstone, Colorado Plateau
4:545-546, 4:547f
pahasapaite 3:593*, 5:121-122
pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326, 3:326f,
5:567-569, 5:571f
Paibian stage 5:511 f, 5:517f
Pai-Khoi 4:465
Pakistan 3:7*, 3:12, 3:129, 3:137f, 3:344,
5:476, 5:484
Palabora complex, South Africa 3:492,
3:492f
palaeoautecology
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:141 f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 4:142, 4:143f
molluscs 4:141-142
Palaeobatrachus grandipes 2:524, 2:524f
palaeobiology 2:514, 4:156
palaeobotany 3:189
biota
biozones 5:460f
marine environments
bryozoans 5:462
calcareous nannoplankton 5:462
coelenterata 5:462
corals 5:462
echinoderms 5:463
foraminifera 5:462
molluscs 5:463
vertebrates 5:463
terrestrial biota
flora 5:463
invertebrates 5:463
vertebrates 5:463, 5:465
calcareous algae 2:433f> 5:462
730
INDEX
Palaeocene (continued)
chalk fades 5:460, S:461f
chronostratigraphy 4:25f, 5:460f
climate 5:464
environmental settings
carbon isotopic ratios 5:460, 5:464
oxygen isotope ratios 5:464
Europe 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
faunal assemblages 5:460, 5:461f
Ginkgo gardneri 2:4S2f
Points (GSSPs) S:S06f
gymnosperms 2:4S2f
insects 2:299f
5:517f
1:342 f
Laurussia 5:463
4:2Sf
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
Paris Basin 5:459-460
Polystrata 2:430f
Rocky Mountains 5:460-461
5:460, 5:466, 5:467f, 5:470
Antarctica 1:139
1:335-345
Carboniferous 4:207, 4:208f, 4:209f,
4:21 Of, 4:227
China 1:347f
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:365, 3:365f
dendroclimatology
precipitation data 1:39Of
Devonian 4:195, 4:196, 4:196f,
4:199 f
5:467f, 5:470
Eocene 5:470
gas hydrates 4:266
geological proxies
aeolianites 4:134
coal 4:134
cold water sediments 4:134
evaporites 4:132f, 4:134, 4:138-139
glacigenic sediments 4:134
lignite 4:134
marine carbonates 4:132 f, 4:133

oxygen isotope ratios 4:133-134
palaeosols 4:134
wildfires 4:134
Jurassic 3:354
Milankovich cycles 1:206, 4:131, 4:208
Miocene
mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum
5:482, 5:483
sea-level 5:482
seasonally 5:482
temperature 5:482
models
general circulation models 4:131,
4:135
Mesozoic 4:135
Triassic
biome zones 4:138f, 4:138-139
facies 4:137
flora 4:137-138
modelled temperatures 4:135,
4:136f
model-proxy correlation 4:135
precipitation 4:136, 4:137f
temperature-limited facies 4:136
Oligocene 5:473
palaeosols 5:205, 5:206f
palynological research 3:465
Pangaea 3:142, 3:143f, 3:347
Permian 4:216, 4:227
Pleistocene 5:495
Pliocene
mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t, 5:489
Precambrian 4:351
Silurian 4:193
terrestrial conditions 4:132f
Wegener, Alfred 2:247-248, 2:251
See also climate; weathering
Palaeoctopus 2:395
corals (Cnidarians) 2:329, 2:331f
definitions 4:140
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
2:440-441
Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438 f,
2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
lichens

hyphae 2:441-442
Nematophytes 2:441
3:188-189
traps 3:308
anoxia 3:311
bacteria 3:311
geographic locations 3:310t
obrution 3:310, 3:311f
scavengers 3:309
stagnation 3:311
taphonomy 3:308
traps 3:309
apatite 3:312, 3:312f
clay minerals 3:313
Leancholia 3:313f
nodules 3:313, 3:314f
Notelops 3:312f
pyrite 3:312, 3:313f
silica 3:313
palaeoautecology
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:140, 4:141f
4:143 f
molluscs 4:141-142
palaeosols 5:205
palaeosynecology
bivalves (Bivalvia) 4:146f, 4:146-147
competition 4:144
predation4:145, 4:145f
symbioses 4:146
palynological research 3:465
See also dendrochronology
Palaeogene
China 1:347f
INDEX 731
Palaeogene (continued)
Danian boundary 3:372, 3:373f
fish 2:463f
Points (GSSPs) 5:S06f
5:517f
Kazakhstan 1:166 f
New Zealand 4:6
North Africa 1:24
Uzbekistan 1:167
palaeogeography
Mps2:127f
Australia, Phanerozoic
Cambrian, early 1:225, l:225f
Cambrian, early-middle 1.-225/", 1:226
Cambrian, late l:225f, 1:227
Cenomanian l:229f, 1:236
Devonian, early l:226f, 1:230
Devonian, middle-late l:226f, 1:230
Eocene l:230f, 1:236
Jurassic, early-middle 1:229f, 1:235
Jurassic, late 1:229 f, 1:235
Miocene 1:23 Of, 1:236
Neocomian-Aptian l:229f, 1:235
Ordovician 1.-225/", 1:227
Permo-Carboniferous l:227f, 1:234
Triassic, early-middle 1:228f, 1:235
Triassic, late 1:228 f, 1:235
Triassic, middle l:228f, 1:235
Brazil 1:323 f
Cambrian 4:83f, 4:164, 4:17Of
chalk sea 5:43f, 5:46
China l:352f
Devonian 2:77f
Gondwana
Cambrian, early 3:133f
Carboniferous, early l:182f, l:184f,
3:140f
Carboniferous, middle 3:141f
Cretaceous, middle 3:153f
Devonian, early 3:137f
Devonian, late l:182f, 3:138f
Jurassic, early 3:15If
Jurassic, late 3:152f
Ordovician 4:181
Ordovician, early 3:134f
Ordovician, late 3:135f
Permian coal 3:145f
Permian, early l:184f, 3:144f
Permian, late l:184f, 3:146f
Rodinial:174f
Silurian 3:136f, 4:191 f, 4:192, 4:192f
Triassic, early 3:148f

Triassic, late l:184f, 3:150f
Triassic, middle 3:149f
Japan3:304/"
Miocene 5:480f
New Zealand 4:1, 4:3f,4:5f
Oligocene 5:476
Ordovician 2:77f, 4:181, 4:181f
palaeomagnetism 4:152, 4:152f, 4:155,
4:155 f
palaeosols 5:206, 5:206f
Parana basin 1:319f
Permian 2:77/, 4:215'f
Pleistocene 5:496f
Rodimal:174f
Silurian 2:77 f
South Atlantic 1:323 f
Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:7 6f, 2:77f
palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686f
palaeomagnetism 4:147-156
analytical techniques 4:149, 4:1 5 Of
apparent polar wander paths 1:85 f,
4:153, 4:153f
basic principles
magnetic field 4:147, 4:148f
magnetic minerals 3:332, 4:148,
4:149t, 4:149f
magnetization process 4:148, 4:149 f
drift velocities 4:154, 4:1 54 f
field tests 4:151, 4:151f
apparent polar wander paths 1:85 f,
4:153, 4:153f
gauss 3:333-334
l:83f, 3:331, 3:332f
Jurassic 3:353
magnetic anomalies 1:83 f
3:333f, 3:334
methodology 1:84
polarity-bias superchrons 3:33 If
4:152, 4:152f, 4:155, 4:155f
palaeolatitudes 4:154, 4:154f, 5:457
Pliocene 5:487t
seamounts 4:479
stability tests 4:151, 4:151f
Zijderveld diagrams
4:149-151, 4:150f
Palaeoniscus 2:466-467
Palaeontological Society 3:64

palaeontology
biozones 1:294-305
biochronozones 1:304, 1:304f
5:301f, 5:302f
l:296f
Eocene 5:467f
1:3 04 f
Oppel, Albert 1:295
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
zone types
acme zone 1:302, l:303f
assemblage zone 1:301, 1:301 f
concurrent range zone
1:297, 1:298 f
1:296, 1:297 f
Oppel zone 1:299, l:299f
range zones 1:296
evolution
Hox genes 2:166
macroevolution
microevolution
fossil record 2:164
fossil records 2:163
phyletic gradualism 2:164/,
2:164-165
2:164f
2:164f
radiations
abiotic causes 1:273, 1:273f
Cretaceous 1:273 f
evolutionary novelties 1:274,1:274f
Jurassic 1:2 73 f
morphological evolution l:274f,
1:276, l:276f
Palaeocenel:273/r
732
INDEX
palaeontology (continued]
taxic evolution 1:2 74f9
1:276, 1:2 76 f
triggers 1:269-270
speciation
definition 1:266
fossil record 1:267
phyletic gradualism 1:267, 1:268'f,
l:269f, 1:27 Of
Prunum comforme 1:269f
l:268f, l:271f
fossils 4:156
microevolution 1:27 If
3:470-475
extraction methods
acritarchs 3:473
3:472f
conodonts 3:472
diatoms 3:473
foraminifera 3:471
pollen 3:473
radiolarians 3:473
spores 3:473
flotation 3:474
sieving 3:474
punctuated equilibrium 1:27If
Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226
palaeopathology 4:160-163
applications 4:162
basic assumptions 4:160
diagnostic methods 4:160
fossils
bone fractures 4:161 f, 4:162f
dental anomalies 4:161 f
dinosaurs (Dinosauria)
4:162, 4:162f
fossil plants 4:160
invertebrates 4:160
vertebrates 4:161
palaeoplacers 3:121, 3:121f
Palaeoproterozoic
Australia 1:208

East European Craton 2:42f, 2:43f, 2:45,
2:45f, 2:46, 2:47f, 2:48f
eukaryotes 4:356f, 4:357
glaciation 4:663
S:S17f
Orosinian System 5:511 f, 5:517f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Precambrian basement 4:13f
Rhyacian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Siderian System 5:511f9 5:517f
Statherian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
palaeosols 5:203-208
aeolian systems 4:616-618, 4:617f9
4:626
burial alteration processes 5:204, 5:204f
clay formation 1:362, l:363f
color banding 5:203f
facies analysis 4:490-491
formation duration 5:207
fossils 5:206, 5:206f
geosol 5:203
gleization 5:204
peds 5:204, 5:204f
root traces 5:203
soil horizons 5:204, 5:204f
soil structure 5:204
lateritic palaeosols 5:26, 5:31-32,
5:203f
Oligocene 5:475
palaeoecology 5:205
palaeogeography 5:206, S:206f
palaeogully 5:207f
parent materials 5:206, S:207f
pedoderm 5:203
pedolith 5:203
pedotype 5:203
1:205 f
sedimentation rate 5:207
volcanic materials 5:206-207
palaeosynecology
competition 4:144
symbioses 4:146
Palaeo-Tethys Ocean
Gondwana 3:144f
Permian 4:215f

South-east Asia l:170f, 1:170-171,
1:175f, 1:182, l:182f, 1:184f
Palaeovaucberia clavata 4:356f, 4:358
Palaeozoic
Argentina l:156f, 1:161
bedded cherts 5:54
biodiversity l:260f, 1:262t
brachiopods 2:306f
calcareous algae 2:428f, 2:433, 2:434f
Cambrian
Appalachians 4:76
Argentina l:156f
Burgess Shale
2:274-275
bacteria 3:311-312
Cnidarians 2:324
insects 2:296
obrution 3:310, 3:311 f
Opabinia3:311f
Chengjiang lagerstatten 2:455
China 1:347f
fish 2:462, 2:463f
glauconite 3:546
2:365f
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
molluscs 2:367
North Africa l:14f, 1:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19 f
arc magmatism 4:85
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Exploits subzone 4:82f9 4:85, 4:87f
Gander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f9
4:85, 4:87f
4:84f
INDEX 733
Palaeozoic (continued)
Pechora Basin 2:53f
radiation patterns
brachiopods 4:171
echinoderms 4:171
fish 2:463f
Transition 4:172
trilobites (Trilobita) 4:171, 4:173f,
4:174f
species radiations 1:278
Appalachians 4:78
Arabia l:144f
atmospheric composition 4:205,
4:207f
brachiopods 2:306f
China 1:347f
climate 4:207, 4:208 f, 4:209f, 4:210f
corals 2:325f
dolostones 5:91
echinoderms 2:336/", 2:337
fire effects 4:209
fish 2:463f
fossil fungi 2:440
glaciation 4:131, 4:207, 4:208f, 4:663
Gondwana
3:140f,3:141f
Permo-Carboniferous basin
formation 2:101 f
terranes3:130f
Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland 3:441,

3:442/
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:358f
historical setting 4:201
insects 1:204-206, 2:300*, 4:210-211
5:517 f
ironstones 5:106, 5:97-98
Lagerstatten3:310
lithology 4:203, 4:204f
marine biota 4:212
molluscs 2:367
Namurian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
New Caledonia 4:116
4:88, 4:90f
palaeobiogeography 4:204, 4:206f
Pangaea 4:204, 4:212, 4:226f
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs 2:103f
2:99-100, 2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:1 Olf
petrogenesis 2:99
2:98-99, 2:101f
sharks 2:463-465
Siberian craton 4:461-462
Stephanian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
stratigraphy
absolute ages 4.-202/", 4:203
4:201
4:201
boundary 4:201
subdivisions 4:202
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
terrestrial biota
invertebrates 4:210
vertebrates 4:211
tetrapods
adelogyrinids 2:475
amphibians 2:468
anthracosaurs 2:473f, 2:474f,
2:474-475, 2:476f
baphetids 2:473 f, 2:474f, 2:474-475
colosteids 2:473/i 2:474f, 2:475
lepospondyls 2:475
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
microsaurs 2:473f
nectrideans 2:473/~, 2:475
Tournaisan stage 4:208 f, 4:209f
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f9 2:294
vegetational change 4:209f
Visean stage 4:208 f, 4:209f
Westphalian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
China 1:347 f
conodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:219
corals 2:325f
crinoids 2:347f
Devonian 4:194-200
Appalachians 4:78
Armorica 2:79
Avalonia 2:78, 2:79
Baltica 2:78, 2:79
biodiversity
end-Devonian biodiversity crisis
4:197
late Devonian biodiversity crisis
4:198, 4:199f
marine environments 4:196, 4:197f
volcanism 4:198
China 1:347 f
fish 2:463f
fossil fungi 2:437, 2:438f
734
INDEX
Palaeozoic (continued]
Gondwana 2:78
2:365f, 4:142, 4:143f
insects 2:300t, 4:195-196
S:S17f
Lagerstatten 3:31 Ot
molluscs 2:367, 4:141-142
North Africa l:14f, l:1a5f,
I:19f
9 I:20f
9
1:21, l:22f
Northern Appalachians 4:81-83,
4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460^
Pechora Basin 2:53f
placoderms 2:465
Rheic Ocean 2:79
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:441-442
2:274-275, 2:277
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
5:61f
lichens 2:441-442
sharks 2:463-465
tektites 5:454
animals 4:195
plants 4:194, 4:195f
dolostones 5:91
causes
volcanism 4:222
definition 4:219
4:221 f
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
crinoids 4:220
gastropods 2:387
4:219 f
stratigraphy 4:219f
vegetation 4:220
fish 2:462, 2:463f
fossil fungi 2:437
gastropods (Gastropoda) 2:381f, 2:386,
2:386f9 4:146
gymnosperms 2:446
5:517f
Kazakhstan 1:164
kimberlites 3:2S3f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Mississippian
5:517f
boundary 4:201
Pangaea 4:226f
New Zealand 4:2f9 4:5f
orogenesis 4:83
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Dunnage zone 4:82f9 4:84, 4:87f
Exploits subzone 4:82f9 4:85, 4:87f
Gander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
map 4:82f
Meguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,
4:90f
Notre Dame subzone 4:82f9 4:84f,
4:85, 4:87f
4:84f
Antarctica I:134f9 1:135
Appalachians 4:76
Armorica 2:78
Australia 1:225f9 1:227
Avalonia 2:78
Baltica 2:78
brachiopods 2:306f
China 1:347f
chitinozoans (Chitinozoa) 3:430,
3:434, 3:435f, 3:436f, 3:437f
chronostratigraphy 4:25'f
conodonts 3:441, 3:447, 4:175-184
corals 2:325f
echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336f
fish 2:462, 2:463^
glaciation 3:129, 4:131, 4:180, 4:663
glauconite 3:546
and Points (GSSPs) 5:51 If
Gondwana
3:134f, 3:135f
terranes 3:130f
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:35'8f9
2:365f, 2:366, 4:142, 4:143f9
4:175-184
lapetus Ocean 2:78
5:517f
ironstones 5:98f, 5:106
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Lagerstatten 3:3 lOt
nineteenth century Stratigraphic
correlations 2:219f
North Africa I:14f9 I:15f9 1:18, l:18f,
I:19f9l:20f
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88,
4:90f
Meguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,
4:90f
INDEX 735
Palaeozoic (continued)
Notre Dame subzone 4:#2f, 4:84f,
4:85, 4:87f
2;77f, 4:155f, 4:155-156
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Rheic Ocean 2:78
3:441, 3:441 f
subdivisions
Arenigian 4:177, 4:177f
Ashgillian 4:179, 4:179f
Caradocian 4:178
index fossils 4:176
Llanvirnian 4:178
Tremadocian 4:177
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:164, 2:292/",
2:293,4:176-177
orogenic events l:238f, 4:50
Pangaea 4:225
Pennsylvanian
boundary 4:201
Pangaea 4:226f
Permian 4:214-218
amniotes 2:478
Angaran flora 4:217
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136
Artinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209f,
4:215f, 5:51 If, 5:517f
Asselian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215f,
5:511 f, 5:517f
brachiopods 2:306f
Capitanian stage 4:215t, 4:219f,

4:221f, 5:51 If, 5:517f
carbon cycle 1:206
Changxingian stage 4:214, 4:21 St.,
4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221f,
5:51 If, 5:517f
China 1:347f, 1:3 52f
Cisuralian series 4:214, 4:215t,
4:219f, 5:51 If, 5:517f
climate 4:216
coal 3:142, 3:14Sf
conodonts 4:219
corals 2:325f
Dorashamian stage 4:214, 4:215t
Dzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215*
end-Guadalupian extinction event
4:217, 4:221, 4:223, 4:223f
end-Permian extinctions 2:309, 2:317,
2:377,2:387,2:516,4:217,
4:219-225
Europe. See Europe; Permian
fish 2:463f
glaciation 4:131, 4:216, 4:663
Gondwana
coal 3:142, 3:14Sf
Indian Sub-Continent 3:292t
3:144f,3:146f
Permian, late 3:142
Permo-Carboniferous basin
formation 2:101 f
terranes 3:13Of
Guadalupian series 4:214, 4:2151,
4:219f, 4:221, 4:221 f, 5:51 If,
5:517f
insects 2:3 OOt
5:517 f
ironstones 5:106
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
Kungurian stage 4:208f, 4:209f,
4:215*, 5:51 If, 5:517f
Lopingian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f,
4:221f, 5:51 If, 5:517f
marine fossils 4:216
2:77f,4:215f
Pangaea 3:130f, 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226f,
4:227
4:219 f
stratigraphy 4:219f
evolutionary history 2:9'5', 2:101 f,
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs 2:103f
magmatism 2:96/", 2:97
2:99-100, 2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:1 Olf
petrogenesis 2:99
2:98-99, 2:101f
predation 4:145-146
reef environments 4:565-566, 4:566f
Roadian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 5:51 If,
5:517f
Sakmarian stage 4:20f, 4:209f,
4:215*, 5:51 If, 5:517f
Stratigraphic subdivisions 4:214,
4:215*
Tatarian stage 4:20Sf, 4:209f
temnospondyls
terrestrial vegetation 4:217, 4:218f
tetrapods
amniotes 2:468
amphibians 2:468
baphetids 2:476-477
lepospondyls 2:478
nectrideans 2:477f, 2:478
seymouriamorphs 2:477f,
2:477-478
736
INDEX
Palaeozoic (continued]
synapsids 2:477-478
Wolfcampian stage 4:209f
Wordian stage 4:215t, 4:219f, 4:221f9
5:Sllf, 5:517f
Wuchiapingian stage 4:21 St, 4:219 f,
4:221f95:511f,5:517f
Silurian 4:184-193
Antarctica 1:134 f
Appalachians 4:78
Arabia 1:142 f, 1:144 f
Armorica 2:79
Avalonia 2:78
Baltica 2:78
biota 4:191
China 1:347f
climate 4:193
fish 2:462, 2:463f
fossil fungi 2:437
Gondwana 2:78
graptolites (Graptoloidea) 2:35'8f9
2:365f, 2:366
lapetus Ocean 2:78
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
Laurentia 2:78
molluscs 2:367
North Africa I:14f9 1:15f, 1:18, 1:19f,
l:20f, l:22f
arc magmatism 4:85
Avalon zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,
4:90f
Gander zone 4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87,
4:87f
Meguma zone 4:81-83, 4:87f9 4:88,
4:90f
osteichthyans 2:466
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460f9
3:461f
palaeogeography 2:77f, 4:191f9 4:192,
4:192 f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
type areas
Anticosti Island, Canada 4:187'f,
4:190
Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f9
4:187f94:188f
Ludlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
New York 4:187f, 4:189, 4:190f
Podolia, Ukraine 4:187f, 4:190
Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
Scandinavia 4:187f, 4:189
Stratigraphic correlation 4:186f,
4:187f
Wenlock Series 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:188
South-east Asia 1:18It
tetrapods
adelogyrinids 2:475
ai'stopods 2:473f, 2:475
amniotes 2:473f, 4:211-212
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids 2:473 f, 2:474f, 2:475
dissorophoids 2:475, 2:476f, 2:477f
fish 2:469
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
microsaurs 2:473f, 2:47 6f, 4:211
nectrideans 2:473 f, 2:475, 2:477f9
2:478
Permian 4:217
seymouriamorphs 2:477f9 2:477-478
synapsids 2:477-478
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
Turkmenistan 1:166
Uzbekistan 1:167
central Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Europe 2:95
Iberia 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f
2:76fy 2:77f
Silurian 2:78
tectonic processes 2:76f9 2:79, 2:80f,
2:81f
5:455
western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f
palagonite 5:572
Palau Trench 5:430t, 5:43 Of
Palechinus 2:352-353
palenzonaite (NaCa2Mn2[(V,As,Si)O4]3)
3:589t
Paleoarchean Era 5:511 f, 5:517f
Paleothyris 2:481-482
Paley, William 1:257
Palissy, Bernard 3:169
palladium (Pd)
S:114t
pallasites 5:23It
Palmoxylon 2:420f
paludization 5:194f9 5:195
Palus Putredinis 5:267?
Palus Somnii 5:267?
palygorskite 1:3611, 1:362,
1:364, 1:369
acritarchs 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
geoarchaeology 3:16
3:189
pollen
angiosperms 2:418, 2:424, 2:424f,
2:426f
forensic geology 2:270
microfossils 3:473
Quaternary 3:464
spores 3:473
Pamir Mountains 1:168
Pampia, Argentina I:160f9 1:163
INDEX 737

Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:2f, 1:3 f,
l:4f, 1:5 f
Cambrian 4:165
GariepBelt l:2f, 1:8
Kaoko Belt 1:2^, 1:9
LufilianArcl:2/;i:7, l:8f
Madagascar 1:6, l:6f, l:7f
Mozambique Belt I:2f9 1:3f, 1:4, 1:5f,
1:7 f

Precambrian 4:378
Rokelide Belt L-2/; 1:10
SaldaniaBeltl:2/; 1:8
5:536f
Zambezi Belt l:2f, 1:7, 1:8f
Panama closure
American terrestrial biotic interchange
5:487t, 5:490
chronology 5:487t
climatic effects 5:489-490
Panderichthys 2:469, 2:470f
pandermite(Ca4BioO19'7H2O) 3:512*,
3:512f, 3:513*, 3:514
Pangaea 4:225-228
Appalachians 4:74f, 4:79
breakup events 2:105
Carboniferous 4:204, 4:212, 4:225,
4:226f
Cathaysiana 1:348
climate 3:347
components 4:225
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:362, 3:362f
definition 4:225
Gondwana 3:128
4:80f
Laurasia 2:79, 4:225
Laurussia 4:225, 4:226f, 4:227-228
microplate terranes 4:228
palaeoclimate 4:136
Permian 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226/, 4:227
Phanerozoic 1:222
species radiations 1:273'f,
1:273-274
spreading centres 3:143f

supercontinents 3:346, 3:346f, 4:14f,
5:177-178, 5:178f
tectonic processes 3:346, 3:346f, 4:12,
4:102
terranes 3:130f, 5:455
Triassic 3:344, 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f,
4:227
Wegener, Alfred 2:249, 2:250f
Panjal Traps 3:142-147, 3:146f
Pannotia 4:165
Panthalassic Ocean
Cambrian 4:170f
end-Permian extinctions 4:219f
Pangaea 3:142, 3.-143/", 4:225
Permian 4:215, 4:215f
Silurian 4:193
Triassic 3:346
Papua New Guinea
geology
collision zones 4:110
foldbelt 4:109
geological map 4:11 If
northeastern province 4:112
stable platform 4:109
natural gas 4:113
natural hazards 4:113
oil production 4:113
ophiolites 4:112
porphyry ore deposits 4:112
ultramafic rocks 4:110-112
parabolic dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f
Paraceratherium 2:535
paradamite 3:508f, 3:508t
paragenetic canyons 4:684f, 4:684-685,
4:685f
paragonite 3:397, 3:549-550
Paraguay 4:208f
Paraguay orogenic belt 1.-314/", 1:320
Parallel Roads of Glen Roy 2:177, 2:186
Parana basin
flood basalts 3.-315/", 3:316*, 3:317,
3:335-336
Ordovician 3:128-129, 3:134f
Parana Traps 3:363t
Phanerozoic sedimentary basins 1:314,
l:316f, 1:317f , l : 3 1 8 f , 1:324
stratigraphy 1:320 f
Paranaiba Basin 3:129
Parana River 5:19t
paraniite-(Y) (Ca2Y(AsO4)(WO4)2) 3:587t
Paranthropus 2:541
Paranthropus aethiopicus 5:491t
Paranthropus boisei 5:491t

Paranthropus robustus 5:49It
Paraplacodus 2:506
Pararenicola huaiyuanensis 4:360
parasymplesite 3:508f
pargasite 3:505f
Paris Basin
chalk deposits 5:50
evolutionary history 2:104-105, 2:117
geothermal systems 3:106, 3:114/",
3:115, 3:115f
palaeoecology 3:175
Pleistocene 5:493
parisite 3:221,3:22If
Parker, David 3:204
parkinsonite (Pb 6 O 4 (MoO 4 )Cl 2 ) 3:552t
Parnaiba basin 1.-316/", 1:317f, 1:318f
partheite 3:593*
Partial Annealing Zone 1:45
processes 5:1-7
definition 5:1
depositional sequences
bypass flows 5:6
depositional sequences 5:7f
deposition process 5:6
erosion 5:6
flow initiation mechanisms
river-derived flows 5:1
sediment resuspension 5:1
slope failure 5:1
terrestrial input 5:1
flow types
creeps 5:2
dense, deformed flows 5:2
dense, undeformed flows 5:2
flow transformations 5:3
grain flows 5:2
mudflows 5:2
rockfalls 5:2
slumps and slides 5:2
turbidity currents 5:3, 5:3f, 5:5f
grain transport mechanisms
buoyancy 5:2
hindered settling 5:2, 5:2f
matrix strength 5:2, 5:2f
particle-particle interactions 5:2, 5:2f
turbulence 5:2, 5:2f
influencing factors
channelised flow 5:5, 5:5f
confined flows 5:6
flow duration 5:4
flow velocity 5:4
momentum loss 5:4
run-out length 5:4
spatial changes 5:4, 5:5f
temporal changes 5:4
unconfined flows 5:6
Parvancorina minchami 4:376, 4:377'/",
4:3 78 f
73S
INDEX
Paschatherium 2:540
pascoite (Ca3(V10O28)-17H2O) 3:589t
passive sensors 4:431-439
broadband reflective multispectral
sensors 4:436
hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t,
4:438f
passive microwave sensors 4:438, 4:439f
sensor instrumentation
4:433, 4:433f
along-track push-broom scanner
4:435, 4:43Sf
broadband sensor systems 4:434t
spectral band comparisons 4:434t
structure 4:432f
spatial resolution 4:432, 4:434?, 4:436
thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:437,
4:43 8 f
thermal sensors 4:432
Pasteur, Louis 4:123
Patagonia, Argentina l:160f, 1:163
Patagonia fold-and-thrust belt l:125f,
1:128, 1:158
patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564
Paterson Orogeny 1:215f, 1:220, 1:239f
Patom Highlands, Russia 4:463
Pattern-Unit-Component-Evaluation
(PUCE) mapping system, Australia
1:469
Patterson, Clair 3:186
paulingite 3:S93t
Pays de Bray fault 2:97
Peach, Andrew 2:214
Peach, Benjamin Neeve 3:62
Pearse Valley 3:15If
peat
engineering aspects 1:564, 1:564f
4:28
paludization 5:194f9 5:195
palynological research 3:468-469
whisky distilling process 3:82
Pechenga Belt 2:44f
Pechora Basin
Permian 4:214-215, 4:215f
petroleum reserves 4:472f
Timanide Orogeny 2:49, 2:50f9 2:51,
2:52f, 2:53f, 2:54f
Pechora Zone 2:52, 2:52/j 2:53f, 2:54f,
2:55
pectenids 3:356-357, 4:497
Pederpes finneyae 2:472, 2:473f, 2:474f
pedocretes 1:562
pedoderm 5:203
pedolith 5:203
pedosphere 1:431
pedotype 5:203
peds 5:204f
9 5:204
Peera Peera formation 3:147, 3:lSOf
pegmatites
gemstones 3:11, 3:11 f
micas 3:550
pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45/i 5:47f
Pelean volcanoes 5:565?, 5:569f
Pelee, Mount 5:567, 5:569/", 5:575t
Pelee's hair/tears 4:387t, 4:390t
Pelicothallos 2:442
3:400f
Pelmatozoa 2:335, 2:345-346, 2:348
Pelodosotis 2:473f
Pelsonian stage 3:34Sf
Peltier's zonal classification of weathering
S:S84f
Pelvoux Massif 2:125
pelycosaurs
See synapsids
Penck, Albrecht 3:181, 3:189
Pendleian subdivision 4:202f
penguins 2:507
Penicillus 2:432
penikisite 5:125-126
Peninsula Ranges Batholith, United States
3:237t
Penning, Henry 1:445-446
Penninic nappes 2:126f9 2:126-127,
2:128fy 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:134f
Pennsylvanian
glaciation 4:208f
jawless fish 2:460f
Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary
4:201
nomenclature 4:20If
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
Pangaea 4:226f
Stephanian stage 4:202f9 4:208f, 4:209f
Virgilian stage 4:2 09f
Westphalian stage 4:202f, 4:208f,
4:209f
See also Carboniferous
Pennsylvania, United States 2:472,

4:34-35, 4:72, 4:73f
Penobscot orogeny 4:85-87
Penrose, Richard Alexander Fullerton 3:64
Pensacola Mountains I:133f9 3:129,
3:137f
pentane (C5H12) 4:258
pentlandite ((Ni,Fe)9S8) 3:575?, 3:576f,
3:577?, 3:585t
Pentoxylales 2:452
Peperomia 2:419f
Peri-Caspian Basin 2:35f, 2:36, 2:41f,
2:42f, 2:47f, 2:50f, 4:456
peridotites
carbonatites 3:23If
hydration effects 5:365
kimberlites 3:253
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
olivine 3:557, 3:559-560
phlogopite 3:550
sampling techniques 1:397, 1:399
peridots 3:7?, 3:10
Peri-Tethys Basin 4:461
Peri-Urals foredeep 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:47f,
4:456
perlialite 3:593?
permafrost 1:563, 4:237?, 4:243
permeability
chalk 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49f
diagenesis 1:394, l:394f
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 5:83, 5:88f
hydrothermal circulation
fracture/faulting effects 5:367, 5:368f
temporal variations 5:3 64f9 5:368
permafrost 1:563-564
4:315f, 4:316f9 4:317f9 4:318,
4:323f
rock properties 1:579, I:579t9 1:579f
sand 5:149, 5:149f9 5:150f
sedimentary rocks 4:452, 5:25
Permian 4:214-218
Alps 2:131f
amniotes 2:478
amphibians
temnospondyls
Angaran flora 4:217
angiosperms 2:422f
Antarctica I:134f9 1:135, 1:136
Appalachians 4:79, 4:80f9 4:216
INDEX 739
Permian (continued)
Artinskian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215Y,
5:511f, 5:517f
Asselian stage 4:208 f, 4:209 f, 4:2151,
5:511 f, 5:517rf
Australia 1:227f9 1:234
biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263f, l:264f
Kr3Lzi\l:317f,l:318f,l:32
Capitanian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 4:221 f,
5:511f,5:517f
carbon cycle 1:206
cephalopods2:3S9/"
Changxingian stage 4:214, 4:215*,
4:219, 4:219f, 4:220, 4:221 f,
5:511f, 5:517f
China 1:347f, 1:3 52f
Cisuralian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f,
5:511f, 5:517f
climate 4:216
coal 3:142, 3:14Sf
conodonts 4:219
corals 2:325f, 4:216
Dorashamian stage 4:214, 4:2151
Dzhulfian stage 4:214, 4:215t
East European Craton 2:36, 2.-3S/,
4:459-460
4:221, 4:223, 4:223f
4:219-225
amphibians 2:516
causes
volcanism 4:222
definition 4:219
4:221 f
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
causes 3:348
crinoids 4:220
gastropods 2:387
4:219 f

stratigraphy 4:219f
vegetation 4:220
Europe 2:95-102
geodynamic setting 2:100
geological characteristics 2:95
magmatism 2:102
foreland 2:97
IvreaZone, Italy 2:100
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
evolutionary history 2:101 f., 2:95,
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs 2:103f
2:99-100, 2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
2:98-99, 2:101f
volcanic centres 2:101f
sedimentary basin formation 2:96,
2:101f, 3:653
tectonic processes
rift systems 2:105, 2:106f
sedimentary basin
formation 2:102
fish 2:463f
foraminifera 4:216
glaciation 4:131, 4:208f, 4:216, 4:663
Glossopteris 2:45If
Gondwana
coal 3:142, 3:14Sf
early Permian 1:182, 1:184f
geological evolution 1:1#1*, 1:182
Indian Sub-Continent 3:292*
late Permian 1:182, l:184f
l:184f,3:144f,3:146f
Permian, late 3:142

2:101f
terranes 1:17Of, l:172f, 1:17Sf, 3:130f
Guadalupian series 4:214, 4:215*,
4:219f, 4:221, 4:221 f, 5:511f,
5:517f
gymnosperms
Cordaitales 2:449
Ginkgoales 2:451, 2:452^
Voltziales 2:449
insects 2:296-298, 2:299f, 2:300t
5:517f
ironstones 5:106
Japan 3:302, 3:303f
jawless fish 2:460f
Kazakhstan l:184f, 5:511f
Kungurian stage 4:208f, 4:209f, 4:215?,
5:511f,5:517f
Laurasia 1:182, 4:214-215
Laurentia 1:184 f
Lopingian series 4:214, 4:215*, 4:219f 9
4:221f,5:511f,5:517f
magmatism
foreland 2:97
petrogenesis 2:99
marine fossils 4:216
4:25/", 4:26f, 4:32f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:460f9 3:461
palaeoclimate 4:227
palaeogeographic reconstruction 2:77/,
4:215 f
Pangaea 3:130f, 4:214, 4:215f, 4:226/",
4:227
4:219 f
radiometric dating 3:345, 4:219
stratigraphy 4:219f
evolutionary history 2:95, 2:101 /,
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs 2:103f
740
INDEX
Permian (continued]
2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,
2:101f
predation 4:145-146
reef environments 4:565-566, 4:S66f
Roadian stage 4:215t, 4:219f, 5:511f9
5:517f
Sakmarian stage 4:208f9 4:209f, 4:215t,
S:Sllf9 5:517f
Siberia l:184f
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:181t, 1:182,
1:184f
stratigraphic correlation I:183f9
1:185 f
stratigraphic subdivisions 4:214, 4:215t
Tatarian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
terrestrial vegetation 4:217, 4:218f
tetrapods
amniotes 2:468
amphibians 2:468
baphetids 2:476-477
lepospondyls 2:478
seymouriamorphs 2:477f, 2:477-478
synapsids 2:477-478
temnospondyls 2:476-477, 2:477f,
2:519-520, 2:S20f
tree ferns 4:218f
Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f9 2:89f
Wolfcampian stage 4:209f
Wordian stage 4:215t, 4:219f9 4:221f9
5:511f9 5:517f
Wuchiapingian stage 4:215't, 4:219f,
4:221f,5:511f,5:517f
Permo calculus 2:434
Permo-Tethys 3:144f, 3:145f
Perovkan faunachron 3:34Sf
perovskite 3:22It
Perrault, Pierre 3:171-172
Persian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5lOf
See also Arabia
Perth Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
perthite 3:534f, 3:535
Peru 3:237^, 3:352^,3:598
Peru-Chile Trench l:119f, I:120f9 5:430t,
5:430f
Perunica
palaeogeographic reconstruction 4:155f^
4:155-156, 4:353f
5:455
Petermann Orogeny 1:215f, 3:132f
Petrolacosaums 2:482, 2:482f
Petroleum Exploration Society of Great
Britain 3:75
Angel with the Flaming Sword (Genesis)
1:253
definition 4:229
bottom-simulating reflection 4:263,
4:264f, 4:266
continental margins 4:647
3:383
distribution 4:263
as energy source 4:264
gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ)
4:262, 4:262f, 5:313, 5:314f
as a geohazard 4:266
occurrence 4:262f
petroleum reservoirs 4:237t, 4:243
structure 4:261 f
migration processes
buoyancy 4:289f
phase separations 4:290f
primary migration 4:244
schematic diagram 4:23Of, 4:244f,
4:28 8 f
secondary migration 4:245, 4:246f,
4:247f, 4:288f
subsalt migration 4:246f
tertiary migration 4:247
petroleum-bearing basin 4:23Of
petroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:145f9
5:148, 5:149f
accumulation conditions 4:296f
anticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238f9 4:240f,
4:241f, 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301f
appraisal methods
deterministic models
4:302, 4:305f
Hubbert's peak 4:305f

Monte Carlo technique 4:305f
statistical methods 4:302, 4:3 04 f,
4:305f
subjective methods 4:302
expected monetary value 4:295
exploration costs 4:306, 4:307t
exploration drilling 4:304, 4:306f
exploration methods
computer-based seismic
interpretation systems 4:303f
geological analysis 4:295, 4:297f,
4:298f
gravity measurements 4:296, 4:299f
hydrocarbon identification
techniques 4:301 f
magnetic profiles 4:296, 4:299f
(CIS) 4:424, 4:425f
petroleum agreements 4:306
seismic reflection
acoustic impedance 4:315, 5:157f
basic principles 4:299f
computer-based interpretation
systems 4:3 03f
four-dimensional (4D) seismic
imaging 4:300-301, 4:302f9
4:315,5:158
hydrocarbon indicators 5:158f
offshore seismic surveys 4:3 00f
techniques 4:315, 4:318f
three-dimensional (3D) seismic
imaging 4:297-300, 4:301f,
4:304f, 4:315, 4:319f
two-dimensional (2D) seismic
imaging 4:296-297, 4:300f
seismic surveys
amplitude measurements 5:152f
basic principles 4:296, 4:299f,
5:151f
data acquisition 5:152
faulting 5:157f
surveys 4:302f9 5:158
gravity measurements 1:101-103,
l:102f
multiple signals 5:153f
offset reflection points 5:154f
offshore seismic surveys 4:300f
receiver arrays 5:153f
signal traces 5:153f
three-dimensional (3D) seismic cube
4:304f
seismic surveys 4:3 01 f, 4:3 04f,
5:154, 5:155fJ5:156f
INDEX 741
petroleum geology (continued]

travel paths 5:154f
surveys 4:3 00f
unconformities 5:156f
wire-line drilling 4:3 06f
petroleum production 4:308-330
basic principles
field study cycles 4:3 09f
reservoir characterization 4:308,
4:3 09 f
reservoir modelling techniques
4:31 Of
oilfield water 2:17
penetration log correlations 4:311,
4:311f
production geology 4:308
reservoir characterization
carbonate reservoirs 4:234f, 4:235,
4:236f, 4:313, 4:316f, 4:317f
clastic reservoirs 4:235*, 4:313,
4:314f, 4:315f
faults and fractures 4:313
intrareservoir processes 4:289,
4:291f, 4:292t
permeability 4:311, 4:313, 4:315f,
4:316f, 4:317f
reservoir heterogeneity 4:311,
4:312 f
reservoir modelling techniques
4:310f,4:328f,4:329f
small-scale heterogeneity 4:313,
4:321f
imaging 4:3 lOf
techniques
borehole analysis 4:322f
clay smearing 4:319, 4:324f
core analysis methods 4:315,
4:320f, 4:321f, 4:322f
correlation analysis 4:321
dynamic modelling 4:326,
4:329f
fault and fracture analysis 4:319,
4:324f, 4:325f
geostatistics 4:323, 4:327f
Net-Oil-Sand (NOS) maps 4:323,
4:326f
permeability measurements 4:318,
4:323f
seismic methods 4:315, 4:318f
static modelling 4:324, 4:328f
three-dimensional (3D) modelling
4:328f, 4:329f
imaging 4:315, 4:319f
volumetric estimates 4:322,
4:326f
petroleum reserves 4:331-339

Arabia 1:145, 1:147, 1:152
chalk beds 5:48
definitions 4:331
deltaic sediments 4:536f, 4:537,
4:5 38 f
depletion models 4:337
discovery rates 4:337, 4:338f
dolomite (CaMg(C03)2) 5:30
economic forecasts 4:337
energy consumption levels 4:337f
fossils 4:159
Hubbert peak 4:336f
limestones 5:112
North Africa 1:12, l:14f, 1:24
4:33
peak oil forecasts 4:338f, 4:339f
production data 4:33 6f
recoverable reserve predictions
global reserves 4:334f
oil field recovery distributions
4:334f
oil production forecasts 4:335f
oil recovery estimates 4:333f
United Kingdom oil field reserves
4:335f
resource distributions 4:332f
rift valleys 5:439f, 5:442
Russia 4:472/~, 4:473
supply and demand debates 4:334,
4:3 3 6f
value approximations 4:332f
petroleum system 4:268-294
bacterial degradation processes
4:290-291, 4:292*
contributing processes 4:268, 4:269f
definition 4:268
efficiencies 4:292, 4:293f
expulsion process 4:283, 4:286f,
4:287f
generation process
burial history model 4:282f
computer models 4:285f, 4:286f
depth trends 4:285f
maturity levels 4:283f
maturity parameters 4:284*, 4:285t
Rock-Eval production index 4:284f
intrareservoir processes 4:289, 4:291 f,
4:292t
kerogen classification
nomenclature 4:274f
4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276f
4:277f, 4:278f, 4:279f
mapping concepts 4:268, 4:270f
maturation 4:280, 4:280*, 4:281f,

4:282f
migration processes 4:243, 4:288,
4:288f, 4:289f, 4:290f
oil cracking 4:292t
palaeotemperatures 4:2 82f
source rock. See also carbon (C), total
organic carbon (TOC)
depositional environments 4:269,
4:270f, 4:271 f, 4:272f
kerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277 f,
4:27 8 f
kerogen classification 4:272
4:2 72 f
pyrolysis analytical methods 4:277f
schematic diagram 4:23 Of
vitrinite reflectance 4:274f, 4:275f,
4:280, 4:281f, 4:282f, 4:284*,
4:285t
reservoirs
basic principles 4:3 09f
carbonate reservoirs 4:234f, 4:235,
4:236f, 4:313, 4:316f,4:317f
clastic reservoirs 4:235*, 4:313,
4:314f,4:315f
faults and fractures 4:313
intrareservoir processes 4:289, 4:291 f,
4:292*
karst landscapes 4:235, 4:237f
properties
lithologies 4:234
net to gross 4:232, 4:232f
permeability 4:233, 4:311, 4:313,
4:315f, 4:316f, 4:317f
petroleum saturations 4:234
porosity 4:232, 4:233f, 4:234f,
4:311,4:317f
sandstone depositional systems
4:234, 4:235*, 4:236f
water saturations 4:234
reservoir heterogeneity 4:311, 4:312f
reservoir modelling techniques 4:3lOf,
4:328f, 4:329f
small-scale heterogeneity 4:313,
4:321f
imaging 4:31 Of
seals
buoyancy pressure 4:23If
faults 4:231
hydraulic seals 4:231
lithologies 4:229-230
membrane seals 4:230
pore throat 4:23If
pressure gradients 4:23Of
stress analysis 4:23If
742
INDEX
petroleum geology (continued)

source rock
characteristics. See also carbon (C),
total organic carbon (TOC)
kerogen analysis 4:275, 4:277f,
4:27 8 f
kerogen classification 4:272
4:272 f
pyrolysis analytical methods 4:277f
depositional environments 4:269,
4:270f, 4:271 f, 4:272f
kerogen classification
nomenclature 4:2 74f
4:273f, 4:274f, 4:275f, 4:276f
4:2777f9 4:278f, 4:279f
traps
anticlinal traps 4:237, 4:238f9 4:240f,
4:241f9 4:243f, 4:298f, 4:301f
diagenetic traps 4:237?, 4:242
diapiric-formed traps 4:237?,
4:237-238, 4:238f9 4:242f,
4:297f
gravity-driven processes 4:23 7?,
4:239-240
hydrodynamic traps 4:243
mud lumps 4:237-238, 4:238f
pinchout traps 4:237'?, 4:240-241,
4:297^
rollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f9
4:240f, 4:537-539
salt diapirs 4:237-238, 4:238 f9
4:242f
salt domes 4:237-238, 4:238f9
4:242f
sandstones 4:243f
schematic diagram 4:23Of
stratigraphical traps 4:237?, 4:239f,
4:240, 4:243/, 4:244/", 4:297f
structural traps 4:237, 4:237?, 4:238f
tectonic-formed traps 4:237, 4:237?,
4:238f9 4:241f9 4:297f
unconformity traps 4:237?, 4:23 9f9
4:241-242, 4:244f
See also natural gas; oil
petzite3:119t
Pezosiren 2:540
Pfaff, Christian Heinrich 2:179
Phanerozoic
Anthozoa 2:323
atmosphere
l:206f
oxygen concentrations 1:206,
l:206f
temperature history 1:205'f
atmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations
anthropogenic sources 1:343f9 4:240f,9 4:240f,
1:345 f
1:342 f
glacial/interglacial periods I:342f9
1:343 f
Australia 1:222-237
Bowen Basin 1:239f, 1:241 f
glaciation 1:226f9 1:234
morphology 1:232 f9 1:236
orogenic events
1:240?, 1:241 f, 1:245, 1:248 f
Orogeny
New England Orogeny I:239f9
l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, 1:249 f9
1:250, 4:202f
Ross Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245,
1:248 f
Thomson Orogeny I:240t9 1:241 f,
1:242
palaeogeography
Cambrian, early-middle 1:225f,
1:226
Carboniferous I:226f9 1:234
Cenomanian 1:229f, 1:236
Devonian, early I:226f9 1:230
Devonian, middle-late 1:226f9
1:230
Eocene I:230f9 1:236
Jurassic, early-middle 1:229f9 1:235
Jurassic, late 1:229f, 1:235
Miocene I:230f9 1:236
Neocomian-Aptian 1:229f9 1:235
Ordovician 1:225f, 1:227
Permo-Carboniferous 1:227f9 1:234
Triassic, early 1:228f9 1:235
Triassic, early-middle 1:228f9 1:235
Triassic, late 1:228f, 1:235
Triassic, middle 1:228f9 1:235
plate velocities l:233f, 1:237
stratitectonic regimes 1:224f9 l:233t
Sydney Basin 1:239f, 1:241 f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:223 f9 I:224f9
1:225-226
tectonic processes 1:231 f, 1:236
biodiversity
general discussion 1:260f9 1:260-261
marine change I:260f9 1:262,
l:264f
biospheric evolution 4:3 64f
Brazil
cratons
Amazon craton 1:311,1:311 f9
l:312f
major shields I:238f9 l:306f
Sao Francisco craton 1:310, l:310f,
l:312f
Aracuai orogenic event l:313f,
1:315
1:319
1:307f9 1:315f, 1:323
I:307f9 I:313f9 1:315
1:320
suture zones l:312f
I:314f9 1:319
1:323 f
sedimentary basins
Amazonas basin 1:316f, 1:317f
Campos basin l:321f, l:322f
Ceara basin 1:325f
continental margin basins l:316f,
1:325
I:321f9 I:322f9 1:325
l:325f, 1:326, l:326f
Espirito Santo basin 1:321 f9 l:322f
interior rifts I:316f9 1:327, 1:327f
l:319f
Palaeozoic sag basins I:316f9
I:317f,l:318f9 1:324
Parana basin 1:314, I:316f9
I:317f9 1:318f9 I:319f9 1:320f9
1:324
Parnaiba basin l:316f, I:317f9
l:318f
Potiguar basin 1:325f, l:326f,
1:327f
Santos basin 1:321 f, 1:322f
Sergipe-Alagoas basin 1:322f
Solimoes basin I:316f9 1-317f,
l:318f
stratigraphy 1:317f
INDEX 743
Phanerozoic (continued)
shields l:306f
tectonic processes 1:306, 1:307f^
1:308 f
thermotectonic events 1:3 08t
calcareous algae 2:428, 2:428f
China 1:347f
corals (Cnidarians) 2:323
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f, 2:48f
fossil dating 4:158-159
Points (GSSPs) 5:506/", 5:511f
Gondwana 1:222, 1:306, l:308f
Hydrozoa 2:322
insects 2:298f
5:517f
ironstones 5:106
New Zealand 4:1-7
basement rocks
age ranges 4:5f
4:5f
geological map 4:2/", 4:4f
metamorphic overprints 4:4f, 4:6
plutons 4:6
Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4ft
4:5f
continental crust 4:1, 4:If
cover strata
passive margin 4:6
Quaternary 4:7
geological map 4:2f
4:3f, 4:5f
tectonic processes 4:4f, 4:6
Atlas Mountains 1:13, l:15f, I:16f9
1:17
black shales 1:21, l:22f
Cambrian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
1:19 f
Carboniferous l:14f, l:15f, l:19f,
1:21
Cretaceous l:14f, 1:15f, l:19f, l:22f,
1:23, 1:23 f, l:24f
Cambro-Ordovician 1:18, 1:18 f,
1:19f, l:20f
Campanian-Maastrichtian 1:22f,
1:23, 1:24, l:24f
l:22f, 1:23
Cretaceous 1:19f, l:22f, 1:23,1:23f,

l:24f
Devonian l:19f, 1:20f, 1:21, l:22f
Eocene 1:24, 1:24 f
Holocene 1:25
Jurassic 1:19/; 1:23, 1:23 f
Miocene 1:24
Permo-Triassic 1:19^, 1:21
Silurian 1:18, l:19f, l:20f, l:22f
Devonian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, l:20f,
1:21, l:22f
Eocene 1:24, 1:24 f
glaciation 1:18
Holocene 1:25
Jurassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:23,1:23f
Miocene 1:17, 1:24
Oligocene 1:17
Ordovician l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:18f,
l:19f,l:20f
Permian l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
petroleum reserves l:12,l:14f, 1:24
rift valleys 1:16, l:16f, 1:17
Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17,
1:23
sedimentary basins 1:13, 1:13f
Silurian l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,
l:20f, l:22f
Alpine Orogeny 1:17
Infracambrian tectonic processes
1:13
1:16f
tectonic map l:15f
Tertiary l:14f,l:15f
Triassic l:14f, l:15f, l:19f, 1:21
volcanism 1:14-16, 1:17
4:25, 4:27f
Pangaea 1:222
predation 4:145-146
Scyphozoa 2:323
sequence stratigraphy 4:25/, 4:26f
Cambrian 1:178
Carboniferous 1:178, l:181t, l:182f,
1:184f
Devonian 1:178, l:181t, l:182f
Ordovician 1:178
Permian l:181t, 1:182, l:184f
Silurian 1:178
pharmacolite 3:508t
pharmacosiderite 3:508t
phenetic species 1:267
phengite 3:399f, 3:401f, 5:534-535
Philippi, E. 5:71-72
Philippines 1:249, 5:445t, 5:445f,
5:446-447
Philippine Trench 5:430*, 5:430f
philippinites 5:445f, 5:446-447
philipsbornite 3:508f
Phillips, Coles 3:189
phillipsite 3:593?
Phillips, John 1:260, 2:195, 2:223
Phillips, William 3:360-361
Phipps, John 5:70-71
phlogopite
carbonatites 3:221t, 3:23If
crystal structure 3:55Of
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257^
Phobos 5:280
phoenicochroite (Pb2OCrO4) 3:533t
Phoenix Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
Pholiderpeton 2:473f, 2:476f
Pholidogaster 2:475
phonolite 3:220?, 4:387t, 5:567-569
4:500
phosphorus (P)
apatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) 5:120-128
carbonatites 3:221?, 3:221-222
kimberlites 3:254
3:312f
carbonatites 3:223?
kimberlites 3:248?
obsidian 3:269?
5:114t
phosphates 5:120-128
biomineralization 5:127
carbonatites 3:221?, 3:221
crystal structure
apatite group 5:123, 5:123f
polymerised TO4 tetrahedra 5:121,
5:122f
TO4-large cation groupings 5:122,
5:123f
TO4-MO6 groupings 5:122,
5:122f
Dana classification system 3:502?
environmental significance 5:128
fission track analysis 5:127
744
INDEX
phosphorus (P) (continued]

geological environment
guano deposits 5:126
occurrence 5:124
oxidised metal sulphide deposits
5:126, 5:127f
sedimentary phosphorites 5:125
guano 5:35
3:501t
importance 5:121
ironstones 5:99
North Africa 1:24
occurrence 5:34, 5:120, 5:124
Strunz classification system 3:502t
phosphosiderite 5:124-125
phosphovanadylite
((Ba,Ca,K,Na)x[(V,Al)4P2
(O,OH)16]-12H2O) 3:589t, 3:590
phosphuranylite 5:122-123
photobionts 2:441
photosymbiosis 4:379
photosynthesis 1:202-203, 1:335, l:337f,
5:482, 5:484, 5:491
phreatic eruptions 5:571
phyllite 3:387t, 3:396f
phylloid algae 2:434, 2:43Sf
phyllonite 3:388t
phyllotungstite
((Ca,Pb)Fe3H(WO4)6-10H2O) 3:S87t
phylogenetic species 1:267
phytoplankton
acritarchs 3:418-419, 3:427
Vendian 4:376
Piacenzian stage (middle Pliocene) 5:486,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517
Pickering, William Henry 2:247-248
picrites 3:260
picropharmacolite 3:508t
Piedmont, Appalachians 4:72,
4:73f, 4:76f
Piemont ocean 2:125-126, 2:127, 2:127f,
2:132-133, 2:133f
piezometer 1:590, 1:591 f
Pigafetta Basin 3:315f, 3:316t
pigeonite 3:567
Pikaia gracilens 2:455
Pilbara craton, Australia
origins 1:429
orogenic events 1:208, 1:21 Of
Pillarian stage 5:473f
pillow lavas 3:327, 3:327f, 5:373-375,
5:382-383, 5:567-569, 5:571f
pils 3:80-81
PiltdownMan2:170
pinalite (Pb3WO5Cl2) 3:587t
Pinatubo, Mount 4:3 871, 5:575t
Pine Creek Orogeny l:209f, l:210f, 1:211
Pine Mountain terrane 3:157f, 4:77
Pinjarra Orogeny l:209f, 1:210-211
Pinnacles, The 4:559f
pinnoite (MgB2O4-3H2O) 3:512t
Pinon Formation 3:315"/", 3:316t
Pioneer Venus 5:244
pipes
See kimberlites
Pirsson, Louis 3:186-187
Pisanosaurus 2:492
pisoids 5:100-101, 5:106
Pistosaurus 2:506
Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion 5:575
Pittman III, Walter 3:203
Pituriaspis 2:464f
Pizd'Artgas2:^3i/"
anatomy 2:535
bats 2:539
Carnivora 2:539
classification 2:535, 2:53 7f
Eocene 5:469-470
epitheres 2:538
evolutionary relationships 2:537f, 2:538
Glires 2:539
hominids 2:541-545
Homo sapiens 2:543
marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538
Mesozoic 2:528f, 2:533, 2:S33f
physiology 2:535
primates 2:538-539
reproduction 2:535
Rodentia 2:539
taxonomy 2:535
tethytheres 2:540
ungulates 2:539
whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,
2:539-540, 5:469
Placentian stage 4:169 f
placoderms 2:465, 2:465 f
Placodus 2:506
plagioclase
abundance 3:538
equilibrium diagram 3:537 f
extinction angles 3:53 8 f
granites 3:235t, 3:242
igneous rocks 3:538
metamorphic rocks 3:399f, 3:401f9
3:403, 3:538, 3:539f
nomenclature 3:534f, 3:535

properties 3:537
refractive indices 3:537f
sedimentary rocks 3:538-539
Plagues (Exodus) 1:255
planets
See specific planets
plankton
calcareous nannoplankton 3:366,
3:366f, 5:462, 5:467f, 5:468
Carboniferous 4:212
Cretaceous 3:366
diatoms 4:500
Eocene 5:467f
3:3 73 f
Oligocene 5:476
Palaeocene 5:460f
Planolites 4:223-224
plants
See vegetation
plaster of Paris 3:572
Plateosaurus 2:491f
plate tectonics 4:340-349
Australia 1:208, l:231f, l:233f, 1:236,
1:237
basic principles
asthenosphere 4:340, 4:343f
deformation mechanisms 4:340-341,
4:343f
global seismicity 4:341 f
lithosphere 4:340, 4:343f
plate boundaries 4:340, 4:342f
crustal growth 1:407
current research 3:205
Dead Sea Rift 1:26, 1:27f
Du Toit, Alexander 2:188, 2:190,
3:193-194
Earth 1:424, 1:426 f
East African Rift 1:26, 1:27f
Eocene 5:466
extraterrestrial planets 3:206
Fiji 4:120
3:192
geological research (post-1962)
East Pacific Rise 3:198, 3:203-204
milestone research efforts 3:204
sea floor spreading 3:198
Grenville orogeny 3:164, 3:164f
INDEX 745
plate tectonics (continued]

hydrothermal activity 5:363f
Japan 3:297, 3:298f
mantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424, 4:348
mechanisms
direct forces 4:349
plate velocities 4:349
morphology
4:344
4:343f, 4:344f, 5:374f,
5:429-430
transform plate boundaries 4:343,
4:343f, 4:345f, 5:429-430
motive forces 2:251
Oceania 4:109
Oligocene 5:474
ore bodies l:440f
Palaeocene 5:460
plate boundries 3:206f
plate kinematics
absolute plate motions 4:348, 4:348f
relative plate motion 4:346, 4:347f
Russia 4:471, 4:472f
South-east Asia 1:169, l:170f, 1:17If,
l:172f
southern Cordillera 4:50, 4:54, 4:59^
terranes 5:455
Wegener, Alfred 2:246, 2:247, 2:247f,
3:193
See also mountain-building processes
platinum (Pt)
natural occurrences 3:553, 3:554,
3:585t
Plato 3:168
platy jointing 3:327-328
Platyrhinops 2:476f
playa lakes
See deserts; sabkhas
Playfair, John 2:203, 5:542
play fairways 4:229
plays 4:229, 4:268, 4:269f, 4:295-296,
4:297f, 4:298f
amphibians 2:526
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:23 O/", 1:236
biota 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f

geomagnetic polarity time-scale
3:332f
glaciation 2:526, 4:131, 4:663
Gunz stage 5:493
Ice Age 5:493
5:517 f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Lagerstatten 3:309
Mindel stage 5:493
4:25^
palaeoclimate 5:495
Riss stage 5:493
tektites 5:444, 5:445t
Wurm stage 5:493
pleochroism 3:550
Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f, 3:358
Plesiosaurus 2:506
Plesioteuthis 2:394
Pleurograptus linearis 4:179
Pleuromeia 3:348-349, 3:349f
Pliensbachian stage 3:352t, 3:354f, 3:355,
5:506f,5:517f
Plinian volcanoes 5:568t, 5:568f, 5:570t
Pliny the Elder 3:168
Pliny the Younger 3:267-268
Pliocene 5:486-493
amphibians 2:524, 2:525, 2:526f
Antarctica 1:140
biotic events
American terrestrial biotic interchange
5:487t, 5:490
marine biotic interchange 5:487t,
5:491
marine trans-Arctic interchange
5:487t, 5:491
climate
mid-Pliocene warming 5:487t,
5:489

Gondwana 1:193 f
Hominin diversification 5:487t, 5:491,
5:491 t,5:492f
insects 2:299^
5:517 f
Lau Islands 4:120
4:25f
orbital forcing 5:487t
palaeomagnetism 5:487t
predation 4:145f
South-east Asia 1:193 f
stages
Gelasian (upper Pliocene) 5:487,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517f
Piacenzian (middle Pliocene) 5:486,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517f
Zanclean (lower Pliocene) 5:486,
5:487t,5:506f,5:517f
tectonic processes 5:487, 5:487t
Vanuatu 4:116
Pliosauria 3:358
Pliosaurus 2:506
Pluto 5:293, 5:293t, 5:294f
plutons
See granites
Po basin 2:125, 2:126f9 2:128f, 2:134f9
3:654-656
Podocopa
ecology 3:457
shell morphology 3:457/", 3:458f, 3:459f
Stratigraphic ranges 3:460f
Podolian Block 2:45, 2:45f
podzolization 5:195, 5:196f
Pohlsepia mazonensis 2:395
point load strength test 1:575, l:576t,
1:57 6f
Poisson's ratio 1:571-572
Poland 2:75, 5:506f
Polish Trough 2:96f, 2:101 f, 3:648-649
pollen
angiosperms 2:418, 2:424, 2:424f,
2:426f
forensic geology 2:270
microfossils 3:473
See also palynology
pollucite 3:593t
pollutants
746
INDEX
pollutants (continued]
trace elements
abundance 2:22*
occurrence 2:21
speciation 2:21, 2:22*
toxicity 2:22*
persistent organic pollutants 2:23
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
2:23
polymaths 1:433-434
polymolybdates 3:551, 3:552*
Polystrata 2:430f
Polyzoa
See bryozoans (Bryozoa)
Pomerania 2:154f
Pontides of Turkey 5:458f, 5:458-459
Poosa, S. 5:266t
Popelogan-Victoria arc 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f,
4:89
Popigai impact structure, Siberia 5:467f,
5:468
Popp, Georg 2:261
anatomy 2:408, 2:409f
Cambrian 2:408-417, 4:171
Carboniferous 4:212
classification
Archaeocyatha 2:408, 2:416, 2:416f
Calcarea 2:408, 2:412, 2:414f
Demospongea 2:408, 2:409, 2:412f
Hexactinellida 2:408, 2:411, 2:413f,
2:414f
Sclerospongiae 2:408, 2:413, 2:415f,
2:416f
3:379, 3:380f
Jurassic 3:356
nodular cherts 5:5 7f
spicules 2:408, 2:410/",
2:411f,5:57f
Porites 3:526f, 4:506f, 4:568f, 4:569f
porosity
chalk 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49f
diagenetic processes 1:393
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) 4:234f, 4:236f,
5:83, 5:88f
evaporites 1:5 52t
hydrothermal circulation 5:367,
S:368f
lava, flows 4:454
limestones 4:234f, 5:107-108
petroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:148,

5:149f
petroleum reservoirs 4:232, 4:233f,
4:234f, 4:311, 4:317f
rock properties 1:5491, 1:552*, l:566f,
1:566-567, 1:5 67t
sand 5:141f, 5:145, 5:146f, 5:147f9
5:149, 5:149f,5:150f
secondary porosity 5:145, 5:147f
sedimentary rocks 4:452, 5:25
porphyrins 4:251/j 4:257
porter 3:80
Portlock, J. E. 3:476
Portugal 2:75, 2:77f, 3:352*, 5:506f
3:310t, 3:311, 4:384f
4:602-611
climatically induced structures
desiccation 4:609, 4:609f
evaporite pseudomorphs 4:610,4:61 Of
periglacial deformation 4:610
raindrop impressions 4:610
concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611f
deforming forces
burial alteration processes 4:604
density inversions 4:604, 4:605f
down-slope gravitational forces
4:603-604, 4:605f
glaciation 4:604
liquefaction 1:525-534,4:604,4:605f,
4:606
soft-sediment deformation processes
shear strength loss 4:603, 4:605f
soft-sediment deformation structures
convolute lamination 4:604, 4:606f
descriptions 4:605f
dish and pillar structures 4:606,
4:607f
extruded sheets 4:607
load casts 4:604, 4:605f
mud diapirs 4:607, 4:608f
overturned cross-bedding 4:606,
4:606f
pseudonodules 4:604
sand injection structures 4:607
sand volcanoes 4:607, 4:608f
sedimentary growth faults 4:608,
4:609f
potash deposits 5:94
potassium (K)
carbonatites 3:223*
glauconite 3:542*
kimberlites 3:248t
obsidian 3:269*

5:114*
potash 1:43 8t
radiometric dating
absolute dating techniques 1:88t
geoarchaeology 3:20
glauconite 3:547
sedimentary rocks 5:69, 5:146, 5:147f
Venus 5:246*, 5:247*
Potato Blight 2:153
Potiguar basin l:325f, l:326f, 1:327f
pottsite (HPbBi(VO4)2-2H2O) 3:589t
Povarennykh, Alexander 5:121
powellite (CaMo04) 3:551, 3:552*
Powell,]. W. 3:181-182
Pozary Formation 4:189
Pragian stage
Appalachians 4:87f
insects 4:195-196
5:517f
vegetation 4:195
Pranhita-Godavari Basin 3:142-147,
3:146f
praseodymium (Pr) 3:223*, 3:224/", 3:242f
prasinophytes 3:420, 3:424
Pratt, John Henry 1:98, 3:183
Pratt-Welker chain 3:315f, 3:316*, 4:479
praying mantises 2:297f, 2:300*
Precambrian
applications 3:427
clusters 3:420
morphology
flanges 3:419f, 3:420
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f
wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
3:426, 3:426f, 3:427f
palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f
INDEX 747
Precambrian (continued]
preservation 3:419
Archaean
atmospheric composition 4:351
5:40
biodiversity 1:261
chert 4:351, 4:368
Earth origins 4:3 64f
2:43f, 2:44f, 2:45f, 2:47f
eukaryotes 4:357
5:517f
4:23f
prokaryotes 4:368
stromatolites
attributes l:289t
biosediments 1:285, 1:287
conical stromatolites l:291f
domical stromatolites l:290f
early biosphere 4:367, 4:367f
tektites 5:454
biodiversity 1:261
China 1:347f
climate 4:351
early biosphere
evolution 4:3 64f
stromatolites 4:367
early life forms 4:352, 4:364f, 4:365f
earth origins 4:350
Ediacaran 4:371-381
biodiversity 1:261
bioturbation 4:378
geological events
carbonates 4:372

glaciation 4:372
Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376t, 4:378f
metacellularity 4:373, 4:376t
predators 4:379
algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359f
biodiversity 1:261
4:358,4:360
heterotrophy 4:360
Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356f,
4:357
early animals 4:360
Ediacaran 4:362-363
4:362f
Vendian 4:372-373
4:357
tree of life 1:203f, 4:365f
Hadean
Earth origins 1:427-429, 4:364f
5:517f
Kazakhstan 1:164
kimberlites 3:253f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
Laurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:352-354,
4:353f
major outcrops 4:351
New Zealand 4:5f
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
North American continental nucleus
4:8-21

4:10f,4:13f, 4:15f, 4:350
Archaean cratons 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f,
4:16, 4:23f
basement gneisses 4:1 Of
Canadian Shield 4:8-9, 4:10f, 4:1 If
4:19 f
Laurentia 4:8, 4:9, 4:19
mantle keel 4:8-9
erogenic events 4:16, 4:17
Rae craton 4:16
Rodinia breakup 4:8
Sask craton 4:16
Slave craton 4:10f9 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13f,
4:16,4:18f
structure 4:9f, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:14f
Superior craton 4:11 f, 4:12, 4:13 f,
4:16, 4:17f, 4:19f
tectonic map 4:9f
palaeogeography 4:352, 4:353f
Precambrian-Cambrian boundary
2:165-166
origins 4:3 64f
Proterozoic
Argentina l:156f
biospheric evolution 4:364f
limestones 4:351
subdivisions 4:350
shields 5:173, 5:173f
stromatolites 1:430, l:431f
subdivisions 4:350
terranes 4:352
Vendian 4:371-381
bioturbation 4:378
748
INDEX
Precambrian (continued)
chronostratigraphy 4:17Of
geological events
carbonates 4:372
glaciation 4:372
Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378f
metacellularity 4:373, 4:376*
palaeogeography 4:3S3f
predators 4:379
Timanide Orogeny 2:49-50, 2:53,
2:54f
precipitation l:477f, 4:628, 5:17, 5:19f9
5:475
Precordillera terrane 4:83f
prehnite-pumpellyite facies 3:397, 3:398f,
3:405, 3:405f, 4:74f
Press, Frank 3:195
3:409-417
anticlockwise paths 3:413, 3:416, 3:416f
3:415f
crustal thickening 3:412, 3:413f, 3:414f
3:416, 3:416f
stable geotherm 3:411, 3:411 f, 3:415f
3:412f
Prevost, Constant 2:183
Priabonian stage 1:322 ft l:325f, 5:466,
5:467f, 5:468f, 5:469, 5:470, 5:506f
5:517f
Price, George McCready 1:384
priceite (Ca4B1oO19-7H2O) 3:5Jf2*
Pridoli Series 4:87f, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,

5:511 f5:511 f 95:517f
Priest River Complex, northern Cordillera
4:39-42
primates 2:538-539
primitive organisms
applications 3:427
Cambrian 4:169f
clusters 3:420
morphology
flanges 3:419f, 3:420
processes 3:419f, 3:420, 3:422f
wall types 3:420
occurrence 3:418
3:426, 3:426f, 3:427f
preservation 3:419
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
biofilms 1:283, 1:283 f
filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367f^
4:368
microbial effects
l:284t
4:223-224, 4:377
microfossils
interpretive processes 1:288, l:292f
significance 1:282
stromatolites
biosediments 1:285
formation processes 1:287f^ l:288t
tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124, 4:125f

applications
classification
Conochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
Desmochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
Lagenochitinidae 3:430, 3:431f,
3:435f
Ordovician 3:430
Prosomatifera 3:430
intervesicle adjustments 3:429, 3:43Of
Margachitina 3:434
morphology 3:428, 3:429f, 3:435f,
3:436f
Pterochitina 3:434
Silurian 4:191
structure 3:428
algae 4:356f, 4:358, 4:359f
biodiversity 1:261
4:358,4:360
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
2:440-441
2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
heterotrophy 4:360
Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes 4:356/",
4:357
early animals 4:360
Ediacaran 4:362-363
4:3 62 f
4:357
phylogenetic relationships 4:3 55f
tree of life l:203f, 4:365f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 2:279, 4:191
INDEX 749
primitive organisms (continued]

filamentous microbes 4:367'f, 4:368
origins 4:364f
Prince of Wales terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47
Princeton University 3:197
Pringle,]. W. 3:476
Pripyat-Dnieper-Donet rift 4:199
Pripyat-Dnieper-Donet rift system 4:199
probertite (NaCaB 5 O 9 -5H 2 O) 3:512t,
3:513t
Procolophon 4:224
procolophonids 2:479-481, 2:480f
Productive Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150f
filamentous microbes 4:367'f, 4:368
origins 4:3 64f
Prolacertifornes 2:513
Promissum 3:44If
Promyalina 4:223-224
bookshelf faulting 5:396, 5:398, 5:404^
continental propagators 5:402f, 5:403,
5:403 f, 5:404f
evolution 5:396
implications 5:403
microplates 5:398, 5:400f9 5:401f
oceanic propagators 5:396,5:396f, 5:397f
propane (C 3 H 8 ) 4:258, 4:259f
Prospector 5:266t, 5:266-267, 5:271
Prosser, Charles S. 2:196
Protarchaeopteryx 2:495
Proterocidaris 2:352-353, 2:354
Proterocladus 4:358-359, 4:359/
Proterosuchus 2:485
Proterozoic
Argentina l:156f
Australia 1:208-222
Adelaide Rift Complex 1:215f, 1:220
Arunta Inlier 1:214, 1:239f
basin formation 1:208, 1:211, 1:215 f9
1:220
Birrindudu Basin 1:219

Calvert Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215
Centralian Superbasin 1:215f, 1:220
Georgetown Inlier 1:215
Granites-Tanami Complex l:210f,
1:211
Hamersley Basin 1:208-209, 1:209f,
l:210f, 1:221
Isa Superbasin 1:212 f9 1:215
Kimberley Basin l:209f, 1:211 f,
1:219, 1:221, 1:239 f
Laurentia 1:213 f9 l:215f
Leichhardt Superbasin 1:211 f,
1:214-215
McArthur Basin l:209f, 1:214-215,
1:239 f
mineral deposits l:218f, 1:221
Mount Isa Inlier 1:214, l:239f
orogenic events
Albany Fraser Orogeny l:209f,
1:210-211, 1.-213/", I:214f9
1:219, I:239f9 4:352
Barramundi Orogeny 1:211, 1:21 If,
4:352
Capricorn Orogeny l:209f,
1:209-210, 1:211 f, 1:212f,
1:239 f
Ewamin Orogeny l:213f,
1:218-219
Glenburgh Orogeny 1:209, l:210f
Hall's Creek Orogeny 1:211 f,
1:212-213, 1:239 f
Hooper Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:212
Kararan Orogeny l:212f, l:213f,
1:217-218
Kimban Orogeny 1:209 f, 1:211/",
I:212f9 1:215-216
King Leopold Orogeny 1:211,
1:215 f, 1:239 f
Olarian Orogeny 1:213 f9 1:218-219
l:210f
Paterson Orogeny 1:215 f9 1:220,
1:239 f
Petermann Orogeny l:215f
Pine Creek Orogeny l:209f, l:210f,
1:211
Pinjarra Orogeny 1:209 f,
1:210-211
reactivation 1:214 f9 1:219-220
Sleafordian Orogeny 1:210/", 4:352
Strangways Orogeny 1:21 If,
1:214-215
Tanami Orogeny 1:21 If, 1:213
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f
Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211,
4:352
Yapungku Orogeny 1:211 f,
1:214-215
Pine Creek Inlier 1:23 9f
Tasmanides 1:208, 1:209 f, 1:239 f
Tasman Orogenic Belt l:223f, l:224f,
1:225-226
Tennant Creek Inlier 1:211/", 1:214
Victoria River Basin 1:209/, l:214f,
l:215f, 1:219
biospheric evolution 4:3 64f
China 1:347f
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
limestones 4:351
Mesoproterozoic
Australia 1:218
Ectasian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
5:517f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Rodinia 1:218
Stenian System 5:511/", 5:517f
4:23f
Palaeoproterozoic
Australia 1:208
East European Craton 2:42f, 2:43f,
2:45, 2:45f, 2:46, 2:47f, 2:48f
glaciation 4:663
5:517f
Orosinian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Precambrian basement 4:13 f
Rhyacian System 5:51 If, 5:517f
Siderian System 5:511/", 5:517f
Statherian System 5:511f, 5:517f
750
INDEX
Proterozoic (continued]
l:174f
subdivisions 4:350
See also Neoproterozoic
proto-Alps 2:77f
Protoarenicola baiguashanensis 4:3 59 f,
4:360
protocataclasite 3:388t
Protoclepsydrops 2:487
Protoclepsydrops haplous 2:485
protomylonite 3:388t
Protorothyris 2:481-482
Prototaxites 2:439f, 2:440-441
Provencal Basin 2:120-124, 3:655f, 3:656
Provincial Geological Bodies 3:78
Prydz Bay 3:154
Prydz-Leeuwin Belt 3:128, 3:132f, 3:133f
Psarolepis 2:467
Psephoderma 2:506
pseudofossils 4:382-386
Australia 4:3 69f
conchoidal fractures 4:382, 4:384f
concretions 4:384, 4:385f
cone-in-cone structures 4:383, 4:385f
fracture surfaces 4:382, 4:384f
England 4:382, 4:383f
nodules 4:384, 4:385f
4:3 84 f
pseudokarst 4:679
pseudomalachite 3:508f, 5:122
pseudotachylite 3:388t, 5:183t
Psiloceras 3:357
psilomelane 5:394t
Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515
Pteraspis 2:462
Pteridinium 4:375, 4:375f
pteridophyte 3:351
Pteridosperms 4:206f, 4:209f
Pterocanium charybdeum 1:27Of
Pterochitina 3:434
pterodactyloids
azhdarchoids 2:514
body hair 2:511 f
lonchodectids 2:514
ornithocheiroids 2:5'10f, 2:514, 2:514f

pterosaurs 2:513, 2:513f
soft tissue 2:512f
wing membranes 2:511 f
Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:511 f, 2:515
Pterodaustro 2:514
pteropods 4:646?, 5:72f, 5:74, 5:75?
pterosaurs
cladogram 2:513f
diversity 2:513
Mesozoic 2:508
affinities 2:513
Anhanguera 2:515
body hair 2:511, 2:511f
2:513-514
2:515
integument 2:511
Istiodactylus 2:510
locomotion 2:515
origins 2:513
palaeobiology 2:514
Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515
pterodactyloids
azhdarchoids 2:514
body hair 2:511 f
lonchodectids 2:514
ornithocheiroids 2:51 Of, 2:514,
2:514 f
soft tissue 2:512f

wing membranes 2:511 f
Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:51 If,
2:515
2:515
skeletal material 2:510, 2:510f, 2:511f
soft tissue 2:51 l,2:512f
Pterygotes 2:296, 2:297f, 2:300t
Ptilophyllum 3:359
PUCE
See Pattern-Unit-Component-Evaluation
(PUCE) mapping system, Australia
pucherite (BiVO4) 3:589t
Puerto Rico Trench 5:430?, 5:43 Of
Pukapuka Ridge 4:476-477
Pulleniatina primalis 5:486-487
pumice 4:387t, 4:390t
pumpellyite 3:397, 3:398f, 3:405
punctuated equilibrium
bryozoans (Bryozoa) 1:268-269, l:271f
microevolution 2:164, 2:164f
Miocene 1:269 f
Pliocene 1:269 f
speciation 1:268, l:268f, l:271f
Pusgillian stage 4:183f
Pu'u O'o volcanic vent 3:328-329, 3:329f
pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3) 3:630t
Pyrenees 2:96/", 2:98, 2:99, 3:650f, 3:654,
3:654f, 5:466-468, 5:488
pyriclasite 3:387t
pyrite (FeS2)
carbonatites 3:221t
5:394t
Lagerstatten 3:312
nodules 4:385
occurrence 3:574, 3:584, 3:585t
physical properties 3:577?
pyritized fossils l:377f, 1:381, 3:312
stability 3:580f
pyrobelonite (PbMnVO 4 (OH)) 3:589t
pyrochlore 3:221, 3:221t
characteristics
fall deposits 4:390, 4:391f, 4:392?
ignimbrites 2:98, 4.-202/, 4:388f9
4:391-393, 4:393/i 4:395, 4:397f
particle size 4:390?
4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396f
pyroclastic types 4:390?
transport mechanisms 4:394, 4:396f,
4:397f
4:387?, 4:388f, 4:389
natural hazards 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f
zeolites 1:34-43, 3:597
pyrolite hypothesis 1:399, 1:401 f
pyrolusite (MnC^)
pyromorphite 5:123, 5:126-127, 5:127f
pyrope (Mg3Al2Si3Oi2) 3:561
pyrophyllite 1:360, l:361t, 3:399f,
3:631-632
pyrovanadates 3:589?
pyroxenes 3:567-569
crystal structure 3:568f, 3:569f
kimberlites 3:253
pyroxenite 3:220?, 3:253-254, 3:257f
pyroxmangite 3:569
INDEX 751
pyrrhotite (FeySg)
carbonatites 3:221t
occurrence 3:584, 3:585t
physical properties 3:577?, 4:149t
stability 3:579f, 3:580f
Q
Qiangtang terrane 3:144f
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau 1:353
Qingshania magnifica 4:357
Qinling Shan-Dabie Shan-Sulu terrane belt
1:350-351, 1:352, 5:537
Quaoar 5:223, 5:294
quarrying 4:399-405
aggregates 1:35
career opportunities 4:401
design 4:400
engineering considerations 4:401
environmental issues 4:401, 4:404t
general description 4:399f
geological factors 4:400
military geology 3:478, 3:479/~, 3:480f,
3:484f
operational considerations 4:399
planning considerations 4:401, 4:404?
quarried stone
geological characteristics 4:400,
4:402?
joint sets 4:401 f

mass characteristics 4:400
regional characteristics 4:403?
quarry restoration 4:402
quarry types 4:400, 4:403?
quartz diorites 3:237?
quartzites 3:396f, 5:27?, 5:29f
quartzofeldspathic rocks 3:396, 3:396/",
3:397, 3:399/", 5:535-536, 5:538,
5:S38f
quartz (SiO2) 3:569-571
amphiboles 3:505
carbonatites 3:223?
cementation 5:143, 5:143f, 5:144f
chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51, 5:52f
cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
3:571
depth effects 5:63^
fused minerals 3:28If
glauconite 3:542?
granites 3:240
kimberlites 3:248?
Lagerstatten 3:313
metamorphic facies 3:400/", 3:401f

United States 3:571
palisade quartz 5:533, 5:534f
sand 5:142
sandstones 5:143?, 5:143f
shock metamorphic effects 4:221, 5:183t
silica 3:570, 3:570f
structure 3:570
tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
3:571
types 3:570
5:533, 5:533f, 5:534f
Venus 5:247?
weathering 5:17
quartz wackes 5:27?, 5:2 8f
Quaternary
cephalopods 2:389f
Fiji 4:120
Holocene 2:147-160
Baltic Sea 2:149-150, 2.-152/, 2:153f,
2:155-159, 2:156f, 2:159?
climate 2:147, 2:148f, 2:159?
environmental periods 2:159?
human activity
historical developments 2:159?
industrialisation effects 2:155,
2:156f
5:517f
North Africa 1:25
sea-level changes 2:149-150, 2:150/",
2:151f,2:154f,2:155f
vegetation 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f,
2:153f
9 2:155f
New Zealand 4:7
4:2 6f
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3.-460/", 3:462
palynology 3:464
biota 5:495, 5:497/i 5:498f
glaciation 4:131, 4:663

Ice Age 5:493
5:517f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
palaeoclimate 5:495
tektites 5:444
shelf-edge deltas 4:537
Quebec, Canada 3:155, 4:83-84
Queen Charlotte-Fairweather Fault 4:38
Queensland, Australia 2:472, 3:123, 3:142
Quercus 2:420f
Quesnel terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46
quick clays 1:562, l:563f, 4:690
quicksands 1:555, 1:5 5 6f
R
radar
altimetry 4:415
applications
earthquakes 4:418
ground motion measurements 4:417,
4:418 f
structural/geomorphological mapping
4:416
subsidence 4:419
Doppler radar 4:415
ground penetrating radar 1:488, 1:491?,
1:493 f, 1:495 f, 1:497, l:498f
radar amplitude images 4:415, 4:417f
synthetic aperture radar systems 4:415?,
4:417, 4:418f
radiocarbon ( 14 C)
See carbon (C); radiometric dating
Radioisotopes and the Age of the Earth
(RATE) 1:386
radiolarians
Cretaceous 3:366f
3:378, 3:378f
5:72/, S:74f, 5:75, 5:75?
Jurassic 3:356
Palaeocene 5:464
phyletic gradualism 1:27'Of
752
INDEX
radiolarians (continued]
radiometric dating
absolute dating techniques 1:87, 1:88t
amphiboles 3:504
biozones 1:295-296
Cambrian 4:164
Carboniferous 4:202f, 4:203
cratonization 5:175, 5:175/
3:383
diagenetic quantification 5:69, 5:146,
5:147f
dolomite formation 5:86
Earth'sage 3:186
end Permian extinctions 3:317, 3:319
fission track analysis 1:43-53
age determination 1:47, l:48f, 1:49f
alpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:S2f
applications 1:52
etch pits 1:46, 1:47f
fossil partial annealing zone 1:45,
1:46 f
Helium Partial Retention Zone
1:50-51
spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f, 1:45f
thermal history modelling 1:49, 1:5Of,
1:5 If
track-in-cleavage 1:45f, 1:49

track-in-track l:45f, 1:49
dating method 1:50,
l:52f, 5:127
fossils 4:158-159
geoarchaeology 3:20
geochronology 1:77
glauconite 3:547
historical background 1:81-82,
5:298-299
kimberlites 3:250, 3:252f9 3:253f
Mozambique Belt l:7f
Triassic 3:345
zircon 3:604
radon (Rn) 3:553t
Rae craton 4:16
Raff-Mason magnetic anomaly 5:399f
Rahonavis 2:497
rainfall l:477f, 4:628, 5:17, 5:19f
Rainier, Mount 5:575
rain shadow 5:485
Rajmahal Traps 3:292, 3:315f, 3:316t,
3:363t
Ramdohr, Paul 3:192
Ramm, Bernard 1:384
rammeisbergite (NiAs2) 3:575?
Ramsay, Andrew 2:214, 3:181

Ranger 7 5:266?
rankachite (CaFeV4W8O36-12H2O)
3:587t, 3.-5S9?, 3:590
rare earth elements 3:224f, 3:639t
raspite (PbWO4) 3:587t
raster data representation 4:421, 4:422f
Rastrites 2:361-362, 2:363f
Raumer, Karl von 3:476
Raup, David 3:370
rauvite (Ca(UO 2 ) 2 (Vi 0 O 28 )-16H 2 O) 3:589t
raw borax, anhydrous (NaB 2 O 3 ) 3:519t
Rawtheyan stage 4:183 f
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Baron 3:186
Rayleigh waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334f
Read, Herbert 3:187
Reading Prong 3:157'f
realgar (As4S4) 3:575?, 3:630?
Red Beers 3:81
red clays 4:642f, 5:70, 5:71f, 5:72f, 5:74f9
5:75?, 5:76
Red Indian Line 4:82f, 4:85, 4:87f, 4:89
Redkinia 4:373
Red Sea
Arabian-Nubian Shield l:4f
Miocene 1:17,5:481-482
orogenic events 1:4f
rift valleys 1:17, 1:148, 3:237?
satellite images 1:26f
structural geology 1:149f, 1:150f
Red Sea crossing (Exodus) 1:255
reductionism 1:433-434
Reduviasporonites 4:220
bafflestone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563f
bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:563f
calcareous algae 2:243, 2:244, 2:428,
2:429f
Cambrian 4:565
Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368, 3:371,
4:567f, 4:567-568
Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565
extinction events 4:565-566, 4:566-567
floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564f
framestone 3:527f, 4:562f, 4:562-563,
4:568f9 4:569f
Jurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567f
modern reef formation
atolls 4:481, 4:564
barrier reefs 4:564
carbonate sedimentation 1:343'/,
3:523f, 3:529
corals 4:562
lagoons 4:564
morphology 4:562
morphology 4:568f
patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564
Permian 4:565-566, 4:566f

rudists 4:567f, 4:567-568
rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564f
Silurian 4:565
stromatolites 3:52 4/~, 4:565
Tertiary 4:568-569
Triassic 4:566f, 4:566-567
zonation 4:562
Reelfoot Rift 4:32f
Refugian benthic foramineral stage 5:473f
reg 4:626
metamorphic facies
amphibolite facies 3:412f, 4:409,
4:409f, 4:410, 4:413
Barrovian-type metamorphic complex,
Naxos, Greece 4:410, 4:411 f,
4:412t
blueschist facies 3:412f, 4:409f,
4:409-410
3:415~f
3:414f
eclogite facies 3:412f, 4:409f,
4:409-410
epidote-amphibolite facies 4:409,
4:409f
facies diagram 4:409f
granulite facies 3:412f, 4:409f, 4:410,
4:413
greenschist facies 3:412f, 4:409,
4:409f, 4:410, 4:413
high pressure facies 4:409
low pressure facies 4:410
medium pressure facies 4:410
petrologic studies 4:408
3:412f
very low grade facies 4:410
metasomatism 4:407
mineral relationships 4:408
prograde paths 4:408
retrograde paths 4:408
terranes 4:407
Reid, H. 5:330
Reitziites reitzi 3:345-346
relative ages 1:77, 1:78
remediation techniques 2:23, 2:24?
remote sensing
active sensors 4:414-420
lidar 4:414, 4:415f
radar
altimetry 4:415
applications 4:416
Doppler radar 4:415
earthquakes 4:418
INDEX 753
remote sensing (continued]

4:417, 4:418f
radar amplitude images 4:415,
4:417f
mapping 4:416
subsidence 4:419
4:415t, 4:417, 4:41Sf
sonar 4:414, 4:415f
4:420-431
applications
earthquakes 4:427
environmental quality 4:424
exploration tools 4:424, 4:425f
field mapping 4:423, 4:424f
geohazards 4:424
landslides 4:426, 4:426f, 4:428t
natural resources 4:424
volcanism 4:426
basic principles
database design and quality 4:422
spatial data representations 4:421,
4:422f
visualisation process 4:422, 4:423f
Internet applications 4:429
software products 4:430, 4:430t
spatial analysis tools
individual layers 4:427
multicriteria evaluation 4:427,
4:428t
multiple layers 4:427, 4:428f
uncertainty analysis 4:427, 4:429f
sensors 4:436
hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:43 8t,
4:438f
passive microwave sensors 4:438,
4:439f
4:433, 4:433f
4:435, 4:435f
structure 4:432f
spatial resolution 4:432, 4:434t, 4:436
4:43 8 f
petroleum exploration 4:298f
Renalcis 2:435, 3:350
Renard, A. F. 5:70-71
reppiaite (Mn 5 (VO 4 )2(OH) 4 ) 3:S89t
reptation 4:612-614, 4:613f
archosauromorphs
crocodiles 2:485
3:381, 3:382f
diapsids
mosasaurs 2:483
snakes 2:483
Sphenodon 2:483
Squamata 2:483
Younginiforms 2:483
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,
3:358-359
2:491f, 2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
origins 2:492
Ornithischia
Thyreophora 2:493
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Saurischia
general discussion 2:492f9 2:494
Theropoda 2:494, 3:350
Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350
eureptiles
pterosaurs 2:508
affinities 2:513
Anhanguera 2:515
body hair 2:511,2:511 f

2:513-514
2:515
integument 2:511
Istiodactylus 2:510
locomotion 2:515
origins 2:513
palaeobiology 2:514
Pteranodon 2:509, 2:514-515
pterodactyloids 2:514
Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f, 2:511 f,
2:515
Rhamphorhynchus 2:512-513,
2:514,2:515
skeletal material 2:510, 2:510f,
2:511 f
soft tissue 2:511, 2:512f
Askeptosaurus 2:504
Augustasaurus 2:506
Clarazia 2:504
Corosaurus 2:506
3:380, 3:381f
Cyamodus 2:506
Dakosaurus 2:504
Dermochelys 2:505f
Dyrosaurus 2:504
Geosaurus 2:504
Globidens 2:505
Henodus 2:506
Heschelaria 2:504
Hyposaurus 2:504
Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f9
3:358,3:380
Keichousaurus 2:506
Lariosaurus 2:506
locomotion mechanisms 2:502-503
Mesosaurus 2:503f
Mosasauroidea 2:504f, 2:504-505
nothosaurs 2:484
Nothosaurus 2:506
occurrences 2:502
Paraplacodus 2:506
754
INDEX
reptiles (Reptilia) (continued]

Pistosaurus 2:506
Placodus 2:506
Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f,
3:358
Plesiosaurus 2:506
Pliosaurus 2:506
Psephoderma 2:506
Simosaurus 2:506
Steneosaurus 2:504
Styxosaurus 2:506
Teleorhinus 2:504
Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505
mesosaurs 2:479
Miocene 5:483
parareptiles
testudines 2:481
snakes 5:483
synapsids
Eothyrididae 2:485
Mesozoic 2:527
therapsids 2:489
residual sediments
occurrence 5:31
restite 3:388t
reticulite 4:3 871, 4:39Ot
Reticuloceras subreticulatum 4:498f
Reunion hotspot 3:292-293, 3:336-337,
3:383
Revelle, Roger 3:197
Revueltian faunachron 3:345f
Reykjanes Ridge 3:203
gravity measurements 1:101 f
seamounts 4:477t
Reynolds number 5:8, 5:9/", 5:10, 5:llf,
5:548
Rhabdinopora flabelliformis 4:177
Rhacophyllites 3:357
Rhaetian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f,5:506f,5:517f
Rhamphorhynchoidea 2:513,2:513f, 2:514

2:515
Rhea 5:287t, 5:288
Rheic Ocean
Caledonian Orogeny 2:56-58, 2:62
Carboniferous 4:204
Devonian 2:79
Silurian 4:193
tectonic processes 2:79, 2:80f, 2:82f
terranes 5:455
Rhenish Massif
Aptian-Albian palaeogeography 2:116f
2:112f
Berriasian-Valanginian palaeogeography
2:115 f
Permian 2:107f
Rhaetian-Hettangian palaeogeography
2:11 If
2:118 f
Variscides Orogeny 2:75, 2:79, 2:84
rhenium (Re) l:88t
Rheno-Hercynian Ocean 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f
Rheno-Hercynian Terrane 2:97, 3:652/",
5:455
Rhine graben 3:653-654
Rhine Rift 5:440-441
Rhine River 2:125, 2:152, 3:656-657
Rhinobatis 2:464f
Rhipocephalus 2:432
Rhizodus 2:467
rhodite 3:119t
rhodium (Rh)
rhodochrosite 3:13
rhodonite 3:569
Polystrata 2:430f
rhomboclase 3:573
Rhone graben 3:653-654
Rhone River 2:125, 3:656-657, 5:19*
Rhuddanian Stage 4:185, 4:186f9 4:187f,
5:511f,5:517f
Rhyacian System 5:511f9 5:517f
Rhynie chert
2:277
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
lichens 2:441-442
Rhyniella praecursor 2:296-298
rhyolites
Argentina 1:161
explosive eruption characteristics 4:3871
lava/lava flows 3:323-324, 3:326
3:270, 3:272^
North German Basin 2:98
Pyrenees 2:99
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
tridymite 3:571
rhythmites 4:30-31
Riacho do Pontal Belt, Brazil 1:31 Of
Ribeira erogenic belt 1:313f9 1:318
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 2:161
Richter, Charles 3:195, 5:319-320
Richter scale 5:319-320, 5:320t
Richthofen, Ferdinand von 3:184
riebeckite 3:505-506
Ries Crater, Germany 5:444-445, 5:445f
Argentina 1:161
Atlantic Margin 4:102,4:95,4:96f, 4:97f
3:653
Dead Sea Rift 1:26-34
Arabia 1:148, 1:149f, l:150f
archaeology 1:33
climate 1:33
earthquakes 1:33
fault zones 1:32f
hydrology 1:32
laminated beds 1:33f
petroleum reserves 5:441f, 5:442
river systems 1:32, l:32f
satellite images 1:2 6/j 1:27f
sedimentation 1:33
structure 1:31
topography 1:31
Death Valley, United States 5:442, 5:442f
East African Rift 1:26-34
climate 1:29
dome structures 1:28
fault zones 1:28f
hominids 1:31
hydrology 1:29, 1:3 If
INDEX 755
rift valleys (continued]

lake basins 4:558
Miocene tectonics 5:481-482
Oldoinyo Lengai 3:220*, 3:220-221,
3:224f, 3:225, 3:230f
satellite images l:26f, 1:30f
sedimentation l:27f, 1:30
structure 1:27, 1:27f, 5:438, 5:440f
topography 1:27
volcanism 1:28, l:29f, l:30f
economic deposits 5:439f, 5:442
Europe
Cretaceous 2:113
2:48f
Eocene 2:117
Jurassic 2:108
Miocene 2:120
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:105, 2:106f
Triassic 2:105
evaporite deposits 5:95
mid-ocean ridges 5:384-386, 5:438
morphology 5:437
North Africa 1:16, l:16f, 1:17
petroleum reserves 5:43 9/", 5:442
Rhine Rift 5:440-441
Rio Grande Rift 5:43 8f
salt deposits 5:441f9 5:442
sedimentary basins 5:441, 5:441f
structure 5:437, 5:439f, 5:442f
volcanism 1:28,1.-29/, I:30f9 5:438-439,
5:566f
rillenkarren
See solution flutes (rillenkarren)
Rimmer, Harry 1:384
ring dykes 3:218t,3:219f
Ringkbing-Fyn High 3:6S2f
ringwoodite 5:183t
rinnenkarren
See runnels (rinnenkarren)
Rio de la Plata craton 1:307, 1.-307/", 1:312,
l:312f,3:164f
Rio Grande Rift 4:60, 5:438f
Rio Grande Rise 3:315f, 3:316*,
4:477_479
Rio Negro 5:20f
Rio Solimoes 5:2 Of
Riphean 2:41f, 2:51, 4:350, 4:456, 4:458,
4:458f, 4:461
rip-up clast deposits 4:63 6f
Riss stage 5:493
rivadavite (Na6MgB24O4o-22H2O) 3:S13t
River Jordan, Crossing of (Joshua) 1:256
rizalites 5:446-447
RNA world
development process 4:127f
molecular structures 4:127f
origins 4:126
RNA precursors 4:126
Roadian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 5:511f,
5:517f
robertinids 3:45Of
Roberts Mountains allochthon 4:50-52
Robertson Lake shear zone 3:158f
Rocche Rosse flow, Lipari, Italy
3:268-270, 3:269f, 3:270f
roches moutonnees 4:669-670, 4:671 f
rockbridgeite 5:122, 5:124-125
basement 4:453, 4:455
differentiation techniques 4:453, 4:454f
igneous rocks 4:453t
anomalies 4:454
4:454f
lava flows 4:454
metamorphic rocks 4:453t
anomalies 4:455
4:454f
correlations 2:219f
anomalies 4:454
4:454f
sandstones 5:142f
rockfalls 4:689, 4:689f, 5:2
rock-forming minerals 3:567-569, 5:17,
5:582, 5:583f
rock mechanics 4:440-451
components
existing fractures 4:440, 4:442f,
4:443f
intact rock 4:440, 4:444f
in situ stress 4:440, 4:441 f, 4:446f
fracture testing 4:444f, 4:445f
geotechnical engineering 3:101, 3:102t
Hoek-Brown criterion 4:441-443,
4:444f, 4:445f
hydraulic fracturing 4:440, 4:441 f
magnitude measurements 4:446f
overcoring 4:440, 4:441f
rock masses 4:443, 4:445f, 4:446f
servo-controlled testing device 4:441,
4:443f
shear box 4:443 f
single-plane-of-weakness theory 4:443,

4:444f
techniques
continuous rock analyses 4:449,
4:4Slf
excavation effects 4:446f
fractured rock analyses 4:447
kinematic analyses 4:447
numerical analyses 4:450
slope instability 4:448f
stress analysis 4:450f
stress/strain analyses 4:45If
3:103, 4:448f, 4:449f
wedge instability 4:447f
rock properties 1:543-554, 1:566-580
anhydrite 1:552
carbonates 1:549, 1:549*, 1:5 5 Of
chalk 1:549*, 1:551-552
coal 1:553
deformation characteristics
elasticity 1:570, 1:571
moisture content 1:570
plasticity 1:570
rock composition 1:569-570
strength analysis 1:570
stress/strain analyses 1:570-571,
1:571 f
yield strength 1:570
density 1:566, 1:567*
durability
geodurability classification chart
1:578 f
1:577f
soak tests 1:575, 1:577*
evaporites 1:552, 1:552*
folding 5:348, 5:350f
gypsum 1:552,3:102*
halite (NaCl) 1:552, 3:102*
hardness 1:567
igneous rocks
geotechnical properties 1:544, 1:545*
granites 1:545*, 1:546 f
weathering l:546f
limestones 1:549, 1:549*, l:550f, 3:102*
mudrocks 1:548
mudstone 1:548,3:102*
permeability 1:579, 1:579*, 1:579 f
porosity 1:549*, 1:552*, l:566f,
1:566-567, 1:567*
shales 1:548, 3:102*
Shore hardness values 1:568f
specific gravity 1:566
756
INDEX
rock properties (continued)

strength analysis
direct shear 1:573, 1:575f
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 1:573
Mohr stress circle l:574f
point load strength test 1:40, 1:575,
l:576t, 1:57 6f
tensile strength 1:573
triaxial compression strength 1:573,
l:574f
uniaxial compression 1:572, l:572t,
1:573 f
sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95
weathering
rock-mass strength 5:581
shales 1:548
weathering grades l:544f
Rocky Mountains
Laramide Orogeny 4:56, 4:5 7/i
5:460-461
Miocene 5:480
Oligocene 5:477
Rocky Mountains System
accretion terranes
evolution 4:44
external system 4:44
internal system 4:45
physiography 4:22f, 4:37, 4:37f
tectonic map 2:239/", 4:23f
Rodentia 2:539
rodingite 3:388t
Rodinia
Antarctica 1:132, 1:133 f
Appalachians 4:72, 4:73, 4:74f
breakup events 1:245, 4:8
Cathaysiana 1:348
Gondwana l:174f
Precambrian 4:352-354, 4:353f
Proterozoic 1:208
terranes 5:455
Vendian 4:371
Rogers, Arthur 2:189
Rogers, Henry D. 2:198
Rogers, William B. 2:198

roggianite 3:593t
rollover anticlines 4:237, 4:238f, 4:240f,
4:537-539
Roman climatic optimum 2:148, 2:148f,,
2:159t
Romania 1:558, 4:471
Rome de L'Isle, Jean Baptiste Louis de
3:171,3:500
Romer, Alfred Sherwood 3:62
Rome Trough 4:32f
Rominger, Carl 2:196
Rondonian/San Ignacio/Sunsas
thermotectonic event 1:3 08t
Roo Rise 3:315/; 3:316?
roscherite 5:121-122
Rose, Gustav 3:500-501
roselite 3:508f
Rosenbusch, Harry 3:184
rosickyite 3:553?, 3:554
rossite (Ca(V 2 O 6 )-4H 2 O) 3:589t
Ross, John 5:70-71
Ross Orogeny 1:135, l:238f, 1:245, l:248f
Ross Sea 1:132, l:133f
rotaliana 3:45If
rotaliata 3:45If
rotaliids 3:45Of
Rotliegend subdivision 4:202f
rouaite (Cu 2 NO 3 (OH) 3 ) 3:556?
Rough Creek Graben 4:32f
Royal Society of London 3:60
rozenite (FeSO4-4H2O) 3:573
Roziere, Francois-Michel de 3:476
Rub al Khali, Saudi Arabia 4:540-541
Rubey, William 3:188
rubidium (Rb)
carbonatites 3:223?
radiometric dating l:88t, 4:202f
toxicity 2:22?
rubies 1:196, 3:7?, 3:8, 3:9, 3:12
Rubisco 5:484
Ruby Mountains 4:55-56
Ruby terrane 4:40 f, 4:45-46
beaches 5:133, 5:136f9 5:137f, 5:138f
5:139f
composition 5:134f
conglomerates 5:26, 5:26?, 5:129, 5:139f
importance 5:140
terminology 5:129
textures
clast form notation 5:130, 5:131f,

5:132f
particle size 5:129
roundness 5:129, 5:130f, 5:134f
sphericity 5:129, 5:134f
till 5:139
rudists 4:567/", 4:567-568
Rudny-Altai arc 4:466
rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564f
Ruffer, Sir Armand 4:160
Ruhr 4:202f
Ruhr basin 2:95
rumurutiites 5:2311
Runcorn, Keith 3:194
runnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681f,
4:682f
5:473f,5:506f,5:517f
rusakovite
((Fe,Al) 5 [(V,P)0 4 ] 2 (OH) 9 .3H 2 0)
3:559?
russellite (Bi2WO6) 3:5S7?
Russia 4:456-473
Altaid Collage
4:467f
Mongol-Okhotsk suture 4:465,
4:466-467
tectonic map 4:458f
Devonian 4:463f
Cambrian 4:458-459
Carboniferous 4:460
Cretaceous 4:461
Devonian 4:459
Eocene 4:461
Jurassic 4:460-461
Oligocene 4:461
Ordovician 4:459
Permian 4:459-460
Quaternary 4:461
4:458f, 4:460f
tectonic map 4:457f, 4:458f
Timanide Orogeny 4:458-459, 4:464
Triassic 4:460-461
energy resources 4:472^, 4:473
fish 2:467
gemstones 3:7?, 3:12
geology 4:456
Holocene2:148
Hyperborean craton 4:456, 4:457f,
4:468
kimberlites 4:463f, 4:473
mineral deposits 4:472/, 4:473
INDEX 757
Russia (continued)
non-amniote tetrapods 2:469,2:476-477
erogenic events
Alpine Orogeny 4:471
Baikalide Orogeny 4:463
Circum-Pacific orogenic collages 4:468
Patom Highlands 4:463
Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic
collage 4:468, 4:469f
Yenisei Ridge 4:464, 4:464f
Permian 4:214
sedimentary basins
4:458f, 4:459f, 4:460f
Siberian craton 4:463f
West Siberian Basin 4:457f, 4:468
Siberian craton 4:456, 4:457f, 4:462f,
4:463, 4:463f
Siberian Traps
Devonian 4:198-199
end Permian extinctions 3:319, 3:322,
4:222
flood basalts 3:315f, 3:316?, 3:328
Permian 4:215f, 4:227
4:222
Triassic 3:348
tectonic map 4:45 7f, 4:458f
terranes 4:456, 4:459f, 4:462f, 4:466f
Barents Shelf 2:50/", 2:53
Cambrian 4:62
East European Craton 2:34, 2:49-50,
2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
2:51
Pechora Basin 2:50f, 2:51, 2:52/,
2:53/i 2:54f
Polar Ural Mountains 2.-50/", 2:52
Precambrian 4:352
terranes 2:5Of
Triassic 3:350
See also Ural Mountains
Russian Platform
See East European Craton
ruthenium (Ru)
Rutherford, Ernest 3:186
Rutherford, Wilhelm 3:604-605

rutile (TiO2) 3:254, 3:256?, 3:489-490,
4:149?, 4:149f, 5:533f
Ryukyu Trench 5:43 0?, 5:43 Of
s
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:96f, 2:97,
2:98-99, 2:101 f,4:202f
Sabine Uplift 4:62/
sabkhas
Arabia 1:146
Arabian Gulf 4:509f, 4:510f, 4:511
dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91
liquefaction l:528t
occurrence 1:561
Sable Island 4:93, 4:93f
Saccocoma 3:358
Saetograptus leintwardinensis 4:189
safflorite (CoAs2) 3:575t
Sager, Abram2:195
Sahara Desert 5:21
Sahara Metacraton 1:10
Saharan Platform 1:13, l:15f, 1:17, 1:23
Sahelanthropus 2:541
Saichania 2:493f
Saidmarreh Landslide 4:687-688
Saint Elias Mountains, Yukon, Canada
4:37-38, 4:45
Saint Helens, Mount 1:200?, 4:690, 4.-691/,
5:568f, 5:574
Saint-Hilaire, Etienne Geoffroy 2:179,
4:123
St. Lawrence River 4:65It
Sakhalin 4:470, 4:470 f, 4:471, 4:472/~,
5:461
Sakmara Allochthon 2:88f, 2:88-89, 4:467
Sakmarian stage 3:142, 4:208f, 4:209f,
4:215t,5:511f,5:517f
Sakurajima, Japan 5:575
Salado basin, Argentina 1:159
salamanders
Cenozoic
Andrias scheuchzeri 2:525f
Mesozoic2:521/; 2:522
salars l:123f, 1:126
Salas, Jose Gonzalez 3:170
Sala y Gomez Ridge 3:315 f, 3:316?
Saldania Belt L-2/; 1:8
saleeite 5:123f
Salima Sandsheet, Sahara 4:542
saline basins 1:123f, 1:126
Salinic orogeny 4.-90/", 4:91
salinity crisis 1:24
salinization 5:196f, 5:201
saltation 4:612-614, 4:613f
salt deposits
flow folding 5:348, 5:349f, 5:350f

4:28, 4:29f
petroleum reservoirs 4:237, 4:237'?,
4:238f, 4:242f, 4:297f
rift valleys 5:441f, 5:442
salt diapirs
flow folding 5:348, 5:349f
petroleum reservoirs 4:237?,
4:237-238, 4:238f, 4:242f
salt domes 3:554, 4:237-238, 5:348,
5:349f
See also sabkhas
salt flats
Seesabkhas
Salton Trough 4:48, 4:58
samarium (Sm)
carbonatites 3:223?, 3:224f
Samoa 4:109, 4:121
San Andreas Fault Zone, California
4:58-60, 4:59f, 4:343, 4:345f,
5:476_477? 5.479.480
Sanbagawa belt, Japan 1:243-244
sand 5:141-151
Atterberg Limits 5:187t
carbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f, 4:509f,
4:51 Of
compaction 5:142, 5:145f
detrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f, 5:143?
diagenesis
mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146/",
5:147f
petroleum emplacement 5:145, 5:145f,
5:148, 5:149f
radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f
geophysical techniques 1:490f9 1:494f
geotechnical properties 3:104?
grain size analysis 5:141
liquefaction 1:525
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f, 4:646?
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:509f,
4:510, 4:510f
permeability 5:149, 5:149f, S:150f
petroleum reservoirs 4:23 6f
porosity
diagenetic impact 5:149
mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f9
5:147f
permeability 5.-149/", 5:150f
75S
INDEX
sand (continued)
sand boils 1:526, l:526f, 1:533f
soil mechanics 5:184, 5:184f
sorting 5:141, 5:141f
See also aggregates
sand boils 1:526, I:526f9 1:533f
sand dollars 2:350, 2:354, 2:355
sand dunes
See dunes
Sander, Bruno 3:189
Sanders,]. M. 3:190
Sanders, John Essington 5:543
sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621/", 4:622,
4:622f
sandsheets 4:542
sandstones
Arabia 1:141
arkoses 5:27?, 5:29f
chlorite 5:69, 5:69*
classification 5:26?, 5:27?
composition 5:27
densities 5:321f
diagenesis
cements 5:143, 5:1431
illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
5:147f
petroleum emplacement 5:145,5:145f 9
5:148, 5:149f
porosity 1:394
radiometric dating 5:69, 5:146, 5:147f
smectites 5:67
glauconite 3:542-548, 5:27, 5:69
grain analysis 5:27, 5:107, 5:141
greywackes 1:35, 3:102?, 5:27?, 5:28f
micas 5:143t
mineralogy 5:143t
petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235?,
4:236f, 4:239f, 4:243f
quartzites 5:27?, 5:2 9f
quartz wackes 5:27?, 5:28f
sand 5:141-151
detrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f9
5:143t
diagenesis
fluid inclusion analysis 5:146,
5:147f

5:147f
5:145f9 5:148, 5:149f
geophysical techniques 1:490 f9 1:494f
permeability 5:149, S:149f9 5:150fa
porosity
mineral dissolution 5:145, 5:146f9
5:147f
permeability 5:149f, 5:15Of
sorting 5:141, S:141f
zeolites 3:597
San Fernando Dam, California, United
States l:530f
sanidine 3:534f9 3:534-535
sanidinite 3:406
San Jorge basin, Argentina 1:161
San Juan Basin, New Mexico, United States
5:461f
sanmartinite (ZnWO4) 3:587t
Santa Barbara fold-and-thrust belt 1:127,
1:158
santafeite ((Na,Ca,Sr)3(Mn,Fe)2Mn2
(V0 4 ) 4 (OH,0) 5 -2H 2 0) 3:559?
Santa Maria volcano, Guatemala 5:575
santanaite (PbnOi 2 CrO 4 ) 3:533?
Santis thrust fault 2:130
Santonian stage
anoxic events 3:363
5:517f
terrestrial invertebrates 3:369f9 3:381f
vegetation 3:370f9 3:383f
Santorini, Greece 1:255, 5:575
Santos basin 1:321 f, l:322f
Sao Francisco craton 1:307, I:307f9 1:310,
l:310f, l:312f, l:313f
Sao Luis craton 1:307, 1:307f, 1:312
Sapas Mons, Venus 5:260f
saponite 1:369
sapphires 1:196, 3:8, 3:12
saprolites 4:683, 5:583-585
sapropels
claystones 5:30
kerogenous sediments 5:34f
sarcopterygians 2:467, 2:469
Sardinia 2:75, 3:655f, 5:466-468
Sarmatia 2:41f9 2:42f, 2:45, 2:45f, 2:48f
Sask craton 4:16
sassolite 3:510, 3:512?, 3:512f
satellite images 3:616?
satpaevite (A112V8O37-30H2O) 3:589?
Saturn
ring system 5:286, 5:286?, 5:286f
satellite system
Dione 5:287?, 5:288
Enceladus 5:287?, 5:288
lapetus 5:287?, 5:287/i 5:288
icy satellites 5:287
Mimas 5:287, 5:287?
minor satellites 5:287?, 5:288
Rhea 5:287?, 5:288
Tethys 5:287?, 5:288
Titan 5:286, 5:287?
spacecraft missions 5:286, 5:286?
telescope image 5:285f
Saturnalia 2:492
Saudi Arabia
See Arabia
Sauk sequence, North America 4:25, 4:26f9
4:27f
Sauratown Mountains anticlinorium 3:157f
Saurischia
Saussure, Horace Benedict de 3:171
Saxo-Thuringian region 2:80-82, 2:81f,
2:97
Sayan Mountains 4:456
Sayan-Yenisei Shield 4:461
Scammonden dam, England 1:53 7?, 1:53 7f9
1:538
Scandinavia
Arctic Caledonides 2:71 f9 2:72f
Baltica continental margin 2:65f9 2:67,
3:648
Barents Shelf 2:50f, 2:64, 2:64f9 2:70
eastern Greenland 2:68, 2:69/", 2:71 f
Koli Nappe Complex 2:65f, 2:67
Laurentian continental margin 2:65f,
2:67
Lower Allochthon 2:65f9 2:66
Middle Allochthon 2:65f, 2:66
INDEX 759
Scandinavia (continued)
Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f9 2:71f
tectonic evolution 2:7'3, 2:7'3f
Tertiary 2:64f
Uppermost Allochthon 2:65/", 2:67
West Ny Friesland Terrane
2:71-72
Silurian formations 4:187f, 4:189
5:536/", 5:537
scandium (Sc) 3:223*, 5:114*
Scanning Multichannel Microwave
Radiometer (SMMR) 4:439
scheelite (CaWO4) 3:587, 3:587*,
3:630*
Schiehallion, Scotland 1:92, 1:94f
Schimper, Karl2:176
schist 1:545*, 3:102*, 3:387, 3:388t
Schizaster2:351f
Schlumberger, Conrad 3:190-192, 3:191f
Schmidt, Walter 3:189
Schmitt, Harrison 5:266*, 5:2 7Of
Schneiderhohn, Hans 3:192
scholzite 5:121-122
Schott, Wolfgang 5:71-72, 5:77
Schroter,J. 5:238
schubnelite (Fe 2 - x (V 2 O 4 )(OH) 8 ) 3:589t
Schuchert, Charles 2:191, 2:196, 3:190
schumacherite(Bi3[(V,As,P)O4]2(OH))
3:589*
Sclavia4:14/; 4:16, 4:17
scolecite 3:593*
scoria 4:387*, 4:390*
scorodite 3:508f, 3:509*
scorpionflies 2:300*
scorpions 4:210-211
Scotch whisky 3:82
Scotian basin 4:101f, 4:103, 4:96f,
4:98-100
Scotian Shelf 4:88-89, 4:93f, 4:105
Scotia Sea 5:468
Scotland
beer brewing process 3:80*
Carboniferous 4:209-210, 4:210-211,
4:212
dykes 2:97-98
fish 2:467
Granton Shrimp Bed, Scotland
2:455-456
Kingdom 3:308, 3:441, 3:442f
Jurassic 3:352*, 5:506f
Ordovician 4:176, 4:178-179
palaeosols 5:206f, S:207f
Permo-Carboniferous
magmatism 2:96f
Silurian 4:185-186, 5:51 If
whisky 3:82-85
Scott, D. 5:266*
Scripps Oceanographic Institute, University
of California San Diego 3:197
Scyphozoa
life cycle 2:322f
Phanerozoic 2:323
Scythian Ocean 4:459
Scythian Platform 2:35, 2:35f
sea cows 5:469
sea fans 2:324
sea floor spreading
1:83 f
Eocene 5:466
sea grasses 3:524/", 3:530, 4:506, 4:506f,
4:564
sea-level
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary 3:371
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:363, 3:364f
3:383
eustatic cycles
accommodation 5:161f
aeolian systems 4:626, 4:626f
anthropogenic hazards 1:519
causal mechanisms 5:170*
China 1:347f
cycle charts 5:169f
Holocene 2:149-150, 2.-150/", 2:151f,
2:154f,2:155f
marine fauna biodiversity 1:261
North Africa 1:21
Phanerozoic 4:26f
river system development 4:660-661,
4:662f
sequence stratigraphy 5:17If
Suess, Eduard 2:235, 2:235/,
3:182
tectonic processes 5:17If
unconformities 5:546/", 5:547f
glaciation 4:664*
Milankovich cycles 5:170, 5:170*
Miocene 5:482
sequence stratigraphy 4:26^, 5:159,
5:166,5:171
seamounts 4:475-484
Atlantic Margin 4:93f, 4:94, 4:95
Cretaceous 4:480
development process
deep-water stage 4:480
emergent stage 4:481
flat top formation 4:481
growth stages 4:48If
guyot stage 4:481
ocean island stage 4:481
shoaling stage 4:480
faulting 5:435f, 5:436f
geochemical composition 4:475
geophysical characteristics 4:475
global distribution 4:476,
4:476/; 4:477*
habitat importance 4:482
intraplate seamounts 4:477, 4:479f
island arcs 4:479
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:316*,
3:318,3:322
mid-ocean ridges 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479
morphology 4:480
mud volcanoes 4:480
nomenclature 4:484
occurrence 3:316*
oceanic circulation 4:482
ocean islands 4:475-476
seamount chains 4:476-477, 4:479f
spatial arrangement 4:476-477,
4:479f
subduction effects 4:482, 4:483f
volcanoes 5:566
Sea of Galilee 1:27f
Sea of Marmara 1:254
Sea of Okhotsk 4:470, 4:47Of, 4:471,
4:472f
sea pens 2:321-322, 2:323/", 2:324
searlesite (NaBSi2O6-H2O) 3:513*
sea snakes 2:505
sea turtles 2:505, 2:505f
sea urchins 2:350
seawater
Cambrian 4:165
chemical composition 2:17,
4:165,5:96
Cretaceous 3:367
dolomitization 5:91
evaporites 5:94
magnesium/calcium (Mg/Ca) ratios
3:367
Secodontosaurus 2:488-489
Sederholm,Jakob3:187
Sedgwick, Adam 2:216-220
Cambrian stratigraphy 2:211
Darwin, Charles 2:184-185
geological research 2:216, 4:176
760
INDEX
Sedgwick, Adam (continued)

Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:217,
4:176,4:185
petrology 3:178
portrait 2:217f
4:176,4:185
university career 3:74
sedimentary basins
Andes Mountains 1:123, 1.-123/J 1:126,
1:129
back-arc basins 2:135-146
Caucasus-Black Sea region 4:471
East European Craton 3:648, 3:650
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:247, l:248f,
1:249
basin formation 2:96, 2:101 f
Brazil
Amazonas basin 1:316f, 1:317f
Campos basin l:321f, l:322f
Ceara basin 1:325f
continental margin basins 1:316f,
1:325
eastern Brazilian margin basins l:321f,
l:322f, 1:325
equatorial margin basins l:324f,
l:325f, 1:326, l:326f
Espirito Santo basin l:321f, 1:322f
l:319f
Palaeozoic sag basins l:316f, l:317f,
l:318f, 1:324
Parana basin 1:314, 1:316/", 1:317/",
1:318f, l:319f, l:320f, 1:324
Parnaiba basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318f
Potiguar basin 1.-325/", l:326f, 1:327f
Santos basin 1:32If, 1:322f
Solimoes basin 1.-316/", 1:317f, 1:318f
stratigraphy 1:317f
denudation history analysis l:46f,
1:52-53
4:458f, 4:460f
Europe
palaeogeography 2:11 Of
2:116f
Bajocian-Bathonian palaeogeography
2:112f
Cenozoic 2:122f
4:458f, 4:460f
Eocene 2:117
isopachs2:103/",2:122/"
Jurassic 2:108
Miocene 2:120
North Sea Basin 2:113, 2:117, 2:118f,
2:119f,2:121f,2:122f
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:105
Rhaetian-Hettangian
palaeogeography 2:11 If
2:118 f
thermal subsidence 2:105, 2:117
Triassic 2:105
western/central Europe 2:105,
2:113
Zechstein palaeogeography 2:107f
fore-arc basins
accretionary wedges 5:307, 5:308f,
5:311 f,5:313f
Andes Mountains
central Andes 1:125, 1:126
southern Andes 1:127
gravity measurements 1:99,1:99f, 1:103,
1:103f, l:104f
2:101f
3:653
foreland 2:97
isopachs2:103/"
magmatism 2:96f9 2:97
2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,

2:101f
accumulation conditions 4:296f
appraisal methods
deterministic models 4:302, 4:305f
Hubbert's peak 4:305f
Monte Carlo technique 4:305f
statistical methods 4:302, 4:304f,
4:3 05 f
subjective methods 4:302
expected monetary value 4:295
exploration costs 4:306, 4:307t
exploration drilling 4:304, 4:306f
exploration methods
computer-based seismic
interpretation systems 4:3 03f
geological analysis 4:295, 4:297f^
4:298f
hydrocarbon identification
techniques 4:3 01 f
magnetic profiles 4:296, 4:299f
petroleum agreements 4:306
seismic surveys
surveys 4:302f
three-dimensional (3D) seismic cube
4:3 04 f
seismic surveys 4:3 01 f, 4:3 04f
surveys 4:3 00f
wire-line drilling 4:306f
rift valleys 5:441, 5:441f
Russia 4:456, 4:459f, 4:463f, 4:473
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,
2:101 f
saline basins 1:123^, 1:126
sediment fluxes 5:17-24
basin processes 5:20, 5:2Of, 5:21f
controlling factors
climate 5:18
rivers 5:19t
sediment characteristics 5:2 Of
transport mechanisms 5:17, 5:19f
weathering 5:17
rock types 5:22
sediment budgets 5:23
temporal variations 5:22, 5:22f, 5:23f
INDEX 761
sedimentary basins (continued]

Siberian craton 4:463f
Tunguska basin 4:461
sedimentary environments
alluvial environments 4:492-494
alluvial fans 4:492
deserts 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542
rudaceous rocks 5:135, 5:138f
alluvions 4:492
alluvium
densities 5:321f
anthropogenic impact 4:493
colluvial fans 4:492
composition factors 4:492
fluvial deposits 4:493
Holocene 4:493
nomenclature 4:492
riverine deposits 4:492
stratigraphic dating 4:492
dysaerobic assemblages 4:497, 4:498f
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
oceans 3:363, 3:370-371, 4:497
oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ)
4:495, 4:496f
sapropels 4:500-501
carbonate shorelines and shelves
4:501-513
Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509 f, 4:51 Of
Atlantic Margin 4:102, 4:103 f
4:511, 4:511f,4:512f
4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of
3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f
beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135
carbonate rock abundances 4:S04f
carbonate sands 4:506f9 4:508f,
4:509f, 4:5Wf
composition 4:501
4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f
4:507, 4:S08f
morphology 4:502-504, 4:504f

4:511 f,4:512f
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:51 Of
acritarchs 3:427f
atolls 4:481, 4:564
4:563f
barrier reefs 4:564
bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:563f
Cambrian 4:565
3:523f, 3:529
Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,
3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568
Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565
examples 4:502f
4:566-567
floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:564f
4:506f, 4:507
framestone 3:527f, 4:5 62f,
4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569f
Jurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567f
lagoons 4:564
patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564
Permian 4:565-566, 4:566f
rudists 4:567f, 4:567-568
rudstone 3:52 7/j 4:562-563,
4:564f
Silurian 4:565
Tertiary 4:568-569
Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567
zonation 4:562
4:507, 4:508f
4:514f, 4:515, 4:517f
facies analysis
4:5 26 f

4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648
units 4:522
cratons 5:177
continental slopes 4:642f, 4:646
oozes 4:648
4:641-642, 4:642f
4:646t
transport processes
biota 4:645
volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645
depositional structures 4:593-602
basic principles
bedding 4:593
lamination 4:594
4:598f
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596,4:597f,
4:600
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
heterolithic lamination 4:599,
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
762
INDEX
sedimentary environments (continued)

wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601
lamination
4:599f
pebble imbrication 4:601, 4:601f
architectural elements 4:488, 4:489f
bounding surfaces 4:488
cyclothems 4:487, 4:488f
facies succession 4:486, 4:488f
flooding surfaces 4:488f, 4:491
grain size analysis 4:485-486,
4:487, 4:488f
erosion surfaces 4:490, 4:490f
geological proxies 4:131
glacigenic sediments 4:675, 4:675f
interbedded environments 4:486,
4:486f, 4:580
models 4:490, 4:580
scheme varieties 4:485
sequence stratigraphy 4:490, 4:490f
storm deposits 4:580
Walther's Law of the Correlation of
Facies 4:487, 4:487f
4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, 5:139f
channel networks 4:650f
channel patterns 4:656, 4:656/,
4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659f
deserts 4:S41f, 4:542
flood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660f
landforms 4:654
4:651t,4:652f,4:653f
meandering river systems 3:90f9
4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659f
network development
models 4:661 f
time factors 4:659

glaciers 4:663-678
Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,
4:664?, 4:664f, 4:665f
characteristics
4:667f
glacier flow 4:667, 4:667f
morphology 4:664
deposition
drumlins 4:676
eskers 4:677, 4:677f
flutes 4:676, 4:677f
4:675f
kames 4:676
moraines 4:676, 4:677f
erosion
aretes 4:670, 4:672f
cirques 4:670, 4:672f
crescentic gouges
4:668-669, 4:670f
fjords 4:670, 4:672f
horns 4:670, 4:672f
icebergs 4:670-671
landforms 4:668, 4:670f, 4:671f
processes 4:668
4:671f
striations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671f
global distribution 4:663, 4:663?,
4:664f
Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,
4:664?, 4:664f
ice caps 4:665f
ice sheets 4:664
sea-level effects 4:664?
caves (endokarst)

4:684-685, 4:685f
clints 4:680, 4:682f
cryokarst 4:679
dissolution processes 1:550-551,
1:55If, 4:679
drainage 4:683
exhumed karst 4:679
fluviokarst 4:682
grikes 4:680, 4:682f
palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686f
pseudokarst 4:679
runnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681 f,
4:682f
4:680f, 4:682f
solution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680,
4:682f
4:682
limestone pedastals 4:68If
medium-scale karst (karst
landforms) 4:681
4:680f
solution pits 4:681f
tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683f
lakes 4:550-561
biological processes
calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 4:556
diatomite 4:556
organic matter 4:557
calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 4:556,
4:557, 4:558f
chemical processes
calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) 4:557
marl 4:557
hydrothermal processes 4:558
physical processes
beaches 4:552, 4:554f, 5:135
currents 4:552f
lacustrine deltas 4:552, 4:553f
mass failure 4:554
river inflow 4:552, 4:552f
INDEX 763
sedimentary environments (continued)
seiche 4:551f, 4:551-552

spits 4:554f
subsurface currents 4:552f, 4:554,
4:555f
surface currents 4:554
thermocline 4:551 f
turbidites 4:552f, 4:554-556,
4:555f
varves 4:554, 4:555f
vertical mixing 4:550, 4:551f
water-column structure 4:550
playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517
tectonic processes 4:558, 4:560f
long-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:33 8f,
1:339 f
parasequences 5:lllf, 5:160
processes 5:1-7
definition 5:1
depositional sequences
bypass flows 5:6
deposition process 5:6, 5:7f
erosion 5:6
flow initiation mechanisms
river-derived flows 5:1
sediment resuspension 5:1
slope failure 5:1
terrestrial input 5:1
flow types
creeps 5:2
dense, deformed flows 5:2
dense, undeformed flows 5:2
flow transformations 5:3
grain flows 5:2
mudflows 5:2
rockfalls 5:2
turbidity currents 5:3, 5:3/", 5:5f
grain transport mechanisms
buoyancy 5:2
hindered settling 5:2, 5:2f
matrix strength 5:2, 5:2f
particle-particle interactions 5:2,
5:2f
turbulence 5:2, 5:2f
influencing factors
channelised flow 5:5, 5:5f
confined flows 5:6
flow duration 5:4
flow velocity 5:4
momentum loss 5:4
run-out length 5:4
spatial changes 5:4, 5:5f
temporal changes 5:4
unconfined flows 5:6
post-depositional structures 4:602-611
4:610f
concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611f

deforming forces
4:603-604, 4:605f
glaciation 4:604
liquefaction 1:525-534, 4:604,
4:605f, 4:606
descriptions 4:605f
4:607f
4:606f
pseudonodules 4:604
4:609f
sand 5:141-151
carbonate sands 4:506f, 4:508f,
4:509f, 4:5Wf
detrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f,
5:143t
diagenesis
5:147f
5:147f
5:145f, 5:148, 5:149f
geophysical techniques l:490f, 1:494f
liquefaction 1:525
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645f, 4:646t
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:509f,
4:510, 4:S10f
permeability 5:149, 5:149f9 5:150f
porosity
5:147f
permeability 5:149f, 5:150f
sand boils 1:526, l:526f, l:533f
sorting 5:141, 5:141f
sediment deposition processes 5:8-17
Appalachians 4:73
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596,..4:597f,
4:600
current-controlled bedforms 5:15,
5:15f
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
mud waves 5:15
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
swaley cross-stratification 4:5 74 f,
4:576f, 4:599f
undulating lamination 4:599,4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
controlling factors
aggregation 5:9, 5:10f
boundary layer turbulence 5:10,
5:11 f
flocculation factor 5:1 Of

flow characteristics 5:10, 5:llf
settling velocity 5:8, 5:9f
critical suspension conditions 5:11,
5:12f
currents 5:14
deposition rates 5:13, 5:14f
erosion diagram 5:12f
fractionation 5:14
long-term carbon cycle l:336f, l:338f,
1:339 f
nepheloid layers 5:13, 5:14
pelagic flux 5:12
shear stress limitations 5:14
short-term carbon cycle 1:335,1:33 6f,
1:337'f
suspension transport criteria 5:11,
5:12f
turbulent boundary layers 5:13
viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:1 If
sediment fluxes 5:17-24
basin processes 5:20, 5:2 0/j 5:21f
controlling factors
764
INDEX
sedimentary environments (continued]

climate 5:18
rainfall 5:17, S:19f
rivers 5:19t
sediment characteristics 5:2Of
transport mechanisms 5:17, 5:19f
weathering 5:17
rock types 5:22
sediment budgets 5:23
temporal variations 5:22, 5:22f, 5:23f
4:646t
short-term carbon cycle 1:335, l:336f,
1:337'f
unidirectional aqueous flow 5:548-556

bedform type 5:554, 5:554f
boundary layer structure 5:549, 5:550f
boundary shear stress estimation 5:550
coherent flow structure 5:548, 5:551
flow separation 5:552, 5:552f, 5:554f
free shear layers 5:553
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552/",
5:552-553
laminar flows 5:548, 5:549
particle roughness 5:553f, 5:554
porous beds 5:556, 5:556f
stress-strain relationships 5:549,
5:549f
subcritical flows 5:548-549, 5:549f
suspended sediment characteristics
5:554, 5:554f, 5:555f
turbulent flows
boundary layer structure 5:549
clay concentrations 5:555f
laminar-turbulent transition 5:552f
processes 5:548
turbulent boundary layers 5:551,
5:55 If
vortices 5:551, 5:552f
velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f9 5:5 54f,
5:555f
viscous sublayer 5:550, 5:550f
See also shorelines and shelves
sedimentary rocks
conglomerates 5:26
aragonite (CaCO3)
ironstones 5:99
limestones 5:108, 5:W8t
occurrence 5:108t
5:533f
autochthonous sediments 5:26t, 5:30

Australia 1:291, 1:292^, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
biofilms 1:283, 1:283 f
filamentous microbes l:282f, 4:367'f,
4:368
geographic distribution 1:280f, 1:282
microbial effects
l:284t
4:223-224, 4:377
microfossils
significance 1:282
stromatolites
biosediments 1:285
formation processes 1:287f9 1:28 8t,
3:109
tree of life 1:279, l:280f, 4:124,4:125f
breccia 5:129
chalk 5:42-50
brewing process 3:80t
chalk sea
cyclic sedimentation 5:48, 5:48f
orbital forcing 5:48
palaeogeography 5:43f, 5:46
Coccolithophoridae 4:556, 5:42,
5:43f, 5:44, 5:45f, 5:112
cognac 3:85
composition 5:42
Cretaceous 3:360, 3:364-365, 3:367,
5:42, 5:43f, S:4Sf, 5:46
facies analysis 5:44, 5:45f9 5:46f
geotechnical properties 1:549t,
1:551-552,3:202*
ground transitions 5:44, 5:48f
groundwater aquifers 5:48
ichnofabric 5:44, 5:46f, 5:47f
4:28, 4:29f
Palaeocene 5:461f
pelagic carbonate oozes 5:44, 5:45 f,
5:47f
permeability 5:48-49, 5:49f

porosity l:549t, 3:87, 5:48-49, 5:49f
resedimentation 5:44-46
wine geology 3:87
chert
Archaean 4:351, 4:368
5:38
eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361f
Gunflint Chert, Canada 4:367f,
4:367-368
nodules 4:385
4:29, 4:30f
occurrence 5:35-36, 5:53
prokaryotes 4:368
Rhynie chert
2:274-275, 2:277
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
5:61f
lichens 2:441-442
classification 4:453t, 5:25-37
5:26, 5:26t
anomalies 4:454
autochthonous sediments 5:26, 5:26t
conglomerates 5:26
4:4S4f
mineralogy 5:25
clays. See clays
conglomerates
classification 5:2 6?
grain analysis 5:26
rudaceous rocks 5:26, 5:26t9 5:129,
5:139f
4:514f, 4:515, 4:517f
facies analysis
4:526f
4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648
INDEX 765
sedimentary rocks (continued]

units 4:522
depositional structures 4:593-602
basic principles
bedding 4:593
lamination 4:594
4:S98f
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
swaley cross-stratification 4:574f9
4:576f, 4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
Bouma sequence 4:600, 4:601 f
flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601
lamination
4:599^
diagenesis
ironstones 5:102f
limestones 5:112
sandstones 1:394
dolomite 5:79-94
Mps2:131f
amphiboles 3:505
cementation 5:143
composition 5:79
densities 5:321f
dolomitization
dolostone development 5:85f
molds 5:84f
5:88
reflux model 5:90
seawater dolomitization 5:91
vugs 5:83f
geochemistry
isotope studies 5:85, 5:89f
grain analysis 5:30, 5:31f
hydrothermal activity 5:87-88, 5:9Of
metamorphic facies 3:400f, 3:401f
North Africa 1:24
4:23 6 f
porosity 4:234f, 4:236f, 5:83, 5:88f
5:87-88
textural classification 5:81, 5:8If
5:533f
chevron marks 4:591, 4:591 f
flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590f
tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591f

palaeosols 5:207f
processes
abrasion 4:588
critical erosion velocity 4:588,
4:588f
evaporites 5:94-97
Alps 2:132
anhydrite
densities 5:32If
hydrothermal ore deposits
3:631-632, 5:394t
occurrence 5:32f
porosity 1:5 52t
Arabia 1:141
Arabian Gulf 4:511
Cambrian 4:165
composition 5:94
Cretaceous 3:365
densities 5:32If
4:610f
gypsum 3:572-573
3:102t
occurrence 3:573
porosity l:552t
halite (NaCl)
densities 5:321f
4:610f
3:102t
lacustrine deposits 4:557-558,
4:559f
porosity l:552t
seawater evaporation
deposits 5:94
nitrate minerals 3:555, 3:556*
766
INDEX
sedimentary rocks (continued)

4:28, 4:29f
occurrence 5:31
palaeoclimate 4:132f, 4:134,
4:138-139
porosity 1:5 52t
rift valleys 5:95
sea water chemistry 4:165, 5:96
Silurian 4:193
sylvite 1:552, 5:94-95
flint
conchoidal fractures 4:3 84f
nodules 4:385
occurrence 5:35-36
gemstones 3:13
gypsum 3:572-573
geotechnical properties
1:552,3:102*
occurrence 3:573
porosity 1:5 52t
halite (Nad)
carbonatites 3:22It
densities 5:32If
evaporite pseudomorphs
4:610, 4:610f
porosity 1:5 52t
ironstones 5:97-107
ancient sedimentary rock
associations 3:494-495
banding 5:38, S:38f
classification 5:37
definition 5:37

metamorphism 5:39
mineralogy 5:38
nomenclature 5:37
occurrence 5:33-34
origins 5:40
Vendian 4:372
diagenesis 5:102
5:104f
occurrence 5:34
5:104f
definition 5:98
diagenesis S:102f
ferruginization process 5:103, 5:104f,
5:105f
lithification 5:101
mineralogy 5:98
nodules 4:385
nomenclature 5:98
occurrence 5:33
ooidal ironstones
5:105 f
occurrence 5:34
photomicrograph 5:35/j 5:99f
verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545/",
3:547,5:101
kerogenous sediments 4:454, 5:26*, 5:33,
5:34f
aggregates 1:35
Alps 2:131f
classification 4:454, 5:26*, 5:110
densities 5:321f
depositional environment 5:110,
5:110f,5:lllf
diagenesis 5:112
encrinite 2:348-349, 2:349f
geotechnical properties 1:549, 1:549*,
l:550f,3:102t
grain analysis 5:30, 5:30f, 5:107,
5:108, 5:109f
karst landscapes 1:550-551, I:551f9
4:679
nomenclature 5:110
Ordovician4:lS2/"
porosity 1:549*, 4:234f, 5:107-108
Proterozoic 4:351
5:110, Silllf
magnesite (MgCO3) 5:31, 5:108, 5:108t
micas 3:550
mineralogical classification 5:25-37
mudrocks
mudstone 1:548,3:102*
opal 5:26*, 5:35-36
phosphates
guano 5:26*, 5:35, 5:35f
occurrence 5:34
plagioclase 3:538-539
post-depositional structures 4:602-611
4:61 Of
concretions 4:61 Of, 4:611, 4:61 If
deforming forces
4:603-604, 4:605f
glaciation 4:604
4:605f, 4:606
INDEX 767

descriptions 4:605f
4:607f
4:606f
pseudonodules 4:604
4:609f
quartz (SiO2) 3:571
residual sediments
occurrence 5:31
beaches 5:133, 5:136f9 5:137f, 5:138f
5:139 f
composition 5:134f
conglomerates 5:26, 5:26t, 5:129,
5:139f
importance 5:140
terminology 5:129
textures
clast form notation 5:130, 5:13If,
5:132f
particle size 5:129
roundness 5:129, 5:130/i 5:134f
sphericity 5:129, S:134f
till 5:139
sand 5:141-151
4:509/, 4:5lOf
detrital mineralogy 5:142, 5:142f,
5:143t
diagenesis
5:147f
petroleum emplacement 5:145f,
5:145, 5:148, 5:149f

geophysical techniques 1:490f, 1:494f
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f9 4:509f,
4:510, 4:5'10f
permeability 5:149, 5:149f9 S:150f
porosity
5:147f
permeability 5:149f, 5:15Of
sorting 5:141, 5:141f
sandstones
Arabia 1:141
arkoses 5:27t, 5:29f
chlorite 5:69, 5:69t
composition 5:27
densities 5:321f
diagenesis
cements 5:143, 5:143t
5:147f
grain analysis 1:394
illite 5:67, 5:67f, 5:68f
5:147f
5:145f, 5:148, 5:149f
radiometric dating 5:146, 5:147f,
5:69
smectites 5:67
glauconite 5:27, 5:69
grain analysis 5:27, 5:27/", 5:107,
5:141
greywackes 3:102t, 5:27t, 5:28f
micas 5:143t
mineralogy 5:143t
petroleum reservoirs 4:234, 4:235t,
4:236f, 4:239f, 4:243f
quartzites 5:2 7, 5:29f
quartz wackes 5:27t, 5:28f
zeolites 3:597
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
S:15f
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
mud waves 5:15
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
undulating lamination 4:599,
4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f,
4:599f
controlling factors
aggregation 5:9, 5:1 Of
5:1 If
flocculation factor 5:10f
flow characteristics 5:10, 5:11 f
5:12f
currents 5:14
fractionation 5:14
pelagic flux 5:12
S:12f
shales
Arabia 1:141
black shales
4:496-497
bedded cherts 5:54
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
Gondwana 3:129
4:28, 4:29f
Phosphoria Formation, United
States 4:500
Silurian 4:193
768
INDEX

Burgess Shale
2:274-275
bacteria 3:311-312
Cnidarians 2:324
insects 2:296
obrution 3:310, 3:311 f
Opabinia3:311f
densities 5:32If
3:310?, 3:311, 4:384f
weathering 1:548
siderite (FeCO3)
grain analysis 5:31
occurrence 5:108t
siliceous sediments 5:26?, 5:35
siltstone 5:26?, 5:28
stratification 4:454, 5:25
Vendian 4:376, 4:379f
zeolites 3:596
zircon 3:602
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597/i
4:600
current-controlled bedforms 5:15,5:15f
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
mud waves 5:15
sand waves 4:596, 4:596/", 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
controlling factors
aggregation 5:9, 5:1 Of
boundary layer turbulence 5:10, 5:llf

flow characteristics 5:10, 5:llf
critical suspension conditions 5:11, 5:12f
currents 5:14
fractionation 5:14
pelagic flux 5:12
suspension transport criteria 5:11, 5:12f
4:521f, 4:523f, 4:525f, 4:648
sedovite (U(MoO 4 ) 2 ) 3:552?
Seeley, H. 2:509
seiche 4:551f, 4:551-552
seif dunes 4:600
Seilacher, Adolf 3:307
seismites 4:32, 4:36f
seismology 5:151-158
body waves 5:333, 5:333f
characteristics
focus 5:318, 5:318f
generation process 1:500, l:500f
5:319f,5:320f
Richter scale 5:319-320, 5:320?
seismic waves 5:318-319, 5:32 O/",
5:332, 5:332f, 5:333f
elastic-rebound model 5:33If
3:194
global distribution 4:341f, 5:321,
5:322f
ground displacement 1:457, 5:33If
hazard analysis
1:505 f, 1:509 f
5:325f, 5:327f
disease 5:328
1:502?
exposure 5:328
fire effects 5:325
frequency 1:517t

(CIS) 4:427
1:504
ground motion prediction
techniques 1:506
1:513f
historic earthquakes 5:326?
intensity scales 1:501, 1:502?
landslides 3:93/i 5:327
liquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,
1:5 56f, 3:94, 5:325, 5:328f
looting 5:328
scale 5:322, 5:323?
mortality rates 1:517?, l:518t
residual shear strength 1:531, l:531f
starvation 5:328
tsunamis 5:325
urban environments 5:322, 5:324f,
5:327f
velocity profiles l:512f
Japan 3:298, 3:300f
4:32
Oceania 4:110f
Suess,Eduard 2:237, 2:237f
volcanism 5:575
engineering seismology 1:499-515. See
also geophysical techniques
1:505 9f 1:507'f, l:508f, 1:509f
l:506f, 1:507f, 1:51 Of, 1:514f
1:505-506, l:506f
ground motion measurement techniques
1:505 f, 1:509 f
INDEX 769
seismology (continued]
l:502t
intensity scales 1:501, l:502t
1:506
l:513f
l:513f, 1:514f
gravity measurements 1:101-103, l:102f
Love waves 5:318-319, 5:333, 5:334f
mantle plumes (hotspots)
D" layer 3:338
axial magma chamber
characteristics 5:408f, 5:409f,
5:410, 5:414f
crustal structure 5:411f
seismic velocities 5:410, 5:411 f
seismic layer 2A
characteristics 5:407, 5:408f,
5:409f
crustal structure 5:411f, 5:415f
structural variations 5:414, 5:415 f,
5:416f
P waves 3:194-195, 4:341, 5:151,
5:174f, 5:318-319, 5:332f,
5:332-333
Rayleigh waves 5:318-319, 5:333,
5:334f
seismic layer 2A
characteristics 5:407, 5:408f, 5:409f
crustal thickening 5:410f

seismic reflection
amplitude measurements 5:152f
basic principles 3:646f, 5:15If,
5:151-152
cratons5:173,5:]74/r
data acquisition
multiple signals 5:153, 5:153f
offset reflection points 5:154f
signal traces 5:153f
travel paths 5:154, 5:154f
data interpretation
faulting 5:157f
migration 5:154
seismic resolution 5:155-156
unconformities 5:156f
exploration geophysics 3:190-192
four-dimensional (4D) seismic imaging
5:158
gas hydrates 5:313, S:314f
petroleum exploration
computer-based interpretation
systems 4:303f
imaging 4:300-301, 4:302 f,
4:315,5:158
techniques 4:315, 4:318f
imaging 4:297-300, 4:301f,
4:304f, 4:315, 4:319f
imaging 4:296-297, 4:300f
receiver arrays 5:153f
imaging 4:310f, 4:315, 5:154,
5:155f,5:156f
seismic refraction 1:488, l:491t, l:493f,
5:152, 5:152f
seismic waves 3:194f, 5:318-319,
5:320f, 5:332, 5:332f, 5:333f
seismographs 1:501, 5:318, 5:319f,
5:320f
S waves 3:194-195, 4:341, 5:151,
5:318-319,5:332-333
transport infrastructure determinations
1:488, 1:49 It, 1:493 f
See also faulting processes; geophysical
techniques
Selandian stage
biozones 5:460f
boundary stratotypes 3:372-373

5:517f
vegetation 3:383f
Selenga arc 4:466
selenium (Se)
3:502t
toxicity 2:22t
Selukwe complex, Zimbabwe 3:491-492
selwynite 5:121-122
sengierite(Cu(UO 2 )(VO 4 )(OH)-3H 2 O)
3:589t
sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
technique (SHRIMP) 3:606
sensors
active sensors 4:414-420
lidar 4:414, 4:415f
radar
altimetry 4:415
applications 4:416
Doppler radar 4:415
earthquakes 4:418
4A1794:418f
radar amplitude images 4:415,
4:417f
mapping 4:416
subsidence 4:419
4:415t, 4:417, 4:418f
sonar 4:414, 4:415f
sensors 4:436
hyperspectral sensors 4:438, 4:438t,
4:43 8 f
passive microwave sensors 4:438,
4:439^
4:433, 4:433f
4:435, 4:435f
770
INDEX
sensors (continued]
structure 4:432f
spatial resolution 4:432, 4:434t, 4:436
4:43 8 f
Sepia 2:394
sepiolite l:361t, 1:362, 1:364, 1:369
Sepkoski, J. J. 1:260-261, 3:370
causal mechanisms
sea-level changes 5:170t, 5:171,
5:171f
sediment supply 5:171
tectonic processes 5:171, 5:17If
correlation comparisons 5:162f
cycle charts 5:169f
definition 5:159
eustatic cycles 5:169f, 5:546f, 5:547f
marine fauna biodiversity 1:261
parasequences
accommodation eustasy 5:161f
basic principles 5:160, 5:161f, 5:546
parasequence-stacking patterns 5:160,
5:162f
shorelines 5:161f
Phanerozoic 4:25f, 4:26f
recognition criteria
biofacies analysis 5:167
depositional systems 5:166
descriptive terminology 5:164, 5:164f
maximum flooding surface 5:163f,
5:165
sequence boundary 5:163f, 5:164,
5:165 f
systems tracts
highstand systems tracts 4:662/,
5:163t, 5:163f, 5:166
lowstand systems tracts 4:662f,
5:163t, 5:163f, 5:165
transgressive systems tracts 4:662f9
5:163t, 5:163f, 5:166
transgressive surface 5:163f, 5:165
unconformities 5:545, 5:545?, 5:546f,
5:547f
Serbia 3:596
Sergipano Belt, Brazil 1:3 Wf
sericite 3:631-632
serpentine 1:360, l:361t, 3:396-397,
3:566f, 3:566
serpentinite 1:243f, 3:396f
serpentinization 3:559, 5:365
Serpukhovian stage 4:201 f, 4:202, 5:511f,
5:517f
Serra do Mar Uplift, Brazil 1:309, l:309f
Serravallian stage l:322f, 1:325f, 5:478,

5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
Serres, Marcel de 2:183
Sevatian stage 3:345f
Severnaya Zemlya 4:464, 4:464f
Sevier fold-and-thrust belt 4:55/", 4:56,
4:75f
Sevier-Laramide mountains 3:364
Seward Peninsula 4:45
Seward terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45-46
Seychelles 2:79
Seychelles Bank 3:315f, 3:316t
Seymouria 2:477f, 2:477-478
shale ridges 4:534f, 4:535
shales
Arabia 1:141
black shales
4:496-497
bedded cherts 5:54
fossils 4:497, 4:498f
Gondwana 3:129
4:28, 4:29f
4:500
Silurian 4:193
Burgess Shale
bacteria 3:311-312
Cnidarians 2:324
insects 2:296
obrution 3:310, 3:311f
Opabinia 3:311f
classification 5:26t, 5:28
densities 5:32If
3:310t, 3:311, 4:384f
weathering 1:548
Shamal winds 4:509, 4:S09f
Shand, Samuel 3:187
sharks 2:229/", 2:463
Sharovipteryx 2:513
Shatsky Plateau 3:315f, 3:316t, 4:480
shear fractures 5:352, 5:352f,
5:354f
Sheinwoodian Stage 4:186f, 4:187%
4:lSS-lS9,5:511f,5:517f
Shelburne Dike 4:95
Shepard, A. 5:266t
Shepard, Francis 3:188
Shepard sediment nomenclature system

4:645f
Sherbonaspis 2:464f
Shergottite-Nakhlite-Chassigny (SNC)
meteorites 3:560-561, 5:231t, 5:234,
5:234f, 5:280
Shergotty, India 5:280
sherwoodite (Ca9(AlV14O4o)2-56H2O)
3:589t, 3:590
controversies 5:182
impact craters 5:179, S:182f
impact structures
fused minerals 3:281, 3:281f
impact melting 3:281, 3:281f
melting 5:180t, 5:183t
peak pressure magnitudes 5:180t, 5:183
shock metamorphic effects 5:182, 5:183t
vaporization 5:180t
Shoemaker, Eugene 3:195
Shona Ridge 3:315f,3:316t
Shore hardness values l:S68f
arches 4:579f
barrier islands 4:577, 4:577/", 4:578f
Arabian Gulf 4:509, 4:509f, 4:5Wf
4:511, 4:511f,4:512f
4:509, 4:509f, 4:51 Of
3:528, 4:505, 4:505f, 4:506f
beaches 3:524f, 4:502f, 5:135
4:509/, 4:5 Wf
composition 4:501
4:505f, 4:506f, 4:93f
4:507, 4:508f
morphology 4:502-504, 4:504f
4:511 f,4:512f
oolitic sands 4:508, 4:508f, 4:5Wf
acritarchs 3:427f
INDEX 771
shorelines and shelves (continued)

atolls 4:481, 4:564
4:S63f
barrier reefs 4:564
bindstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:563f
Cambrian 4:565
carbonate sedimentation 1:343/,
3:523f, 3:529
Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368,
3:371, 4:567f, 4:567-568
Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565
examples 4:502f
4:566-567
floatstone 3:527f, 4:562-563,
4:564f
4:506f, 4:507
framestone 3:527/", 4:562/",
4:562-563, 4:568f, 4:569f
Jurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567f
lagoons 4:564
patch reefs 3:526f, 4:562f, 4:564
Permian 4:565-566, 4:566f
rudists 4:567f, 4:567-568
rudstone 3:527f, 4:562-563, 4:564f
Silurian 4:565
Tertiary 4:568-569
Triassic 3:350, 4:566f, 4:566-567
zonation 4:562
4:507, 4:508f
caves 4:579f
cliffs 4:579f
coastal deposition systems 4:57If
definition 4:570
geoarchaeology 3:15f
geomorphological classification 4:573
high-relief transgressive shorelines 4:578,
4:579f
liquefaction l:528t
low-relief transgressive coastlines 4:577,
4:577f, 4:578f
offshore transition zone 4:572/", 4:574,
4:575-577, 4:576f
parasequences 5:161f
petroleum reservoirs 4:23 5t, 4:23 6f
progradational wave-dominated
shorelines
backshore 4:575
barred coastline 4:574f, 4:575
berms 4:574f, 4:575
bioturbated mudstones 4:574f, 4:575,

4:576f, 4:578f
cheniers 4:577
facies models 4:574f
foreshore 4:574f, 4:575, 4:576f
4:575, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
muddy coastlines 4:577
non-barred coastline 4:574f, 4:575,
4:576f
ridge and runnel systems 4:574f,
4:575, 4:576f
4:575, 4:576f, 4:599f
vertical succession 4:574f, 4:575
stacks 4:579f
stumps 4:579f
wave processes
bedforms 4:572-573, 4:573f
coastal deposition systems 4:57If
fair weather wave base 4:570-571,
4:574f
longshore drift 4:572, 4:573f
storm wave base 4:570-571
wave dimensions 4:572f
zircon occurrences 3:602, 3:604f
shoshonite 3:237t
Shropshire, United Kingdom 4:176,
4:177-178,4:185,4:188-189
Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum
4:356f, 4:358
Siberia
Cambrian l:173f, 4:164, 4:17Of
Carboniferous l:182f, l:184f, 4:204
Devonian 1:182f
Eocene 5:467f, 5:468
flora 3:349f
Oligocene 5:476
Ordovician l:173f, 4:181-182
palaeoclimate 4:138
4:353f, 4:354
Permian l:184f, 4:215-216
Popigai impact structure 5:467f, 5:468
tektites 5:451
terranes 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:4S8f
Triassic l:184f, 3:344, 3:349f
Siberian craton 3:649f, 4:167% 4:456,
4:457% 4:462f, 4:463, 4:463f
Siberian Traps
Devonian 4:198-199
end Permian extinctions 2:319, 3:322,
4:222
flood basalts 3:315f, 3:316t, 3:328
Permian 4:215f, 4:227
Permian-Triassic boundary 4:220, 4:222
Triassic 3:348
Sibumasu terrane
boundaries 5:457f
Carboniferous-Permian events 1:175
diamonds l:178f
glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174
Gondwana 3:133f, 3:144f
Silurian 4:192-193
Siccar Point, Scotland 3:175, 3:175f, 5:542
Siderian System 5:511 f, 5:517f
siderite (FeCO 3 )
carbonatites 3:221t
grain analysis 5:31
ironstones 5:99
occurrence 5:108t
Sideropskehli2:519f
Sierra Leone Rise 3:315f, 3:316t
Sierra Madre Occidental 4:48
3:237*, 4:50-52, 4:53, 4:55f
Sierra Nevada Range 4:48, 5:481, 5:488
Sierra Pampeanas belt 1:130, 1:158, 3:129,
3:137f
Sijes mining district, Argentina
Sikhot-Alin meteorite fall 5:22 8f
Sikhote-Alin meteorite fall 5:22 S/", 5:23 It,
5:233-234
Sikhote-Alin Mountains 4:456, 4:458f,
4:470, 4:470f
Silbury hill, England 1:535f, 1:5 37t, 1:537f
silcrete 5:588, 5:61
Silesia 4:202f
Silesian division 4:201
amphiboles 3:503-506
element substitution 3:503-504
hornblende 3:505, 3:505f
chlorite
cementation 5:143
chemical variations 5:69t
claystones 5:30
depth effects 5:63f
diagenetic processes 5:65, 5:65f, 5:69
glauconite 3:542
layer type 1:361t, 1:362
772
INDEX
silicate minerals (continued)

3:399f, 3.-400/; 3:401f
sandstones 5:69
structure l:360f
clinopyroxenes
granites 3:235?, 3:242
metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404
nomenclature 3:568f
5:534-535, 5:535f
cordierite 3:235?, 3:240-241, 3:241f,
3:400f, 3:563
epidote mineral group
cordierite 3:563
tourmaline 3:563
feldspathoids 3:539-541
occurrences 3:541
structure
leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
nepheline 3:539, 3:S40f
sodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
garnets
granites 3:235?, 3:240-241
kimberlites 3:254, 3:256?, 3:257f
3:400f, 3:401 f, 3:404, 3:405
pressure-temperature diagram 3:S62f
staurolite 3:563
5:534-535, 5:535f
hornblende
carbonatites 3:23If
granites 3:235?, 3:242
metamorphic rocks 3:397, 3:398f,
3:401f, 3:403
micas 3:548-550
crystal structure l:360f, 3:549, 3.-549/J
3:S50f
granites 3:235?, 3:240-241
igneous rocks 3:550
3:401f, 3:550
paragenesis 3:550
sandstones 5:143?
vine nourishment 3:87/~, 3:88
orthopyroxenes 3:567-569
granites 3:240-241
kimberlites 3:256?
3:400f, 3:404
5:534-535, 5:535f
pyroxenes 3:567-569
crystal structure 3:568f, 3:569f
kimberlites 3:253
serpentine 3:566
staurolite 3:563
tourmaline 3:7?, 3:563
zeolites 3:591-600
applications 3:599
chabazite 3:593, 3:593?, 3:594f
chemical composition 3:593?, 3:595,
3:595f
clinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593?,
3:593-594, 3:594f
crystal structure 3:591, 3:593?
heulandite 3:593?, 3:593-594, 3:594f
metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404,
3:405f, 3:412f
natrolite 3:591-593, 3:593?, 3:594f
occurrence
deep-sea sediments 3:597
hydrothermal alteration 3:591,
3:591f, 3:599, 3:631-632
lava flows 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598f
3:596f
sandstones 3:597
terrestrial pyroclastic deposits
3:597, 3:597f
zircon 3:601-608
analyses
radiometric geochronology 3:604
samples 3:605
sensitive high-resolution ion
microprobe technique
(SHRIMP) 3:606
thermal ionization mass
spectrometry (TIMS) 3:605
chemical composition 3:601, 3:602?
economic aspects
beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604f,

3:605f
mining 3:604, 3:607f
placer classification 3:603?
processing 3:604, 3:607f
uses 3:604
world production 3:604, 3:606?,
3:606f
fission track analysis 1:45, 1:47
hafnium (Hf) 3:601
3:607f, 3:607-608
occurrence
beach placers 3:602, 3:603?, 3:604/~,
3:605f
optical properties 3:602, 3:602?
properties 3:601, 3:60^?
xenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f
zircon crystals
kimberlites 3:256?
magmatism time-scales 3:245,3:245f
provenance studies 1:47, 1:52-53
siliceous oozes 4:642/", 5:53, 5:55/i 5:71f,
5:74f, 5:75, 5:75?
silicon (Si)
biogenic silica
chert 5:52
as organic proxy 4:500
carbonatites 3:220?
chert 5:51-62
Australia 1:291, l:292f, 3:313,
4:368-369, 4:369f
Archaean 4:351
5:38
composition
chalcedony 5:51, 5:52f
megaquartz 5:51, 5:52f
microcrystalline quartz 5:51, 5:52f
opal 5:51
precipitation 5:51
textures 5:52
eukaryotes 4:355, 4:360, 4:361f
nodules 4:385
occurrence
diatomaceous ooze accumulation
5:54, 5:54f
INDEX 773
silicon (Si) (continued]

geysers 5:59
hot springs 5:59
hydrothermal origins 5:59, 5:60f
lakes 5:58
nodular cherts 5:55, 5:57f, 5:58f
sedimentary environments 5:35-36
silcrete 5:61
siliceous ooze accumulation 5:53,
5:SSf
Tertiary bedded chert 5:54
Rhynie chert
2:274-275, 2:277
fungi 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
S:61f
lichens 2:441-442
silica sources
terminology 3:570
feldspathoids
occurrences 3:541
structure
leucite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
nepheline 3:539, 3:540f
sodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541f
3:502t
obsidian 3:269t
5:114t
quartz (SiO 2 ) 3:569-571
amphiboles 3:505
carbonatites 3:223t
cementation 5:143, 5:143f, 5:144f
chalcedony 3:570, 5:35-36, 5:51,
5:52f
cristobalite 1:368, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
3:571
crustal composition l:406t, 5:174t
depth effects 5:63f
diaplectic minerals
3:281-282, 3:282f
fused minerals 3:28If
glauconite 3:542t
granites 3:240
hydrothermal fluids 3:629t

kimberlites 3:248t
Lagerstatten 3:313
United States 3:571
palisade quartz 5:533, 5:534f
sand 5:142
sandstones 5:27, 5:143t, 5:143f
5:183t
silica 3:570, 3:570f
structure 3:570
tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
3:571
types 3:570
5:533, 5:533f, 5:534f
Venus 5:2471
weathering 5:17
siliceous sediments
chert 5:53
occurrence 5:35
Siljan impact event 4:199
sillimanite
granites 3:235t, 3:240-241, 3:241 f
kimberlites 3:254
3:412f94:411f,4:412t
sills l:136f, 3:218t, 3:249
silt 1:561, 3:103t, 5:8, 5:9, 5:11-12,
5:14
siltstone 5:26t, 5:28
Silurian 4:184-193
acritarchs 3:418-428, 4:191
Aeronian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f,
4:187f,5:511f,5:517f
Antarctica 1:134 f
Appalachians 4:78
Armorica 2:78
3:314f, 4:191
Australia l:226f, 1:229, 3:129,
4:191-192
Avalonia 2:78, 4:191,4:192
Baltica l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192
biota 4:191
biozones 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
brachiopods
South-east Asia l:173f, 1:177f
trace fossils 4:158, 4:lS8f
Brazil 1:317f, l:318f, l:320f

Bringewood Formation 4:186f9 4:189
Buildwas Formation 4:186f, 4:188-189
Caledonian Orogeny 2:61, 2:62, 2:64
cephalopods 2.-3S9/", 4:191
Cerig Formation 4:186f, 4:188
China 1:347f, 4:192-193
3:436, 3:436f, 3:438f, 4:191
climate 4:193
Coalbrookdale Mudstone Formation
4:186f, 4:188-189
conodonts 3:447-448
corals 2:325f
echinoderms 2:335-337, 2:336f
Elton Formation 4:186f, 4:189
fish 2:462, 2:463f
fossil fungi 2:437
Fossil Konservat-Lagerstatten 2:274-275
gastropods 2:386f, 2:386-387
glaciation 4:663
Gondwana
early Silurian 3:129
3:136f, 4:191f, 4:192, 4:192f
terranes 1:173f, 3:130f
Gorstian Stage 4:186f9 4:187f, 4:189,
5:511 f,5:517f
2:365f, 2:366, 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f
Gwernfelen Formation 4:186f, 4:188
Homerian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:188-189, 5:511f9 5:517f
5:517 f
Kazakhstan l:173f, 4:191-192
Kopanina Formation 4:189
Lagerstatten 3:310t
Laurentia l:173f, 2:78, 4:191, 4:192
Laurussia 4:193
Leintwardine Formation 4:186f, 4:189
Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:188f,5:511f,5:517f
Lochkov Formation 4:189
Ludfordian Stage 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,
5:511f,5:517f
Ludlow Bone Bed 4:185, 4:186f, 4:189
Ludlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,
5:511f,5:517f
Ludlow subdivision 4:185
molluscs 2:367
774
INDEX
Silurian (continued)
Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
Much Wenlock Limestone Formation
Scandinavia 4:187f, 4:189
4:186f, 4:188-189
stratigraphic correlation 4:186f,
4:187f
Murchison, Roderick 2:211, 2:212f
Wenlock Series 4:186f, 4:187f
9 4:188
Valentian subdivision 4:185
correlations 2:219f
North Africa l:14f, l:15f, 1:18, l:19f,
l:20f,l:22f
Wales 4:185-186, 4:188f
Wenlock Series 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
4:18S,5:511f,5:517f
Whitcliffe Formation 4:186f, 4:189
arc magmatism 4:85
Wormwood Formation 4:186f9
4:186-188
silver (Ag)
4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
carbonatites 3:223?
4:81-83, 4:82f, 4:87, 4:87f
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630?, 5:394?
natural occurrences 3:553, 3:553?
4:81-83, 4:87f, 4:88, 4:90f
osteichthyans 2:466
5:114t
ostracoderms 2:457
toxicity 2:22?
ostracods (Ostracoda) 3:459, 3:460f9
3:46^,4:191
silverfish 2:296
Simosaurus 2:506
simplotite (CaV 4 O 9 -5H 2 O) 3:589?
palaeogeography
4:191f
4:192f
Simpson, George Gaylord 1:266f,
9 4:192,
1:266-267
Panthalassic Ocean 4:193
Simpson, G. G. 2:191
Parana basin I:319f9 l:320f
Pechora Basin 2:53f
Sinemurian stage 3:348, 3:352?, 5:506f,
5:517f
Singhbhum Craton 3:287, 3:287f, 3:290f,
Pozary Formation 4:189
3:291t
Pridoli Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189,
sinkholes l:491t, 1:493, 1:495 f,
1:550-551, l:551f, 4:682f, 4:684f
5:511f,5:517f
sinks (geosphere) 1:431
Rheic Ocean 4:193
Sinocarpus 1:353
Rhuddanian Stage 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f, Sinoconodon 2:528f, 2:531
Sinocyclocyclicus guizhouensis 4:362f
5:511f,5:517f
Sinodelphys szalayi 2:533f, 2:533-534
Scotland 4:185-186
Sinokanemeyeria 1:352
Sheinwoodian Stage 4:186f, 4:187'f,
Sinornithosaurus 2:4955:511f,5:517f
4:188-189, 5:511f,5:517f4:188-189,
Sinosabellidites huainanensis 4:360
Siberia l:173f, 4:192
Sinosauropterix 1:353
Sinosauropteryx 2:495
South-east Asia
Sinospongia typica 4:360, 4:361f
brachiopods 1:173 f, 1:177f
Sinotubulites 4:373, 4:373f
sinter 3:108, 3:628
Sinus yEstuum 5:267?
1:185 f
Sinus Medii 5:267?
stratigraphic controversy 5:504
Sinus Roris 5:267?
Sitter, Lamoral de 3:189
Skagerrak 2:98, 2:99-100
skarn 3:388t
Telychian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f,
Skeena Mountains 4:45
4:187f,5:511f,5:517f
Skolithos 4:224, 4:378
time-scale scaling concepts S:516f
slate l:545t, 3:102?, 3:387?, 3:396f
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:292f, 2:293
Slave craton 4:12
type areas
Anticosti Island, Canada 4:187f, 4:190
Precambrian continental nucleus 4:10f,
Llandovery Series 4:185, 4:186f,
4:llf,4:13f94:1694:18f
See also Canadian Shield
4:187f, 4:188f
Ludlow Series 4:186f, 4:187f, 4:189
Slide Mountain terrane 4:40f, 4:42,
New York 4:187f, 4:189, 4:190f
4:46-47
Sloan, Chris 2:170-171

Sloss, L. L. 5:159, 5:545
Slovakia 2:477-478, 3:79, S:506f
slumps and slides 4:607, 4:689,
4:690^
smectites
diagenetic processes 5:67
glauconite 3:542
sandstones 5:67
solonization 5:200
structure 1:3 60 f
Smithian stage 3:345, 3:345f
smithsonite (ZnCO 3 ) 3:630?
biozones 1:294
first geological map 1:463, 2:221,
2:223, 3:39, 3:74, 3:173, 5:297
fossils 4:158-159
geological societies 3:60
legacy 2:224
portrait 2:221 f
principle of faunal succession 2:221,
5:297
stratigraphic order 2:218, 2:225, 3:174,
3:39
snake flies 2:300?
Snake Range 4:58
Snake River Plain 4:48-50
snakes 2:483, 5:483
snowball Earth events
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2-3
biodiversity 1:261
Ediacaran 1:261
Gaia hypothesis 3:4, 3:5
glaciation 4:358, 4:372, 4:663
Precambrian climate 4:351
Vendian 4:372
Snowbird Group, Appalachians 4:73-74
Snowbird Tectonic Zone 4:16
snowfall 4:628
Sociedad Venezolana de Geologos 3:64
Societa Geologica Italiana 3:64
Societe Geologique de France 2:183, 3:64
Society of Exploration Geophysicists 3:75
sodalite 3:540, 3:540f, 3:541, 3:541f
sodium betpakdalite
(MgCa2[Mo8As2Fe3036(OH)]
(H20)23) 3:552?
sodium (Na)
brewing process 3:79, 3:80?
carbonatites 3:223?
INDEX 775
sodium (Na) (continued)

crustal composition 1:406?, 5:174t
glauconite 3:542t
halite (NaCl)
carbonatites 3:22It
densities 5:321f
hydrothermal fluids 3:628, 3:629t
porosity l:552t
kimberlites 3:248t
5:114t
sodium perborate (NaBO3-4H2O) 3:519t
Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis) 1:255,
1:33-34
soils
albedo 3:85-87
alluvial environments 4:492
calcrete 1:562, 3:365, 5:588
clay soils 3:104t
cold regions
permafrost 1:563
quick clays 1:562, l:563f
till 1:562
collapsible soils 1:555, l:556f, 1:557?,
1:5 57f
crete formation 1:562
deserts 1:561
Devonian 4:195
dispersive soils 1:558, l:559f, l:560f
3:28 f
trace elements
abundance 2:22?
occurrence 2:21
toxicity 2:22?
expansive clays 1:557, l:559f
ferricrete 5:588
forensic geology 2:261-273
evidence
burnt-out car 2:264f
evidence persistence 2:266
primary transfer modification 2:268
secondary transfer 2:268
trace evidence 2:262/", 2:263f
human remains 2:270, 2:272f
isotope analysis 2:271
location identification 2:268, 2:269/,
2:270/i 2:271f
reference sample comparisons
exotic particles 2:267/", 2:268f,
2:270, 2:272f
house brick 2:266f
sample properties 2:265?
soil-stained boot 2:266f, 2:267f
geoarchaeology 3:14
geochemical analysis 3:21, 3:25f, 3:618t
geodiversity 3:31
geophysical techniques 1:490, 1:49It
gypcrete 1:562, 5:588
laterites 1:560-561, 5:26?, 5:31-32,
5:588
liquefaction
contractive behaviour 1:525, l:526f
damage effects 1:532, l:532f, 1:533f
dilative behaviour 1:525, l:526f
permanent ground deformation
flow failure 1:530
residual shear strength 1:531,1:53If
sand boils 1:526, l:526f, 1:533f
settlement 1:530, 1:531 f
shear anlysis 1:528, 1.-529/, l:S30f
stress/strain analyses 1:525, l:526f
susceptibility criteria 1:527, l:528t
modern soils 5:194-202
basic processes
chronofunctions 5:194, 5:195f
chronosequence 5:194
climatic effects 5:194-195, S:196f
lessivage 5:194, 5:194f9 5:195f
soil-horizon terminology 5:197t
taxonomy 5:196t
biocycling 5:197
calcification 5:194f, 5:196f, 5:200
cryoturbation 5:201
ferrallitization 5.-196/", 5:197
gleization 5:195, 5:198^
lessivage 5:194/", 5:195f, 5:196f,
5:198, 5:198f
lixiviation 5:198
melanization 5:199, S:199f
paludization 5.-194/", 5:195
solodization 5:200
solonization 5:200, 5:201f
vertization 5:199, 5:200f
weathering reactions 5:197?
aeolian systems 4:616-618, 4:617f,
4:626
burial alteration processes 5:204,
5:204f
fossils 5:206, 5:206f
geosol 5:203
gleization 5:204
peds 5:204, 5:204f
root traces 5:203
palaeoecology 5:205
palaeogully 5:207^
parent materials 5:206, 5:207f
pedoderm 5:203
pedolith 5:203
pedotype 5:203
1:205 f
peat 1:564, 1:5 64f
pedocretes 1:562
quicksands 1:555, 1:5 S6f
resource management 2:28
sabkhas 1:561
sandy soils 1:561,3:104?
sediment transport effects 1:555t
shock metamorphic effects 5:183?
silty soils 1:561
soil mechanics 5:184-193
applications 5:193
Cam Clay 5:185, 5:192
compression 5:187, 5:188f
consolidation 5:192, 5:192f
dense/loose states 5:189
drainage 5:185, 5:186
geotechnical engineering 3:101,
3:103?, 3:104?, 5:558
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 5:185
776
INDEX
soils (continued)
one-dimensional compression 5:188
packing states 5:188, 5:189f
plasticity 5:185, 5:187, 5:187f
shear modulus 5:191, 5:191f
soil classification
Atterberg Limits 1:528, 5:186,
5:187t
drainage 5:186
grain characteristics 5:186, 5:186f
Liquidity Index 5:187, 5:187f
loading rates 5:186
relative density 5:187, 5:187f
soil strength
critical state strength 5:190, 5:190f
peak strength 5:191, 5:191f
shearing behaviour 5:189, 5:189f,
5:190f
undrained strength 5:190, 5:190f
state boundary surfaces 5:192, 5:193f
state parameters 5:189f
stiffness 5:191, 5:191f
stress/strain analyses 5:184, 5:185f
swelling 5:187, 5:188f
Terzaghi effective stress equation
5:185
topsoil loss 1:519
urban geology 5:558
vadose zone 3:23-24, 4:684f
vertisols 1:557-558
wine geology 3:87, 3:87'f
See also clays; geohazards
Sojourn Ridge 4:476-477
solar flares 5:212, 5:218-219
solar radiation 4:414-420
biogeochemical cycles 1:433f
geosphere 1:431, 1:432 f, 1:433 f
glaciation 5:215
orbital variations 1:415, 1:416f
passive sensors 4:431
5:219
vineyard temperature 3:85, 3:86f
wavelength types 5:214
solar system
Earth 1:197, 1:421-429
See also meteorites; planets
solfataras 3:107
solids 3:554, 3:629*
Solimoes basin l:316f, l:317f, 1:318f
Solnhofen Limestone
Archaeopteryx 2:497
Cnidarians 2:323
dendrites 4:3 83 f
Liesegang banding 4:3 83 f

Pterodactylus 2:509, 2:509f
solodization 5:200
Solomon Islands
geology 4:113, 4:114, 4:114f
obsidian 3:274-275
solonization 5:200, 5:201 f
solution flutes (rillenkarren) 4:680, 4:680f,
4:682f
solution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680, 4:682f
Solway Line 2:58-59
Somali Basin 1:138-139, 3:147
sonar 4:414, 4:415f
Songxites 4:185
Sonoma orogeny 4:52
Sonoran Basin and Range Province, Mexico
4:48
3:310t, 3:313, 3:441, 3:441f
Sorachi Plateau 3:315 f, 3:316t
Sorby, Henry 3:184, 3:62
Sorgenfrei-Tornquist Zone 3:651, 3:6S2f
Sossusvlei region, Namibia 4:541 f
Soudleyan substage 4:183f
Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat 4:387t,
4:389f, 4:394f, 5:575t
South Africa
Bushveld Igneous Complex, South Africa
3:491-492
dispersive soils 1:559f, 1:560f
gemstones 3:7t, 3:12
1:132-135, l:280f, 1:429, 5:39
Karoo Basin, South Africa l:319f,
3:142-147, 3:146f, 3:347, 4:219f9
4:220, 4:224
Palabora complex, South Africa 3:492,
3:492f
Pliocene 5:491
sharks 2:463-465
soils 1:558
3:310f, 3:313, 3:441, 3:441 f
tektites 5:454
Triassic 3:350
Vredefort impact structure, South Africa
3:283
Witwatersrand, South Africa 3:121,
3:121f, 3:123-124, 3:490-491,
3:494, 3:494f, 3:585-586
Southalpine nappes 2:125, 2:126f, 2:134f
South America
See Andes Mountains; Argentina; Brazil;
Gondwana
South American Land Mammal Age 5:479f
South Atlantic Margins 3:315f, 3:316t
South Atlantic thermotectonic event l:308t
South Australia 4:164
South Australian Craton 1:208, l:209f,
l:211f, 1:215
South Carolina, United States 4:73f
South China terrane 3:130f, 3:133f, 4:215,

4:219f9 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
South Dakota, United States 4:21, 4:33-34,
4:35-36, 5:203f, 5:475, 5:476-477
South-east Asia 1:169-196
accretion terranes
constraining factors l:176t, l:179t
distribution l:170f, l:172f, I:182f9
1:184f
origins 1:171, 1:17 6t
1:175
constraining factors 1:176t, 1:1791
Jurassic 1:175
sutures I ill 91
timeframes 1:175 f
Triassic 1:175
alluvial diamond deposits 1:178f
accretion terranes 1:17'Of\ 1:171,
1:172 f, 1:173 f
l:170f
plate tectonics 1:169, l:170f, l:171f,
l:172f
strike-slip fault systems 1:169, l:170f
Wallace's Line 1:169, l:171f, l:172f
bmchiopodsl:173f,l:177f
energy resources
coal and lignite deposits 1:195
epigenetic deposits 1:195
hydrocarbon basins 1:190, 1:194f
iron ore deposits 1:195
magmatic arcs 1:190
non-volcanic epithermal deposits
1:190
oil and gas 1:187, l:194f
ophiolites 1:190
tin deposits 1:194
tungsten deposits 1:190
faunal assemblages 1:171, 1:178-182,
1:183/, 1:185'f
floral provinces 1:178-182, l:186f
gemstones 1:196
Cenozoic 1:187
Cretaceous l:181t, 1:187, l:188f
Eocene 1:18It, 1:188f9 l:190f
Jurassic 1:1 Sit, 1:186, l:188f
Miocene 1:18It, l:192f, 1:193f
Oligocene l:181t, 1:191 f, 1:193 f
Phanerozoic
Cambrian 1:178
Carboniferous 1:178, l:181t,
l:182f, 1:184f
Devonian 1:178, l:181t, 1:182f
Ordovician 1:178
Permian l:181t, 1:182, 1:184f
Silurian 1:178
INDEX 777
South-east Asia (continued]

Pliocene 1:193 f
ProterozoicL-174/; 1:177
Triassic l:181t, 1:184, l:184f
glacial-marine sediments 1:172-174,
l:178f, 1:182
granitoid belts l:187f
palaeoclimate 1:183 f, 1:18 5 f
Precambrian 1:183 f, 1:185 f
Rodiniai:174/"
stratigraphic correlation l:183f, l:185f
Southeast Indian Ridge 5:411-412
Southern Appalachians 4:72-81
Carolina terrane 4:74/", 4:75f, 4:78
4:80f
occurrence 4:72
origins 4:72
sedimentary depositional processes 4:73
superterranes 4:74/, 4:75f
Southern Granulite Terrain 3:287f, 3:288,
3:288f
southern lights
See auroras
Southland Syncline, New Zealand 3:597
3:240-241
South Mountain, United States 4:72
South Pacific Superswell 3:338, 3:338/~,
3:339f
South Portuguese Zone 2:80-82
South Sandwich Trench 5:430;, 5:43 Of
South Solomons Trench 5:430;, 5:43 Of
South Victoria Land 3:129, 3:137f
Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge 5:3 63 f,
5:384
Southwest US-East Antarctic (SWEAT)
connection hypothesis 1:132, l:133f,
1:135
Soviet Union
See Russia
sovite 3:220-221
spacecraft missions
Apollo 11 5:266;
Apollo 12 5:266;
Apollo 14 5:266;
Apollo 15 5:266;
Apollo 16 5:266;
Apollo 17 5:266;, 5:270f
Clementine 5:266;, 5:271

Gallileo 5:2 70f
Jupiter 5:283;
Luna 3 5:266-267
Luna 9 5:266-267
lunar missions 5:266
Lunokhods 5:266-267
Magellan orbiter 5:244-245, 5:260-261,
5:262-263
Mercury 5:238, 5:242
Orbiter 1 5:266;
Orbiter 5 5:266;
Pioneer Venus 5:244
Prospector 5:266;, 5:271
Ranger 7 5:266;
Saturn 5:286, 5:286;
Surveyor 1 5:266;
Surveyor 2 5:266;
Venera 15/16 orbiters 5:244-245
space dust 5:227
Spain 2:75, 2:463-465, 3:82, 3:352;,
4:167f,5:506f
spas 3:113f, 3:116, 3:116f
Spathian stage 3:345, 3:345f
spatter 4:357;, 4:390;
spectral reflectance 4:431
spencerite 5:121-122
spessartine (Mn3Al2Si3Oi2) 3:561
Sphaerocongregus variabilis 4:360
sphalerite (Zn(Fe)S)
carbonatites 3:221t
crystal structure 3:575;, 3:576/", 3:577f
hydrothermal ore deposits 3:630;,
3:630f, 5:394;
iron sulphide content 3:584f
occurrence 3:585;
physical properties 3:577;
Sphenacodon 2:488-489
Sphenodon 2:483
Sphenolitus 5:486-487
Sphenopsids 4.-206/", 4:209f
Sphenozamites 3:359
spilite 3:388t
spinel 1:196, 3:7;, 3:253-254, 3:256;,
3:257f, 3:397f
spirillinana 3:45If
spirillinata 3:45If
spirillinids 3:45Of
Spirula 2:394
Spitsbergen, Greenland 2:465, 3:344,
4:224
See also Svalbard
spodosols 5:195, 5:296;, 5:196f
spodumene 3:567
sponges
See porifera (Porifera)
Spongiophyton 2:441
spores 3:473
SPOT 4:434;, 4:435, 4:436
Spriggina 4:373-374
springtails 2:300;
Squamata 2:483
Sri Lanka 3:7;, 3:8
stacks 4:579f
Stanley Group, Ouachita Mountains 4:63,
4:66f
stannite (Cu2FeSnS4) 3:575;, 3:577f, 3:630;
Stanovoy Ridge 4:471, 4:472f
star dunes 4:618-620, 4:619f, 4:620f
starvation 5:328
Staterian rifting event 1:3 08t
Statherian System 5:511f, 5:517f
Staurikosaurus 2:492
staurolite 3:400f, 3:563, 4:411f9 4:412t
Stavely Belt, Australia 1:247
Steen River, Canada 3:363;
stegosaurs 2:493
stellerite 3:593;
Steneosaurus 2:504
Stenian System 5:511f, 5:517f
Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226-233
anatomical studies 2:227
catastrophism 3:176
crystallography 2:226, 2:230, 2:231f
early career 2:226
fossil origins 2:228, 2:229f
palaeontology 2:226
portrait 2:227f
recognitive induction 2:226, 2:228
reconstruction principle 2:226, 2:229,
2:231f
scientific philosophy 2:232
stratigraphic correlation 5:503-504
stratigraphic principles 2:226, 2:229,
3:169,3:73,5:295
superposition 2:226
Stenopterygius 2.-503/", 2:503-504
Steno's Law 2:226, 2:229, 2:230
Stenzel, Henryk 5:443
Stephanian stage 2:95-96, 2:96/", 4:202f,
4:208f, 4:209f
steranes 4:357
Stereocidaris 2:35If
Stereognathus 3:359f
stereom 2:334, 2:335f
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518f
stibarsen 3:553;, 3:554
stibnite (Sb2S3) 3:575;, 3:630;
Stichocorys peregrina 5:487
stick insects 2:297/", 2:300;
Stigmaria ficoides 5:206, 5:206f
Stikine terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46
stilbite 3:593;
Stille, Hans 3:192
Still well, Frank 3:192
stilpnomelane 3:399f
stishovite 3:282, 3:569-570, 3:570f,
5:183;, 5:447-448
St. Lawrence River 5:19t
stoiberite (Cu 5 O 2 (VO 4 )2) 3:588-589,
3:589;
778
INDEX
Stoke's law 5:8

stolzite (PbWO4) 3:587t
stoneflies 2:297f, 2:300t
storms 4:580-587
carbonate systems
flat-pebble conglomerate beds 4:586
shell beds 4:586
facies models 4:580
oceanographic studies 4:580, 4:S81f
storm deposits
bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:58Sf
4:581-582, 4:582f, 4:584f,
4:585f, 4:599f
hyperpycnal oceanic flows 4:582-583,
4:644
stratification 4:582f, 4:583f
tempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581,
4:S8Sf
storm wave base 4:570-571
stout 3:80
Stowts 3:80
Strachey, John 5:542
straczekite((Ca,K,Ba) 2 (V 8 O 2 o)-6H 2 O)
3:589t
Strahler, Arthur 3:189
straight river systems 4:656/", 4:659f
Straight Wall (Moon) 5:268
stramenopile algae 4:358, 4:360
strandplains 4:57If
Strangways Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:214-215
stratigraphy
basic principles 5:295-305
biostratigraphy 5:297, 5:298
landscape development 5:296f
Oppel, Albert 1:295
5:298f
radiometric dating 5:298-299
Smith, William 1:294, 5:297
Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen)
5:295
uniformitarianism 5:296-297,
5:297-298
magnetostratigraphy 5:303
original continuity 5:295
original horizontality 5:295
Steno, Nicholas (Niels Stensen) 2:226,
2:229, 3:169, 5:295
stratigraphic classification
biostratigraphic units 5:301, 5:301 f
chronostratigraphic units 5:301,
5:302t
correlation relationships 5:300f

geochronological units 5:302t
rock stratigraphic units 5:300,
5:300f, 5:301f
time stratigraphic units 5:300f
stratotypes 5:303
superposition 2:226, 5:295
biostratigraphy
biozones
biochronozones 1:304
5:301f, 5:302f
Eocene 5:467f
multivariate biostratigraphic
analyses 1:3 04 f
Ordovician4:176, 4:182
Silurian 4:185, 4:186f, 4:187f,
4:189
Cretaceous 3:361
3:373/~, 3:374
historical background 3:180, 5:297,
5:298
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
Oligocene 5:472
Ordovician 4:182
Pleistocene 5:495
biozones 1:294-305
boundary stratotypes 3:361, 5:504,
5:506f
Carboniferous
absolute ages 4:202f, 4:203
4:201, 4:206f
4:201
boundary 4:201
subdivisions 4:202
chemostratigraphy
applications I:86f9 1:87
Jurassic 3:353
methodology 1:84
chronostratigraphy
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:223f
biozones 1:29 6f
Cambrian 4:164, 4:167f, 4:169f,
4:170f
chronozones 5:301, 5:302f
3:373f
Eocene 5:466, 5:467f, 5:468f
Jurassic 3:352, 3:352;
nomenclature 5:302t
North Africa 1:14f
Oligocene 5:473f
parasequence-stacking patterns
5:161-162, 5:162f
Permian 4:214, 4:225;
clays 1:364
geoarchaeology 3:14
geophysical techniques l:491t
International Commission on
Stratigraphy (ICS) 4:201
Appalachians 4:76f
apparent polar wander paths 1:85/,
4:153, 4:153f
5:506f
cycle charts 5:169f
(ECMA) 4:95, 4:96f, 4:99f
Eocene 5:467f
gauss 3:333-334
l:83f, 3:331, 3:332f
Jurassic 3:353
magnetic anomalies 1:101, 1:101 f,
l:83f,2:37f, 3:200, 3:201f
magnetic field reversals 1:424 f, 3:202
3:333/i 3:334
methodology 1:84
Raff-Mason magnetic
anomaly 5:399f
Miocene 5:478, 5:479^
correlations 2:219f
Oligocene 5:473
Ouachita Mountains
Permian 4:214, 4:215t
5:297
causal mechanisms
sea-level changes 4:26f, 5:170t,
5:171, 5:171 f
INDEX 779
stratigraphy (continued]
sediment supply 5:171
tectonic processes 5:171, 5:171 f
correlation comparisons 5:162f
cycle charts 5:169f
definition 5:159
eustatic cycles 5:169f, 5:546f, 5:547f
facies analysis 4:490, 4:490 f
parasequences
accommodation eustasy 5:161 f
basic principles 5:160, 5:161f,
5:546
parasequence-stacking patterns
5:160, 5:162f
shorelines 5:161f
Phanerozoic 4:25 f, 4:26f
recognition criteria
biofacies analysis 5:167
depositional systems 5:166
descriptive terminology 5:164,
5:164f
highstand systems tracts 4:662 f,
5:163;, 5:1 63f, 5:166
lowstand systems tracts 4:662f,
5:163;, 5:1 63f, 5:165
maximum flooding surface 5:163f,
5:165
sequence boundary 5:163f, 5:164,
5:165 f
systems tracts 5:162, 5:163;, 5:163f,
5:165
transgressive surface 5:163f, 5:165
transgressive systems tracts 4:662f,
5:163;, 5:1 63 f, 5:166
unconformities 5:545, 5:545;, 5:546f,
5:547f
Silurian 4: 185
site classification 2:3 1
South-east Asia 1:183 f9 1:185 f
stratigraphic classification
biostratigraphic units 5:301, 5:301f
chronostratigraphic units 5:301,
5:302;
correlation relationships 5:300f
geochronological units 5:302;
Hall, James, Jr. 2:195
rock stratigraphic units 5:300, 5:3OOf,
5:301f
time stratigraphic units 5:300f
5:504
See also geochronology
stratopause 1:201 f
stratosphere l:201f, 5:217f
Streffordian stage 4:183f
strelkinite(Na 2 (U0 2 ) 2 (V0 4 ) 2 -6H 2 0)
3:589;
strengite 5:124-125
Strepsodus 2:464f
Stricklandia 4:185-186
strike-slip fault systems
See faulting processes; folding
Strokkur geyser, Iceland 3:108f
stromatolites 4:3 83 f
Arabian Gulf 4:51 Of, 4:511
attributes l:286f, l:289t
biosediments
columnar stromatolites 1:29If
photograph 4:367f
biodiversity 1:261
biosignatures 1:28 5t
filamentous microbes 1:282f
formation processes 1:287f, 1:288;,
3:109
Hamelin Bay, Shark Pool, Western
limestones 1:430, 1:43 If
origins 4:352
Proterozoic 4:351
Vendian 4:373, 4:377
volcanic-related processes 3:109
Strombolian volcanoes 5:568;, 5:570;
Stromboli volcano, Italy 4:3871
strontium (Sr)
carbonatites 3:223;
crustal composition 5:174;
hydrothermal fluids 3:629;
isotopes
Cambrian 4:165, 4:171f
carbonatites 3:224;, 3:224f, 3:226f,
3:227f, 3:228f
chemostratigraphy 1:84, l:86/i 1:87
dolomite formation 5:86
radiometric dating 1:88;
Vendian 4:378
5:114;
structural geology
See history of geology
structure, definition of 3:390;
Strunian stage 3:138f
Strunius 2:464f
Strunz, Hugo 5:121
strunzite 5:124-125
Struthio 5:483
struvite 5:122
stumps 4:579f
stylolites5:112
stylopids 2:300;
Styxosaurus 2:506
suanite (Mg2B2O5) 3:512;
sub-Andean fold-and-thrust belt 1:127,
1:158
Subcommission on the Systematics of
Metamorphic Rocks, IUGS (SCMR)
3:386
subduction zones
controlling factors 5:317;
decollement 5:309, 5:309f, 5:3 Wf,
5:311f,5:315f,5:316f
5:31 If, 5:315, 5:316f
5:309, 5:310/", 5:31 If
obduction 5:315
occurrences 5:307
ocean trenches 5:430;, 5:431-432,
5:435f
stability 5:309f
tectonic erosion
turbi&tes5:310f
95:311f
Alps 2:133f
Ampferer, Otto 3:193
Andes Mountains 1:118, l:125f, l:155f
Asia 1:346 f
collision zones 5:429f9 5:430-431
crustal recycling processes 1:404, 1:405f
Eocene 5:466, 5:468
flux melting 3:21 If, 3:212
Japan 3:297, 3:298f, 3:303-304
3:319, 3:319f
long-term carbon cycle 1:338, l:338f
Mediterranean region 2:136, 2:137f,
2:141f,2:142f
9 3:411,
3:412f
Miocene 5:479-480
Oceania 4:109, 4:114, 4:117
accretionary wedges 5:307-317,
5:430;, 5:431-432, 5:435f
chemosynthetic communities
5:433-434
convergent plate boundaries 4:343/,
4:344, 4:345f, 5:429f9 5:429-430
780
INDEX
subduction zones (continued)

faulting 5:435f, 5:43 6f
geographic distribution 5:430,
5:43 Of
island arcs 5:431
major trenches 5:430t
maximum depth 5:430t
morphology 5:431, 5:43If
outer rise 5:434
5:435 f
water volume 5:433
Palaeocene 5:461
Pangaea3:143/"
regional metamorphism 4:407
slab-breakoff model 5:538-539, 5:539f
5:539f
Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:89, 2:89f
volcanoes 5:566f
sub-greenschist facies 3:397, 3:403/",
3:404f, 3:405, 3:407f
submarine canyons 4:646, 4:93-94, 4:94f,
5:432
subsidence 2:9-14
causal mechanisms
alluvium 2:13
flowing water 2:12
ground shrinkage/swelling cycles 2:13
ground water extraction 2:11
groundwater regime changes 2:13
karst2:10
mining 2:9
oil and gas extractions 2:11
salt dissolution 2:12
thermokarst 2:13
volcanism 2:13
Succodium 2:434
Sudan 3:129, 3:137f
Sudan Arch 3:140f
Sudbury complex, Canada 3:283,
3:491-492
Sudetes 2:235-237, 2:81f
Suess, Eduard 2:233-242
early career 2:234
earthquake distribution 2:237, 2:237f
engineering projects 2:234-235
eustatic theory 2:235, 2:235f
global tectonics 2:233, 2:238, 2:239f,
2:240f, 2:248
Gondwana 3:128
legacy 2:241
mountain-building theory
Alps 2:235
cooling/contraction theory 3:177-178,
3:182
eustasy 3:182
folding 2:237f
influence 2:233
virgation 2:239f
nappe folding 2:241
palaeontological research 2:234, 2:235
portrait 2:234f
publications 2:235, 2:238
stratigraphic research 2:235
tektites 5:443-444
Suevian land mammal age 5:473f
sulphur (S)
allotropes 3:554
carbonatites 3:223t
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 1:197?, 1:200?,
3:628, 3:629?, 4:259?, 4:260
isotopes
carbonatites 3:222
diagenetic quantification 5:146, 5:148f
natural gas content 4:259?, 4:260
obsidian 3:269?
oil composition 4:253f, 4:256, 4:256f
pyrrhotite (Fe7S8) 4:149t
sulphates
barite (BaSO4) 3:573, 5:394t
brewing process 3:79-80, 3:80t
carbonatites 3:223?
gypsum 3:572-573
hydrothermal vents 5:394?
occurrence 3:573
3:501t
hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:394?
melanterite (FeSO4-7H20) 3:573
rhomboclase 3:573
rozenite (FeSO4-4H2O) 3:573
seawater concentrations 5:94, 5:95
szomolnokite (FeSO4-H20) 3:573
3:494-495, 3:495f
4:497f
3:583f
base metal deposits

3:643f
crystal structure 3:574, 3:575?, 3:576f,
3:577f
Dana classification system 3:502?
geobarometry 3:583
geochemical analysis 3:21, 3:26f
3:501t
hydrothermal alteration 3:492-493,
3:493f
hydrothermal vents 5:391, 5:3 93/,
5:394?
igneous rock associations 3:492-493,
3:493f
limestones 5:112
metamorphic processes 3:496
ore deposit types 3:584, 3:585?
physical properties 3:576, 3:577?
3:642, 3:642/", 3:644, 3:644f
sphalerite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:584f
stability 3:578, 3:579f, 3:580f
Strunz classification system 3:502?
weathering processes 3:489, 3:489f
sulphur dioxide (SO2) 2:197?, 1:200?,
3:320f9 3:322, 3:383, 5:246?
1:200?
Venus 5:246?, 5:247?

Sulmenev Bay 2:53
Sultancayir mining district, Turkey
Sulzer, Johan Georg 3:172
Sumatra 4:53-54
Summan Platform 3:140f
Sumy-Dnieper terrane 2:45, 2:45f
Sun 5:209-220
corona 5:211
coronal mass ejections 5:212, 5:213f,
5:219
physical characteristics 5:210?
absolute solar luminosity 5:209
composition 5:209
corona 5:211
distance between Earth and Sun 5:209
effective temperature 5:209
magnetic field 5:210
mass 5:209
radius 5:209
INDEX 781
Sun (continued)
rotation 5:210
solar atmosphere 5:211, 5:211f
solar flares 5:212, 5:218-219
solar wind
basic properties 5:212
heliosphere 5:214
interplanetary magnetic field 5:213,
5:214f
magnetosphere 5:217, 5:218f
origins 5:213
parameters 5:213t
Sun-Earth connection
auroras 5:218, 5:219f
distances 5:209
glaciation 5:215
solar constant 5:215, 5:216f
space weather 5:218
5:219
X-ray image 5:21 If
Sunda Islands 2:238
Sunda Trench 5:430t, 5:43 Of
supercontinents
Antarctica 1:132
glaciation 4:14f
Gondwana 4:14f, 5:177-178
Laurentia 4:14f, 5:177-178
Nuna4:14/;4:16
Pangaea 3:346, 3:346f, 4:14f, 5:177,
5:178f
Permian 4:214
Rodinia 3:164/i 4:371
Sclavia4:14/; 4:16, 4:17
Superia 4:14f
Vaalbara4:14/"
Vendian 4:371
Superia 4:14f
Superior craton 4:llf, 4:12, 4:13f, 4:16,
4:17f, 4:19f
superplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461
surface processes
aeolian systems 4:612-627
Cretaceous 3:363, 3:370-371
crinoids 2:349
dysaerobic assemblages 4:497,
4:498f
early Earth 1:201
fossils 4:497, 4:498f

Jurassic 3:355
lakes 4:550-551
oceanic anoxic events 4:497
oxygen-minimum zones (OMZ)
4:495, 4:496f
sapropels 4:500-501
Silurian 4:193
anthropogenic carbon dioxide sources
1:343, 1:343f, I:344f9 1:345f
basic principles 1:335, l:336f
Cambrian 1:204-206
l:342f
glacial/interglacial periods 1:341,
l:342f, 1:343 f
long-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:338,
1:338 f,l:339f
1:205f, 1:206, l:206f
1:337 f
5:73, 5:73f
composition 5:70
geographic distribution 4:642f,
4:643f, 5:71f
sediment types
calcareous oozes 4:642f, 4:648,
5:70, 5:71f, 5:74, 5:74f, 5:75t
continental margin sediments 4:642f
diatomaceous oozes 4:648, 5:54,
5:54f
5:76,5:77^,5:119
mud 4:642f
nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/~, 4:646t
5:47f
red clays 4:642/i 5:70, 5:71f9 5:72f,
5:74f, 5:75t, 5:76
siliceous oozes 4:642/", 5:53, 5:55f,
5:71f, 5:74f, 5:75, 5:75t
sources 4:642f, 5:72f
continental slopes 4:642/~, 4:646

oozes 4:648
4:641-642, 4:642f
sediment nomenclature 4:645, 4:645/",
4:646t
transport processes
biota 4:645
volcanism 4:642-643, 4:644, 4:645
deltas 4:528-539
abandonment 4:531, 4:533f, 4:534f
deformation processes
collapse depressions 4:534f, 4:535,
4:535f
linear gullies 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535f
mud diapirs 4:534f, 4:535, 4:537f
mudflows 4:534f, 4:535, 4:535f,
4:5 37f
rotational slides 4:534/", 4:535,
4:535f
shale ridges 4:534/r, 4:535
syn-sedimentary deformation 4:532,
4:534f
distributaries 4:531 f
economic aspects 4:536f, 4:537,
4:53 8f
importance 4:528
levees 4:534f
life cycle 4:531, 4:532f, 4:533f
lobe complexes 4:532f, 4:533f
Mississippi River 4:528f, 4:530f, 4:532f
petroleum traps 4:537
plume formation dynamics
4:529-530, 4:530f, 4:531f, 5:20f,
5:21f
river mouth processes 4:529, 4:53Of
4:609f
sediment suspension processes
4:593-594
shelf-edge deltas 4:534f, 4:537
submerged delta plain 4:534f
tidal sand-banks 5:21f
transgressive barrier islands 4:534f
782
INDEX
surface processes (continued)

4:593-602
basic principles
bedding 4:593
lamination 4:594
4:598f
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595 f, 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
flow regimes 4:594, 4:597, 4:600-601
gravel deposits 4:601, 4:601 f
lamination
4:599f
undulating lamination 4:599,
4:599f
deserts 4:539-549
aeolian systems
accumulation 4:543, 4:543f
bedforms 4:599
bounding surfaces 4:543, 4:544f
bypass supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545f
cross-bedding 4:600
deflationary supersurfaces 4:545,
4:545f
interdune migration surfaces 4:543,

4:544f, 4:546f
preservation 4:543
reactivation surfaces 4:543, 4:544f
sand sea construction 4:543
superimposition surfaces 4:543,
4:544f
supersurfaces 4:545, 4:545f
zircon occurrences 3:604
alluvial fans 4:540, 4:541 f, 4:542
ancient aeolian systems
depositional models 4:547, 4:548f
dune-interdune interactions 4:547f
interdune migration surfaces 4:546f
stabilization 4:546
borate deposits 3:516f, 3:516-517
braid-plains 4:541f, 4:542
dunes 4:540, 4:541f, 4:599
ephemeral rivers 4:540, 4:541f, 4:542
fluvial systems 4:541 f, 4:542
geomorphic features 4:541 f
playa lakes 3:516f, 3:516-517
sabkhas
Arabia 1:146
Arabian Gulf 4:509f9 4:510f, 4:511
dolomites 5:30, 5:90-91
occurrence 1:561
sand seas 4:540, 4:543, 4:621f, 4:622,
4:622f
sandsheets 4:542
Thar Desert 3:296
zircon 3:604
chevron marks 4:591, 4:591f
flute marks 4:589-590, 4:590f
tool marks 4:589, 4:590, 4:591f
palaeosols 5:207f
processes
abrasion 4:588
critical erosion velocity 4:588,

4:S88f
architectural elements 4:488, 4:489f
bounding surfaces 4:488
cyclothems 4:487, 4:488f
facies succession 4:486, 4:488f
flooding surfaces 4:488f, 4:491
grain size analysis 4:485-486,
4:487, 4:488f
erosion surfaces 4:490, 4:490f
geological proxies 4:131
glacigenic sediments 4:675, 4:67Sf
interbedded environments 4:486,
4:486f, 4:580
models 4:490, 4:580
scheme varieties 4:485
storm deposits 4:580
Walther's Law of the Correlation of
Facies 4:487, 4:487f
braided river systems 4:656/", 4:657f,
4:659f, 5:137, 5:138, S:139f
channel patterns 4:656, 4:656f,
4:657f, 4:658f, 4:659f
deserts 4:541f, 4:542
flood events 3:90, 3:91f, 3:92f, 4:660f
landforms 4:654
4:651t,4:652f,4:653f
meandering river systems 3:90f,
4:656f, 4:657f, 4:659f
network development
models 4:661f
time factors 4:659
geysers 3:105-117
ecology 3:105
energy exploitation
3:lllf
power installation 3:11 Of
INDEX 783
surface processes (continued]

water temperature
variations 3:11 Of
nonvolcanic-related processes 3:114
occurrence 3:105
volcanic-related processes 3:106,
3:107, 3:107f,3:108f
glaciers 4:663-678
Antarctic Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,
4:664?, 4:664f, 4:665f
characteristics
4:667^
glacier flow 4:667, 4:667^
morphology 4:664
deposition
drumlins 4:676
eskers 4:677, 4:677f
flutes 4:676, 4:677/
4:675f
kames 4:676
moraines 4:676, 4:677f
surficial deposits 3:94
erosion
aretes 4:670, 4:672f
cirques 4:670, 4:672f
fjords 4:670, 4:672f
horns 4:670, 4:672f
icebergs 4:670-671
landforms 4:668, 4:670f, 4:671f
processes 4:668
4:671f
striations 4:668-669, 4:670f, 4:671f
global distribution 4:663, 4:663?,
4:664 f
Greenland Ice Sheet 4:663?, 4:664,
4:664?, 4:664f
ice caps 4:665f
ice sheets 4:664
sea-level effects 4:664?
hot springs 3:105-117
ecology 3:105
energy exploitation
utilization process 3:11 If
3:lllf
water temperature variations 3:11 Of
Bath, England 3:113?, 3:113f, 3:114
geothermal utilization 3:11 5 'f
heat output 3:113t
Paris Basin 3:114f, 3:115, 3:115f
3:1 16f
occurrence 3:105
bioherms 3:109
sinter 3:108
stromatolites 3:109
caves (endokarst)
4:684-685, 4:68Sf
clints 4:680, 4:682f
cryokarst 4:679
dissolution processes 1:550-551,
1:551 f, 4:679
drainage 4:683
exhumed karst 4:679
fluviokarst 4:682
geophysical techniques 1:49 It, 1:493,
1:495 f
grikes 4:680, 4:682f
palaeokarst 4:679, 4:686, 4:686f
pseudokarst 4:679
runnels (rinnenkarren) 4:680, 4:681f,
4:682f

4:680f, 4:682f
solution pans (kamenitzas) 4:680,
4:682f
4:682
limestone pedastals 4:68If
medium-scale karst (karst
landforms) 4:681
4:680f
solution pits 4:681 f
tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683f
creep 3:93, 4:691, 4:691f
5:576?, 5:576f
debris flows 3:93, 4:689, 4:690f
earthflows 4:690
earthquakes 3:93f
engineering geomorphology 1:476/1,
1:476-478, 1:477f
hazard analysis
earthquakes 5:327
frequency 1:517t
hazard mapping 1:520-522, 1:523 f
mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?,
4:688
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,
5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f
Mount Saint Helens 4:690, 4:691 f
mud flows 4:689
occurrence 4:687
Tadzhikistanl:51S/"
talus 4:689
topples 4:689
volcanic hazards 5:573, 5:576?,
5:576f
mass wasting 3:93
modern soils 5:194-202
784
INDEX
surface processes (continued]

basic processes
chronofunctions 5:194, 5:195f
chronosequence 5:194
climatic effects 5:194-195, S:196f
lessivage 5:194, 5:194f, 5:195f
soil-horizon terminology 5:197t
taxonomy 5:196t
biocycling 5:197
calcification 5:194f, 5:196f, 5:200
cryoturbation 5:201
ferrallitization 5:196f, 5:197
gleization 5:195, S:198f
lessivage 5:194f, 5:195f, 5:l96f,
5:198, 5:198f
lixiviation 5:198
melanization 5:199, 5:199f
paludization 5:194f, 5:195
solodization 5:200
solonization 5:200, 5:201f
weathering reactions 5:197t
burial alteration processes 5:204,
5:204f
fossils 5:206, 5:206^
geosol 5:203
gleization 5:204
peds 5:204, 5:204f
root traces 5:203
lateritic palaeosols S:203f
palaeoclimate 5:205, 5:206f
palaeoecology 5:205
palaeogully 5:207f
parent materials 5:206, 5:207f
pedoderm 5:203
pedolith 5:203
pedotype 5:203
4:602-611
4:610f
concretions 4:610f, 4:611, 4:611 f
deforming forces
density inversions 4:604, 4:60Sf

4:603-604, 4:605f
glaciation 4:604
4:605f, 4:606
descriptions 4:605f
4:607f
4:606f
pseudonodules 4:604
4:609f
bafflestone 3:527/j 4:562-563,
4:563f
bindstone 3:527/i 4:562-563, 4:563f
Cambrian 4:565
Cretaceous 3:365, 3:367-368, 3:371,
4:567f, 4:567-568
Devonian 4:194, 4:198, 4:565
4:566-567
floatstone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:S64f
framestone 3:527f, 4:5 62f, 4:562-563,
4:568f, 4:S69f
Jurassic 3:356, 4:567, 4:567f
modern reef formation
atolls 4:481, 4:564
barrier reefs 4:564
3:523f, 3:529
corals 4:562
lagoons 4:564
morphology 4:562
morphology 4:568f
patch reefs 3:526/i 4:562f, 4:564
Permian 4:565-566, 4:566f
rudists 4:567/i 4:567-568
rudstone 3:527/", 4:562-563, 4:564f
Silurian 4:565
Tertiary 4:568-569
Triassic 4:566f, 4:566-567
zonation 4:562
bedforms
antidunes 4:597
bars 4:597
cross-bedding 4:595f, 4:596, 4:597f,
4:600
5:15 f
dunes 4:596, 4:596f
4:599f
4:574f, 4:576f, 4:578f, 4:599f
mud waves 5:15
sand waves 4:596, 4:596f, 4:597f
4:576f, 4:599f
wave ripples 4:598, 4:598f, 4:599f
controlling factors
aggregation 5:9, 5:10f
5:11 f
flow characteristics 5:10, 5:11 f
5:12f
currents 5:14
fractionation 5:14
pelagic flux 5:12
5:12f
viscous sublayer 5:10-11, 5:llf
shorelines and shelves. See shorelines
and shelves
storms 4:580-587
carbonate systems
flat-pebble conglomerate beds 4:586
shell beds 4:586
facies models 4:580
oceanographic studies 4:580, 4:581f
storm deposits
bypass flows 4:582-583, 4:585f
4:581-582, 4:582f, 4:584f,
4:585f, 4:599f
INDEX 785
surface processes (continued)

hyperpycnal oceanic flows
4:582-583
stratification 4:582f, 4:583f
tempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581,
4:585f
flow separation 5:552, 5:552f, 5:554f
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552f,
5:552-553
stress-strain relationships 5:549, 5:549f
5:554, 5:554f, 5:555f
turbulent flows
processes 5:548
5:551f
velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f, 5:554f,
5:555f
weathering 5:581-590
atmospheric effects 5:589
biological processes 5:589
chemical reactions 5:197t
clay formation 1:362
cracks and joints 5:581, 5:584f
definition 5:581
dehydration 5:19 7;
dissolution 5:197t
duricrusts 5:588
hydrolysis 5:197t
igneous rocksl:546f
landscape development
chemical weathering 5:582t, 5:583,
5:584f, 5:587-588
equifinality 5:587
feedback mechanisms 5:586, 5:587f
inheritance effects 5:584f, 5:588
karst landscapes 4:683, 5:583,
5:585
stress effects 5:585
lithological cycle 5:581
long-term carbon cycle l:336f, 1:339f
long-term effects 5:589
mechanisms 5:582t
oxidation 5:197t
Peltier's zonal classification 5:584f
processes 5:582t, 5:584f
rock-forming minerals 5:17, 5:582,
5:583f
rock properties
rock-mass strength l:544f, 5:581
shales 1:548
spheroidal weathering 1:543 f
1:337 f
soils 5:588, 5:589
weathering rates 5:582, 5:589
See also floods; geomorphology
Suriname 1:311
Surtsey volcano, Iceland 4:387t
Surveyor 1 5:266t, 5:266-267
Surveyor 2 5:266t, 5:266-267
sutures 5:455
Suvanyak Complex 2:88f, 2:88-89
Suwannee terrane 3:133f, 4:79, 4:80
Svalbard 2:70, 2:70f, 2:71f, 3:344
Svecofennian domain 2:40, 2:42f, 2:43f
Sveconorwegian orogeny 2:44
Sveconorwegian Province 3:155, 3:156f
sveite(KAl 7 (NO3)4Cl2(OH) 16 -8H 2 O)
3:556
Sverdrup Basin 3:347
Svesk-Ingulets-Kirovograd basin 2:45-46
swaley cross-stratification 4:574/1, 4:576f9
4:599f
Sweden
Devonian 4:199
Grenville orogeny 3:155, 3:1 56f
Holocene 2:150
meteorites 5:235
Ordovician4:176-177
Permo-Carboniferous magmatism 2:98
Silurian 4:187f, 4:191-192
Switzerland 2:125, 2:130f, 2:241, 2:504,
3:79,3:352,3:361
Sydney Basin 1:242, 1:250
syenite 3:220;, 3:550
Sykes, Lynn 3:205
Sylhet Traps 3:292
sylvanite ((Au,Ag)Te 2 ) 3:119;, 3:630t
sylvite 1:552, 3:221*, 5:94-95
symplectites 5:534
symplesite 3:508t
Synapsida 2:538
synapsids
definition 3:351
Eothyrididae 2:485
Mesozoic 2:527
synchesite 3:221
Synechococcus 2:435
synthetic aperture radar systems 4:415;,
4:417, 4:418f
szaibelyite (Mg2B2O5-H2O) 3:511, 3:512;,
3:512f, 3:514
szenicsite (Cu 3 MoO 4 (OH) 4 ) 3:552;
szomolnokite (FeSO4-H20) 3:573
T
Taal, Philippines 4:387t
Ta'al volcano, Philippines 5:575
Tabberabberan Orogeny 3:139
Tabenbulakian land mammal age 5:473f
Table Mountain Shelf 3:128-129, 3:134f
Tablets of Stone (Exodus) 1:256
tabular jointing 3:328f
tachyhydrite 5:94-95
Taconic orogeny
tectonostratigraphical zones 4:82f,
4:83-84, 4:85
Southern/Central Appalachians 4:72,
4:74/i 4:77
Tadzhikistan 1:168, l:518f
taenite 3:553;, 3:554
tafoni 5:583-585, S:S87f
Tahiti 3:315f, 3:316t
Taimyr 4:179
tainakhite (Cu 9 Fe 8 S 16 ) 3:575;, 3:577f
Taiwan 3:7;
talc
metamorphic facies 3:396-397, 3:397f,
3:400f
world production rates l:438t
talmessite 3:508t
Talobre,]. 3:192
Taltson-Thelon Orogeny 4:17
talus l:528t, 4:689
Tamassee Superterrane 4:74f
Tambora, Indonesia 5:575;
Tanami Orogeny 1:211 f, 1:213
tangeite (CaCuVO 4 (OH)) 3:589;
tantalum (Ta)
carbonatites 3:223;
pegmatites 3:639
mineral classification systems 3:501t
partitioning behaviour 3:639;
786
INDEX
Tanzania 3:12, 5:491t, 5:492f

tanzanite 3:7t
Tapejara 2:512f, 2:514
Tappania plana 4:358
taranakite 5:126
tarapacaite (K 2 CrO 4 ) 3:533?
tarmac 1:4831
tar mats 4:237?, 4:242-243
TaseevoAngara-Lena Basin 4:461, 4:463f
Tasmania 3:129, 3:147, 5:451
Tasmanides 1:208, 1:209f, 1:239 f
Tasman Line
Cambrian 1:225 f
geological map l:239f, l:241f
Proterozoic 1:208, 1:209f, l:224f
tectonic map 1:23If
l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:245, l:248f
fault traces 1:243f, 1:245f, 1:246f
geological map l:238f, l:239f, 1:241 f,
l:244f, 1:245 f
back-arc basin closure 1:247, 1:248f,
1:249 f

characteristics 1:239, l:240t
evolution
1:250
geological map 1:239f, 1:241 f
lithofacies 1:242
magmatism 1:244, 1:247f
metamorphic complexes 1:244,
1:246 f

lithofacies l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242, 1:243f
mafic rocks 1:243f
magmatism 1:244, l:247f, 1:249f
New England Orogeny l:239f, l:240t,
1:241 f, 1:242, l:249f, 1:250
ophiolites 1:242, 1:245-247
palaeogeographic reconstruction l:248f,
1:249 f
Proterozoic 1:223f, l:224f, 1:225-226

Ross Orogeny 1:245
subprovinces l:240t
tectonic evolution
Andean-type mountain building 1:250

1:248 f, 1:249
orogenic events 1:245, 1:247, 1:248f,
1:249, 1:249 f
volcanism 1:250
l:241f, 1:242
timetable of events 1:223 f
turbidites l:240t, 1:241 f, 1:242,
1:243-244
Tasman Sea 5:467f, 5:468
Tasmantid Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316t
Tasman Traps 3:363?
Tatarian stage 4:208f, 4:209f
Tauern window 2:128f, 2:129, 2:130-132,
2:132f, 2:133f
Taupo, New Zealand 3:246, 4:387t
Taurides 2:135-146, 4:155f, 4:155-156
Tawuia 4:357, 4:358, 4:359f
Taylor, Frank 2:247-248, 3:193
Taylor, Ross 5:443-444
tectonic processes
Argentina l:156f
Armorica 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:82f, 2:83f
Atlantic Margin 4:95, 4:96f, 4:97f, 4:102
Australia, Phanerozoic l:231f, 1:236
Avalonia 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:82f, 2:83f
Baltica 2:73, 2:73f
Brazil l:306f
central Europe 2:79, 2:80f, 2:81f, 2:102
cratons 5:177
Cretaceous 3:362
crustal deformation 1:408, 1:408f,
1:409f, 3:647-648, 4:16, 5:425-428
characteristics
focus 5:318, 5:318f
generation process 1:500, l:500f
5:319f,5:320f
Richter scale 5:319-320, 5:320?
seismic waves 5:318-319, 5:320f,
5:332, 5:332f, 5:333f
3:194
global distribution 4:341 f, 5:321,
5:322f
hazard analysis
1:505 f, 1:509 f

5:325f, 5:327f
disease 5:328
European Macroseismic Scale l:502t
exposure 5:328
fire effects 5:325
frequency 1:517t
1:504
ground motion prediction
techniques 1:506
l:513f
historic earthquakes 5:326?
intensity scales 1:501, 1:502t
landslides 3:93f, 5:327
liquefaction 1:33-34, 1:525-534,
l:556f, 3:94, 5:325, 5:328f
looting 5:328
scale 5:322, 5:323?
mortality rates 1:517t, l:518t
residual shear strength 1:531,1:53If
shear anlysis 1:530f
starvation 5:328
tsunamis 5:325
urban environments 5:322, 5:324f,
5:327f
Japan 3:298, 3:300f
4:32
rock densities 5:32If
volcanism 5:575
Europe
2:102
main tectonic units 2:106f, 3:648,
3:648f
rift systems
Cretaceous 2:113
INDEX 787
tectonic processes (continued)

Eocene 2:117
Jurassic 2:108
Miocene 2:120
Palaeocene 2:113, 2:117, 2:119f
Permian 2:105, 2:106f
Triassic 2:105
2:102
folding 5:339-351
anticlines 4:298f, 5:339f
bending 5:347
box folds 5:345f
buckle folds
anisotropic materials 5:340/1, 5:344,
5:345f
buckle folds 5:340
interface buckling 5.-340/", S:341f
multilayer buckling 5:340f, 5:343,
5:343f, 5:344f, 5:346f
single layer buckling 5:340f, 5:341,
5:342f, 5:343f
wavelength/thickness ratio 5:341,
5:343f
definitions 5:339
experimental research 5:344, 5:346f
forced folds 5:347, 5:347f
geometric features 5:339, 5:339ft
5:340f
mechanisms 5:346f
plains-type folding 4:32, 4:34?, 4:35f
salt domes 5:348, 5:349f
strike-slip faulting 5:347-348, 5:348f
three-dimensional (3D) geometry
5:346, 5:347f
fossils 4:157
fractures 5:352-361
definition 5:352
fluid pressure effects
fluid-induced failure 5:356, 5:357f
fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f
folding 5:349, S:350f9 5:351f
formation mechanisms
conjugate normal faults 5:354f
5:354-355, 5:355f
Mohr stress circle 5:353/", 5:3 55f,
5:356, 5:357f
occurrence criteria 5:356
shear fractures 5:352,5:352f, 5:354f
tensile fractures 5:354, 5:355f
fracture analysis 5:360
fracture networks 5:359, 5:359f
fracture sets 5:358
scale 5:360, 5:360f

strain analysis 5:334, 5:335/", 5:336/",
5:349, 5:351f
stress analysis 5:334, 5:334f, 5:335/",
5:338f
surface features 5:361, 5:361f
tensile fractures
5:355f
fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357/",
5:358f
Gondwana
Brazil 1:3 06^
Cambrian 3:132f
Phanerozoic 1:222, 1:306, l:308f
western Europe 2:82f, 2:83f
Grenville orogeny
anorthosite-mangerite-charnockitegranite (AMCG) suite 3:160
Elzevirian Orogeny 3:157, 3:158f,
3:159f
Flinton Group 3.-159/", 3:160
3:163 f
post-Ottawan activity 3:159f9 3:162
Japan 3:300, 3:302f
Kyrgyzstan 1:167
lakes 4:558, 4:560f
Laurasia 4:214-215
Laurentia 2:73, 2:73f, 3:155, 4:9, 4:19,
4:89
Mediterranean region 2:135-146
central Mediterranean 2:144
eastern Mediterranean 2:144
lithospheric thinning 2:136
lithospheric westward drift 2:136,
2:141f
palaeogeodynamics 2:138f, 2:139f,
2:140f
2:135-136
2:141f, 2:142f
western Mediterranean 2:136, 2:140f9
2:141f
faulting processes
fault scarps 5:3 84f, 5:385f

5:386-387
hydrothermal vents 5:373-375,
5:388-395
black smokers. See black smokers
chimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393f
deposit size 5:390
formation locations 5:389
fossil record 5:394
growth stages 5:391, 5:392/",
5:393f
mineralogy 5:391, 5:394?
white smokers 5:365, 5:390/j
5:390-391
5:404f
continental propagators 5:402f9
5:403, 5:403f, 5:404f
evolution 5:396
implications 5:403
microplates 5:398, 5:400f, 5:401f
oceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396/",
5:397f
ridge segmentation
5:379f
characteristics 5:3 76?
discontinuities 5:3 74f, 5:375,
5:376?, 5:377f, 5:378f, 5:379f
hierarchies 5:3 77f
magma supply 5:375, 5:378f9 5:382f
mantle upwelling 5:376-377,5:378f
5:396f
seawater chemistry 5:96
axial magma chamber
5:407, 5:413f
5:413f
7SS
INDEX
tectonic processes (continued]

5:411 f
structural variations 5:414, 5:415'f,
5:416f
spreading centres
magnetic anomalies 1:83f
morphology 5:373
5:374f, 5:375, 5:396-405
sea floor spreading l:83f, 3:198,
3:203, 3:204-205, 3:362-363
topography 5:374f, 5:384-386
volcanoes 5:566f
Miocene
Africa 5:481
Eurasia
Messinian Salinity Crisis 1:25,
5:481
North America
Cascade Range 5:481
South America
5:421f
Alps
Oligocene 5:477
1:137, 1:250, 5:419, 5:419f
Dana, James D. 3:182, 3:183f
3:177
3:182, 3:183f
Hall, James, Jr. 2:198, 2:199f, 3:182

3:157, 3:164, 5:420, 5:422f
Central Alps 2:117, 3:654, 3:655f
Western Alps 2:117
motive forces 2:251
ophiolites 5:418
definition 5:425
glacial isostatic adjustment 2:15If,
5:427
North Africa
Alpine Orogeny 1:17
Infracambrian tectonic processes 1:13
1:16f
tectonic map l:15f
North America
Miocene
Basin and Range 5:480
Cascade Range 5:481
northern Cordillera 4:37/", 4:38
Ouachita Mountains
4:70
fold and thrust belts 4:62, 4:62^
tectonic map 4:23 f
Precambrian continental nucleus 4:9f
southern Cordillera 4:51f, 4:58, 4:59/",
4:60
Ordovician 4:182
Pangaea
Carboniferous 4:225, 4:226f
components 4:225
definition 4:225
microplate terranes 4:228

Permian 4:226/", 4:227
Phanerozoic 1:222
Triassic 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f, 4:227
Permian 4:214
2:101f,2:96
plate tectonics 4:340-349. See also
basic principles
asthenosphere 4:340, 4:343f
deformation mechanisms
4:340-341, 4:343f
global seismicity 4:341 f
lithosphere 4:340, 4:343f
plate boundaries 4:340, 4:342f
Earth 1:424, 1:426 f
Grenville orogeny 3:164, 3:164f
mantle plumes (hotspots) 1:424, 4:348
mechanisms
direct forces 4:349
plate velocities 4:349
morphology
4:344
4:343f,4:344f,5:374f,
5:429-430
transform plate boundaries 4:343,
4:343f, 4:345f, 5:429-430
plate kinematics
absolute plate motions 4:348,
4:348f
relative plate motion 4:346, 4-347f
terranes 5:455
Pliocene 5:487, 5:487t
Rheic Ocean 2:79, 2:80f, 2:82f
sedimentary basin formation 2:101 f, 2:96
sequence stratigraphy 5:171, 5:171 f
South America 1:306, l:307f, l:308t,
1:308 f
Suess, Eduard 2:233, 2:238, 2:239/",
2:240f
tectonic erosion 5:317t
tectonic terrains 3:93f, 3:94, 3:94f
Triassic 3:346, 3:346f, 4:102
Turkmenistan 1:166
Variscides Orogeny 2:76f, 2:79, 2:80f,
2:81f
Vendian 4:371
western Europe 2:80, 2:82f, 2:83f, 2:102
See also faulting processes; orogenic
events
INDEX 7S9
Teide, Tenerife 5:575

Tejas sequence, North America 4:25-26,
4:26f
tektites 5:443-455
Archaean 5:454
australites 5:446, 5:448f, 5:449f,
5:450f
bediasites 5:444, 5:446f
China 5:444f
composition 5:449
5:453
Darwin, Charles 5:443, 5:444f
Devonian 5:454
Eltanin glasses 5:451
Eocene 5:444, 5:452
experimental data 5:449, 5:452f, 5:453f
irghizites 5:451
Libyan desert glass 5:450
meteorites 5:235
microspherules 5:452
microtektites 5:444, 5:445t, 5:447-448,
5:451 f, 5:452-453
Miocene 5:444
moldavites 5:444-445, 5:446f
morphology 5:448f, 5:449f, 5:450f,
5:453f
Mount Darwin glass 5:451
occurrence 5:443
origin hypotheses 5:443, 5:449-450
Pleistocene 5:444
shock metamorphism 5:182
strewn fields
Australasia 5:445?, 5:445/", 5:446
central Europe 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f
geographic distribution 5:445?, 5:445f
Ivory Coast 5:445, 5:445?, 5:445f,
5:447f
North America 5:444, 5:445?, 5:445f
urengoites 5:451
zhamanshinites 5:451
Teleorhinus 2:504
teleosteans 2:466f9 2:466-467
tellurium (Te)
gold deposits 3:118-119
3:502t
S:114t
Telychian Stage 4:185-186, 4:186f, 4:187f,
5:511f, 5:517f
temnospondyls
Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:S20f
Capitosauroidea 2:518, 2:S19f
Carboniferous 2:473 f, 2:474-475,
2:519-520, 2.-520/", 4:211
cladogram 2:473f
Mesozoic 2:516-523
Permian 2:476-477, 2:477f, 2:519-520,
2:S20f
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518f
Triassic 2:516-523, 2:517
tempestites 4:580, 4:580f, 4:581, 4:585f
tengchongite
(Ca(U0 2 ) 6 (Mo04)2(OH) 10 -7H 2 0)
3:552?
tennantite ((Cu,Zn) 12 (As,Sb) 4 S 13 ) 3:630?,
5:394t
Tennant,J. 3:476-477
Tennessee, United States 4:199, 4:33-34,
4:72, 4:73f
tensile fractures
fracture organisation 5:356, 5:357f,
5:358f
tephra
description 5:571
liquefaction l:528t
volcanic processes 5:576f
See also pyroclastic deposits
tephroites 3:558
terbium (Tb) 3:223?, 3:224f, 3:242f
Terek-Caspian foredeep 4:471
termites 2:297/", 2:300t
terraces 3:90, 5:432
terranes 5:455-459
accreted terranes
New Zealand 4:5f
Aegir Sea 5:455
Annamia 5:455, 5:457f
Appalachian superterranes 4:74f, 4:75f
Arabian-Nubian Shield 1:2, l:3f, l:4f,
l:5f
Argentina 1:160>/", 1:161
Armorica 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
Armorican Terrane Assemblage 2:75-85,
5:455
Australia 1:208
Australia, Phanerozoic 1:222, 1:223f
Avalonia 5:455, 5:457f
Baltica 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f
Beloretsk Terrane 2:51
Boundary Mountain Terrane 4:83-84
Caledonides
British Isles
Monian terrane 2:60
China 5:455, 5:457f
Cimmeria 3:13Of
crustal provinces 4:23/", 5:175, 5:176f
definition 5:455
East European Craton 2:44f, 4:458f,
4:459f
Gondwana 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
Hellenic Terrane 5:458f9 5:458-459
Isaqueena Superterrane 4:74f
Japan 3:302
Kazakhstan 3:130f
Laurentia 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457f
Laurussia 1:222, 5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
Moesia 5:458f, 5:458-459
New Zealand
age ranges 4:5f
4:5f
geological map 4:2 f, 4:4f
metamorphic overprints 4:4f, 4:6
plutons 4:6
Western Province terranes 4:2, 4:4f,
4:5f
North China terrane 1:234, 3:130f,
5:455, 5:457f, 5:458f
northern Cordillera 4:40f, 4:42, 4:45
Notre Dame subzone 4:85
ophiolites4:84
palaeoterranes
continuity 5:458
evaporites 5:458
faunal assemblages 5:457-458
glaciogenic sediments 5:458
ocean-floor magnetic stripes
5:456-457
5:458f
sediment distribution 5:458
tectonic belts 5:458
Pangaea 3:130f, 4:228, 5:455
Perunica 5:455, 5:458f
790
INDEX
terranes (continued)
Pontides of Turkey 5:458f, 5:458-459
Precambrian 4:352
Precordillera terrane 4:83f
regional metamorphism 4:407
Rheic Ocean 5:455
Rheno-Hercynian Terrane 5:455
Rodinia 5:455
Russia 4:456, 4:459f, 4:462f, 4:466f
Siberia 3:130f, 5:455, 5:457/, 5:458f
Sibumasu 5:455, 5:457f
South China terrane 3.-130/J 5:455,
5:457f, 5:458f
South-east Asia
constraining factors 1:176t, 1:179t
distribution 1:170f, l:172f, 1:173f,
l:182f, 1:184f
origins 1:171, 1:17 6t
1:175
constraining factors 1:176?, l:179t
Jurassic 1:175
sutures 1:1791
timeframes l:175f
Triassic 1:175
sutures 5:455
Tamassee Superterrane 4:74f
Timanide Orogeny 2:5'Of
terranovaite 3:593?
terroir 3:85, 3:88-89
Tersk domain 2:44f
Tertiary
Alps 2:128f, 2:131f, 2:132f, 2:134f
amphibians 2:523
Antarctica 1:134f
Arabia 1:142 f9 l:144f
birds (Aves) 2:499
Krazi[l:317f, 1:318 f
Caledonian Orogeny 2:64f
cephalopods 2:389f
corals 2:325 f
3:372-385
amphibians 2:523
causal mechanisms
3:377f
stratigraphy 3:373f
3:381f
Neornithes 2:499-500, 2:501f
stratigraphy 3:373f
tektites 5:453
echinoids 2:354
Gondwana 1:170f, 1:172f
insects 2:296-298, 2:299f
interior rifts 1:327
New Zealand 4: l,4:3f
North Africa 1:14^, 1:15f
4:25f, 4:26f
orogenic events l:238f
predation 4:145-146
terranes l:170f, 1:172f
Tsondab Sandstone, Namib Desert
4:546-547
Tertiary Igneous Province, United Kingdom
3:237?, 3:239
tertschite (Ca4B1oO19-20H2O) 3:513t
teruggite (Ca4MgAs2B12O28-20H2O)
3:513t
Terzaghi effective stress equation 5:185
Terzaghi, Karl 1:445, 3:192, 3:39, 5:185
Tessier, Alexandre 2:179
testudines 2:481
Tetagouche-Exploits back-arc basin 4:82f,
4:87, 4:87f
Teterev Belt 2:46
Tethys 5:287t, 5:288
Tethys Ocean
Ceno-Tethys Ocean 1:17Of, 1:170-171,
1:175 f
Eocene 3:295
Jurassic 2:108
Mediterranean region 2:135-146, 3:648
Meso-Tethys Ocean 1.-170/J 1:170-171,
1:175 f
Palaeo-Tethys Ocean 1:148, 1:170f,
1:170-171, I:175f9 1:182, l:182f,
1:184f
Pangaea 4:225
Permian 4:215
terranes 5:455
Triassic 2:108, 3:344, 3:346
tethytheres 2:540
Tetraceratops 2:489
Tetragraptus (Etagraptus) approximatus
4:177-178
tetrahedrite 3:58St
tetrapodomorphs 2:469, 2:4 70^
tetrapods
amniotes
Carboniferous 2:468, 2:473f,
4:211-212
eureptiles
parareptiles
testudines 2:481
synapsids 2:477-478, 2:479
biodiversity 1:263, l:263f, l:264f
Carboniferous
adelogyrinids 2:475
ai'stopods 2:473/", 2:475
amniotes 2:468, 2:473f, 4:211-212
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475
lepospondyls 2:475
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
microsaurs 2:473f, 2:476f, 4:211
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
China 1:352
Cretaceous 1:273 f
Devonian
limbs 2:471f
Jurassic 1:273 f
non-amniotes 2:468-478
adelogyrinids 2:475
ai'stopods 2:473 f, 2:475
INDEX
tetrapods (continued)
amniotes 2:473f
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475
fish 2:469
limbs 2:471f
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
microsaurs 2:473f, 2:47'6f, 4:211
nectrideans
cladogram 2:473f
skeletal material 2:471 f
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
Palaeocene 1:273 f
Palaeozoic
adelogyrinids 2:475
aistopods 2:473*; 2:475
amniotes 2:473f
anthracosaurs
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
baphetids
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
cladogram 2:473f
colosteids 2:473f, 2:474f, 2:475
fish 2:469
localities 2:472, 2:475-476
nectrideans
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 4:217
Romer's Gap 2:472, 2:473^
synapsids 2:477-478
temnospondyls
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
Permian
baphetids 2:476-477
lepospondyls 2:478
nectrideans 2:477/", 2:478
seymouriamorphs 2:477f,
2:477-478
synapsids 2:477-478
temnospondyls 2:476-477, 2:477f
species radiations 1:273f
temnospondyls
Carboniferous
cladogram 2:473f
non-amniotes
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
Palaeozoic
cladogram 2:473f
Permian 2:476-477
Permian 2:476-477
Triassic 3:350
Texarkana Platform 4:62f
Texas, United States
expansive clays 1:559f
Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, 5:511 f
Gondwana 3:147
Grenville orogeny 3:157, 4:50
Permian 4:214, 4:215f, 4:216-217,
4:221
791

tektites 5:443, 5:444, 5:445*, 5:446f
Tex igryphaea 4:161f
textulariana 3:45If
textulariids 3:45Of
Thailand 3:7*, 3:8, 4:192-193, 5:445*,
5:446-447
thailandites 5:446-447
Thalassia 3:524f, 3:530, 4:506, 4:506f,
4:564
Thalassinoides 3:357, 4:224, 5:44, 5:45f,
5:46f, 5:47f
Thalassodromeus 2:514
thallium (Tl) 2:22*, 5:114t
Thames Valley, England, United Kingdom
5:495
Thanetian stage
biozones 5:460f
Kmzi\l:322f,l:325f
5:517f
vegetation 3:370/j 3:383f
Thar Desert 3:296
Tharp, Marie 3:198
Tharsis uplift 5:278
Theil Mountains 3:151f
thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462
Thelodus 2:464f
Thelodus macintoski 2:459f
Thematic Mapper (TM) 4:432, 4:434*,
4:435, 4:436
Theophrastus 3:168
therapsids 2:489
thermal baths 3:113 f, 3:116, 3:116f
Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
(TIMS) 4:437
thermal infrared (TIR) sensors 4:434*,
4:437, 4:438f
thermal ionization mass spectrometry
(TIMS) 3:605
thermal maturation 3:448
thermal metamorphism 5:499-502
fluid-rock interactions 5:502
geological settings 5:501f
lithospheric fragments 5:499, S:SOOf
magmatic intrusions 5:500, 5:502f
mineral zones 5:501, 5:501f
regional scale processes 5:499
thermal structure 5:499, 5:500f
volcanism 5:501
thermocline 4:55If
792
INDEX
thermohaline circulation 4:224,

4:514-515, 4:517f, 4:643-644, 5:464,
5:470-471, 5:489
thermokarst 2:13
Thermopylae, Greece 3:15f
thermosphere 1:201 f
Theron Mountains, Antarctica 1:136f
Thetford Mines ophiolite 4:82f, 4:84f
Thiele, Johannes 2:383-384
Thomson, Charles W. 5:70-71
thomsonite 3:593t
Thomson, J.J. 3:604-605
Thomson Orogeny 1:239f, 1:240*, 1:241 f,
1:242
Thomson, William
See Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord
thorium (Th)
carbonatites 3:222, 3:223*, 3:224*
crustal composition 5:1 74t
radiometric dating 1:88*, 3:20
Venus 5:246*
Thornhill basin 2:96f, 2:98
thrips 2:300*
thulium (Tm) 3:223*, 3:224f, 3:242f
thunderstorms 1:S171
Thuringian forest 2:96f, 2:98
Thurston Island l:133f, l:134f, 1:137
Thylacosmilus 5:484
thymine 2:161, 2:162f
Thyreophora 2:493
Tia Metamorphic Complex 1:246f
Tianzhushania spinosa 4:361, 4:361 f
Tibet 3:344, 4:215-216, 4:221
Tibetan Plateau 1:353, 2:100, 5:423,
5:424f, 5:481, 5:488, 5:539
tidal flats 4:236f, 4:57If
Tien Shan Mountains 1:164-169
Tighe, William 3:60
tilasite 3:508*
till
kimberlite indicator minerals 3:23
mineral dispersion 3:21-22, 3:22f, 3:23
problematic soils 1:562
terminology 4:675
tillites 1:139-140, 2:59-60, 3:140f, 4:137,
4:180, 4:216, 4:675-676, 5:458
Timan Basin 4:214-215
Barents Shelf 2:50/j 2:53
Cambrian 4:62
East European Craton 2:34, 2:49-50,
2:53, 2:54f, 4:458-459, 4:464
foreland thrust-and-fold belt
2:50/", 2:51

Pechora Basin 2:50/i 2:51, 2:52/i 2:53/i
2:S4f
Polar Ural Mountains 2:50/", 2:52
Precambrian 4:352
terranes 2:5Of
Timan Range 2:49, 2:50f, 2:86-88, 2:87f
Timan Zone 2:5 2f, 2:53f
time, geological 5:503
time, human 5:503
Timor 3:344
tincal 3:510
Tincalayu mining district, Argentina
tincalconite (Na2B4O7-5H2O) 3:512*,
3:513*
tin (Sn)
economic deposits 1:439f
5:114t
toxicity 2:22*
Tippecanoe sequence, North America 4:25,
4:26f7 4:27f, 4:28
Tissfinian stage 4:169f
Titan 5:286, 5:287*
Titania 5:290-291, 5:291*
titanium (Ti)
carbonatites 3:221*, 3:223*
crustal composition 1:406*, 5:174*
glauconite 3:542*
ilmenite (FeTiO3)
carbonatites 3:221*
granites 3:234-235
kimberlites 3:24f, 3:254, 3:256*
magmatic ores 3:641
kimberlites 3:248*
magmatic ores 3:641
obsidian 3:269*
5:114*
rutile (TiO2) 3:254, 3:256*, 4:149*,
4:149 f
Venus 5:247*
Tithonian stage 3:352*, 3:353-354
Brazil 1:325 f

5:517f
Toarcian stage 3:352*, 3:354/", 3:355,
5:506f,5:517f
Tocantins erogenic system 1.-307/", l:314f,
1:319
Togiak terrane 4:40f, 4:42, 4:46
Tokelau Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316*
Tombaugh, Clyde 5:293
Tommotian stage 4:73-74, 4:167f
tonalites 3:237*, 3:238/", 3:242f
Tonga 4:53-54, 4:109, 4:120
Tonga Trench 4:109, 4:120, 5:430*,
5:430^
Tonian System 5:511 f
Tonle Sap, Cambodia 5:448
Tookoonooka, Australia 3:363*
topaz 3:7*, 3:235*
Topfer Coal Measures 3:147, 3:150f
topples 4:689
torbernite 5:122-123
tornadoes 1:516, 1:517*
Tornquist Ocean
Ordovician 2:78, 4:181-182
4:15'5~t",4:156
terranes 5:455
Tornquist-Teisseyre Line 2:97, 2:101 f,
2:102, 5:455
Torrey, John 2:195
Torrubia, Antonio 3:172
5:479f,5:506f,5:517f
tourmaline 3:7*, 3:512f, 3:563
Tournaisan stage 2:96f, 2:472, 4:201f,
4:202, 4:202f, 4:208f, 5:511/",
5:517f
tower karst 4:682-683, 4:683f
Toxopneustes 2:354
Toyonian stage 4:167f
trace elements
abundance 2:22*
occurrence 2:21
speciation 2:21, 2:22*
toxicity 2:22*
brachiopods 4:158, 4:158f
burrowing structures 5:520-521, 5:521ft
5:522f
chalk 5:44, 5:47f
Cnidarians 2:324
endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f 9
5:530f
ichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528f
INDEX
trace fossils (continued)

ethology
agrichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
behaviour variations 5:526f
cubichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
domichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
electron acceptors 5:527f
ethological classification 5:525f
fodinichnia 5:524, 5:525f
fugichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
pascichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
praedichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
repichnia 5:524, 5:525f, 5:526f
endobenthic tiering 5:529, 5:529f,
5:530f
ichnofacies 5:526, 5:527f, 5:528f
microbial structures 5:521f
predepositional/postdepositional trace
fossils 5:523f, 5:524
primary trace fossils 5:524
producer identification 5:521, 5:522f
pseudofossils 4:382
secondary trace fossils 5:523f, 5:524
taxonomy 5:521, 5:522f
Vendian 4:373, 4:374, 4:377-378
trachyandesites 2:98
Trachyhystrichosphaera polaris 4:359f
trachyte 3:571, 4:387t, 5:567-569, 5:571f
Trachyteuthis 2:394, 2:395f
TRANSALP project 2:129
Trans-Altai Mountains
See Tien Shan Mountains
Transamazonian thermotectonic event
l:308t
Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica
Beason Supergrooup 1:135
Gondwana 3:128
Jurassic 3:15If
mafic sills l:136f
Ross Orogeny 1:135
Theron Mountains 1:136f
Triassic 3:344
Transbaikalia 4:456
Trans-Eurasian fault system 4:458f, 4:464f,
4:467f
Trans-European Fault Zone 3:651, 3:652f
East European Craton 2:39f, 2:40 f^

2:41f, 2:42f, 2:43f
extent 3:648, 3:648f, 3:649f
transformism 2:182
transform plate boundaries 4:343, 4:343/",
4:345f, 5:429-430
Trans-Hudson Orogeny 1:211, 4:16, 4:19f,
4:352
Transsaharan Seaway 1:23
Transscandinavian Igneous Belt 2:41-44,
2:43f
Trans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,
2:91f, 2:92f, 4:468
Transverse Ranges, United States
5:476-477
Traquairia williamsonii 2:439f
Trask, Parker 3:190
travertine 3:116-117, 3:117f
travertine terraces 3:108, 3:108f, 3:628
Trechnotheria 2:528f
tree ferns 4:206f, 4:209f, 4:218f
tree of life 1:202, 1:203 f, 1:279, l:280f,
4:124, 4:125f, 4:365f
tree-ring studies
See dendrochronology
Tremadocian stage 2:78, 4:175, 4:176,
4:177, 4:179-180, 4:184, S:511f,
5:517f
Tremadocian subdivision 4:84f, 4:87f
Trematosauroidea 2:517, 2:517f, 2:518f
tremolite 3:396-397, 3:397f, 3:400f,
3:503, 3:505, 3:50Sf
Triadobatrachus 2:468
Triadobatrachus massinoti 2:521f
Triassic 3:344-351
Adamanian faunachron 3:345f
Aegean stage 3:345f
Afghanistan 3:344
Alaunian stage 3:345f
Mps2:131f,2:132f
amphibians
frogs 2:521f, 2:521-522
temnospondyls
Brachyopidae 2:519, 2:52 O/"
Lyrocephdiscus euri 2:517f
793
Micropholis 2:520f
2:518f
angiosperms 2:422/", 2:423
Anisian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221f, 5:506f,
5:517 f
Antarctica l:134f, 1:135, 1:136, 3:344
Apachean faunachron 3:345f
Atlantic Margin evolution 4:102, 4:95
Australia 3:344
Triassic, early-middle 1:228f, 1:235
Triassic, late 1:228f, 1:235
Triassic, middle l:228f, 1:235
Azerbaijan 3:344
Berdyankian faunachron 3:345f
biodiversity 1:262-263, 1:263 f, l:264f
Bithynian stage 3:345f
brachiopods 2:306f
Brazil l:317f, I:318f9 l:320f
Bunter formation, Germany 3:344
calcareous algae 2:428f9 2:431, 2:435f
Canada 3:344
carbon cycle 1:206
Carnian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f, 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517f
cephalopods 2:389f
China 1:347f, 3:344
chronostratigraphy 3:345, 3:345f, 4:25f
climate 3:347, 3:347f
conodonts 3:345, 3:441, 3:447
corals 2:325f
Cordevolian stage 3:345f
Cordillera 3:344
Dienerian stage 3:345, 3:345f
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:492, 2:493f,
3:350, 3:351f
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f9
4:460-461
echinoids 2:354
end-Permian extinctions
amphibians 2:516
4:221f
bivalves 2:377
brachiopods 2:309
bryozoans 2:317
causes 3:348
crinoids 4:220
794
INDEX
Triassic (continued)
fossil record 4:221, 4:221 f
gastropods 2:387
4:219 f
stratigraphy 4:219f
vegetation 4:220
Europe 2:105, 3:344
Fassanian stage 3:34Sf
fish 2:463f, 3:350
flora 3:348, 3:349f
Franz Josef Land 3:344
global eustasy 3:347
Points (GSSPs) 5:506f, S:Sllf
Gondwana
flora 3:349f
l:184f, 3:148f, 3:149f, 3:150f,
3:346
terranes 1:170f, 1:172 f, 1:17 Sf,
3:131f
Triassic, late l:184f, 3:147
Greenland 3:344
Griesbachian stage 3:345, 3:345f
gymnosperms
Bennettitales 2:453, 2:4S3f
Coniferales 2:450
Gnetales 2:453
Helsby Sandstone, England 4:546,
4:547f
Ichthyosauria 2:503
Illyrian stage 3:34Sf
Indonesia 3:344
Induan stage
chronostratigraphy 3:34Sf
extinction events 4:219f, 4:221 f,
4:224

and Points (GSSPs) 3:345, 5.-506/",
5:511 f
5:S17f
vegetation 3:349f
insects 2:296-298, 2:298f, 2:299f,
2:300t, 3:350
5:517f
invertebrates
ammonoids 3:348f, 3:349
bivalves (Bivalvia) 3:348f, 3:350
bryozoans 3:349f, 3:350
corals 3:348f, 3:350
crinoids 3:348f, 3:349f, 3:350
gastropods (Gastropoda) 3:348f,
3:350
Iran 3:344
Israel 3:344
Japan 3:344
jawless fish 2:460f
Julian stage 3:345f
Junggur Basin, China 3:344
Kashmir 3:344
Kazakhstan 1:164, l:184f, 3:344
Keuper formation, Germany 3:344
Lacian stage 3:345f
Ladinian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f, 4:219f, 4:221 f, 5:506f,
5:517f
Lagerstatten 3:310t
England 4:382, 4:383f
Laurasia 3:346, 3:348
Laurentia l:184f
Longobardian stage 3:345f
Lootsbergian faunachron 3:34Sf
mammals 2:538
Mangyshlak Peninsula, Kazakhstan
3:344
Meishan, China 3:344, 3:345
Muschelkalk formation, Germany 3:344
Nanpanjiang Basin, China 3:345
Newark, New Jersey, United States 3:344
New Zealand 3:344
Nonesian faunachron 3:345f
Norian stage 4:221 f, 5:506f, 5:517f
North Africa l:14f, I:15f9 l:19f, 1:21
4:25f, 4:26f, 4:32f
Olenekian stage
chronostratigraphy 3:34Sf
and Points (GSSPs) 3:345,
5:506f
5:517f

vegetation 3:349f
Ordos Basin, China 3:344
Otischalkian faunachron 3:345f
Pakistan 3:344
palaeoclimate models
biome zones 4:138f, 4:138-139
facies 4:137
flora 4:137-138
modelled temperatures 4:135, 4:136f
model-proxy correlation 4:135
precipitation 4:136, 4:13 7f
temperature-limited facies 4:136
palaeosols 5:203f
Pangaea 3:131f, 3:346, 3:346f, 4:226f,
4:227
Panthalassic Ocean 3:346
Parana basin l:320f
Pelsonian stage 3:345f
4:219 f
radiometric dating 3:345, 4:219
stratigraphy 4:219f
Perovkan faunachron 3:345f
predation 4:145-146
reef environments 3:350, 4:566f,
4:566-567
Revueltian faunachron 3:345f
Rhaetian stage 3:345, 3:345f, 3:347f,
3:349f,5:506f,5:517f
rock occurrences 3:344
sea-level 3:347, 3:347f
Sevatian stage 3:345f
Siberia 1:184f, 3:344
Smithian stage 3:345, 3:345f
South-east Asia
geological evolution 1:18It, 1:184,
1:184f
1:185 f
Spathian stage 3:345, 3:345f
Svalbard 3:344
tectonic processes 3:346, 3:346f, 4:102
Tethys Ocean 2:108, 3:344, 3:346
tetrapods 2:165, 2:165f, 3:350
Tibet 3:344
Timor 3:344
Transantarctic Mountains 3:344
Triassic-Jurassic boundary 3:345-346
INDEX 795
Triassic (continued)
Turkmenistan 1:166
Tuvalian stage 3:345f
Uralide orogeny 2:86, 2:87f, 2:89f
Uzbekistan 1:167
volcanism 3:345
See also Mesozoic
Tribrachidium 4:376, 4:378f
TriCa arsenate 3:509?
Trichophycus pedum 4:378
tridymite 3:540f, 3:569-570, 3:570f, 3:571
trilobites (Trilobita) 2:279f, 2:281-295
activities
digging 2:288
feeding strategies 2:278, 2:288
walking 2:288
anatomical features 2:286, 2:287/",
2:290f
Cambrian
biogeographical distribution 4:173f
stratigraphic correlation 4:167'f, 4:169f
cephalon 2:282f, 2:282-283, 2:283f,
2:284f
classification
Agnostida 2:291?
Asaphida 2:291t
Corynexochida 2:29It
Lichida 2:291?
major orders 2:292f
Phacopida 2:291?
Proetida 2:291?
Ptychopariida 2:291?
Redlichiida 2:291?
Deiphon 2:291, 2:291f
ecdysis 2:286-287
ecological structures 1:262?
exoskeletons 2:281, 2:281f, 2:282f,
2:285f, 2:288f, 2:292f
extinction 2:281,2:293
limbs 2:286, 2:287f, 2:288
morphology 2:281
Ordovician 2:164, 4:176-177, 4:179,
4:181f
pygidium 2:282/, 2:283, 2:284f
Silurian 4:185
thorax 2:282f, 2:283
Triassic 3:348f
visual systems 2:279, 2:283, 2:285/",
2:286f, 2:290f
Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus 5:486
Tristan da Cunha hotspot
3:335-336, 5:457
Triton 5:292, 5:292?
troilite (FeS) 3:575?, 3:577f, 3:580f
trona 1:30
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM) satellite 4:439
tropopause 1:201 f
troposphere 1:201 f, 5:217f
troy ounce 3:118
Tsangiangpuian stage 4:167f
tschermakite 3:505, 3:505f
tschernichite 3:593?
tschortnerite 3:593?
Tsondab Sandstone, Namib Desert
4:546-547
tsumcorite 3:508t
tsunamis
earthquake effects 1:500, 5:325
earthquake mitigation methods
1:458-459
hazard analysis
frequency 1:517?
mortality rates 1:517?, 1:518?
Red Sea crossing (Exodus) 1:255
volcanism 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f
Tuamotu Archipelago 3:315f, 3:316?
tube worms 4:512f, 4:512-513
Tubiphytes 3:350
tufa 3:116-117, 3:523f
tuff 1:546-547, 2:98, 3:218?, 4:388f,
4:390, 5:572?, 5:572^
Tulerpeton
limbs 2:471f
Tuloma domain 2:44 f
tungstenite (WS2) 3:575?, 3:582f
tungsten (W)
carbonatites 3:223?
3:502?
5:114?
toxicity 2:22?
tungstate minerals 3:586-588
tungstibite (Sb2WO6) 3:587?
Tunguska basin 4:461, 4:463f, 5:448
Tunisia 1:12-25, 2:129, 3:361, 3:372-373,
5:460, 5:506f
tunnelling 3:481, 3:482f, 4:482
tunnellite (SrB6Oi0-4H2O) 3:512?, 3:513?
turanite (Cu5(VO4)2(OH)4) 3:589?
turbidites
accretionary wedges 5:310f, 5:31 If
China 1:350
contourites 4:526, 4:645-646
deep-water sediments 4:514, 4:514/",

4:645-646
lakes 4:552f, 4:554-556, 4:555f
sediment deposition processes 5:6, 5:10,
5:11/",5:13
convolute lamination 4:604-606
dish and pillar structures 4:607f
load casts 4:605f
storm deposits 4:580, 4:582f, 4:586f
Tasman Orogenic Belt 1:240?, l:241f,
1:242, 1:243-244
Timanide Orogeny 2:51
turbidity currents 4:644, 5:3, 5:3f
turbulence 5:548-549
Turgai Straits 5:466-468, 5:471, 5:476
turjaites 5:569-571
Turkey l:532f, 3:129, 3:596, 4:215-216,
4:471, 5:506f
Turkey, borate deposits 3:513?
Turkmenistan 1:166
Turonian-Maastrichtian boundary 3:383
Turonian stage
anoxic events 3:363
Brazil l:322f,l:325f
5:517f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363?
marine vertebrates 3:368/", 3:38If
vegetation 3:37'Of, 3:383f
turquoise 3:7?, 3:13, 5:122
turtles 5:469
turtles, sea 2:505, 2:S05f
Tuscany 3:655f, 3:656
Tuttle, Orville 3:187
Tuvalian stage 3:345f
Tuvalu Seamounts 3:315f, 3:316?
Tuva-Mongol arc 4:466
Twenhofel, William Henry 2:245
Tydemania 2:432
Tylor, Edward Burnet 3:97
Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505
Tympanicysta 4:220
typological species 1:267
Tyrannosaurus rex 4:162
Tyrrhenian Sea 2:135-146
tyuyamunite (Ca(UO 2 ) 2 (VO 4 ) 2 -8H 2 O)
3:589?, 3:589-590
u
Uatuma thermotectonic event 1:308?
Udden,Johann 3:188
796
INDEX
Udotea 2:432
Ukraine 4:190, 4:197, 4:199
Ukraine Craton 5:39
Ukrainian Shield 2:35f, 2:36, 2:42f
Ulawan volcano, Papua New Guinea
5:575
ulexite (NaCaB 5 O 9 -8H 2 O)
Argentine borate deposits 3:S13t
commercial production 3:511-512,
3:512t
composition 3:512t
geochemical cycle 3:512f
geology 3:511
mineralogy 3:511
Turkish borate deposits 3:513t
uses 3:514
Ulianovsk-Saratov Basin 4:456
ultisols5:;/96*
ultracataclasite 3:388t
5:533-540
coesite 5:533, 5:533f, 5:534f
exsolution effects 5:535f, 5:535-536
global distribution
Alps 5:536f, 5:537
Bohemian Massif 5:535-536, 5:536f,
5:538,5:539
Dabie Shan, China 5:533, 5:535-536,
5:536/j 5:537
Himalayan Mountains 5:536f, 5:538,
5:539
Kokchetav Massif, Kazakhstan 5:533,
5:535-536, 5:536/", 5:537, 5:539
Norwegian Caledonides 5:536/", 5:537
occurrences 5:536f
pressure-temperature diagram 5:533f,
5:539f
ultramafic rocks
See metamorphic rocks; olivine
ultramylonite 3:388t
Umba granulite domain 2:44f
Umbriel 5:290-291, 5:291t
umohoite (UO2MoO4-4H2O) 3:552*
uncomprahgrites 5:569-571
unconformities 5:541-547
angular unconformity 5:541/", 5:544t
definitions 5:541, 5:546-547
diastem 5:541
disconformity 5:541f
eustatic cycles 5:546f, S:547f
heterolithic unconformity 5:541f,
5:542-543, 5:544*
Hutton, James 2:203, 2:203f, 3:175,

3:175f, 5:542, 5:543f
Isle of Arran 5:542, 5:543f
lateral variations 5:543
marine-flooding surfaces 5:546, 5:546f
nomenclature 5:544*
nonconformity 5:542-543, 5:544*
non-sequence 5:541
4:30
offlap 5:542
onlap 5:541f, 5:542
overlap 5:541f, 5:542
overstep 5:541f, 5:541-542
seismic reflection 5:156f
seismic stratigraphy 5:545
sequence stratigraphy 5:545, 5:545,
5:545*, 5:546/i 5:547f
type 1 unconformity 5:546, 5:546f
type 2 unconformity 5:546, 5:547f
ungemachite
(K 3 Na 8 Fe(N03) 2 (S0 4 )6-6H 2 0)
3:556*
ungulates 2:539, 5:485
flow separation 5:552, 5:552/", 5:554f
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities 5:552/",
5:552-553
stress-strain relationships 5:549, 5:549f
5:554, 5:554f, 5:555f
turbulent flows
processes 5:548
5:551f
velocity profiles 5:549, 5:549f, 5:554f,
5:555f
uniformitarianism
Hutton, James 1:430, 2:205, 5:296-297
Lyell, Charles 2:207, 3:177, 5:297-298
Union Franâis des Geologues 3:75
United Kingdom
batholiths 3:238f
beer brewing process 3:78-81
Cornwall, United Kingdom 3:238f
Devonshire, United Kingdom 4:194
East Kirkton, Scotland, United Kingdom
4:210-211
Faroe-Shetland Basin, United Kingdom

l:103f, 1:103-104, l:104f
geological surveys 3:173, 3:476, 3:69
Kingdom 2:455-456, 3:308, 3:441,
3:442f
Isle of Wight, United Kingdom 5:468f
Oxford Clay, United Kingdom 3:310-311
petroleum reserves 4:335f
Pleistocene 5:493
Shropshire, United Kingdom 4:176,
4:177-178,4:185,4:188-189
Tertiary Igneous Province, United
Kingdom 3:237*, 3:239
Thames Valley, England, United
Kingdom 5:495
Yorkshire, United Kingdom 4:201
See also Australia; Canada; England;
Europe; Ireland; New Zealand;
Scotland; Wales
United States 3:7*, 3:363*, 4:219f
See also specific states
United States Geological Survey (USGS)
3:67,3:69,4:332
Unzen, Japan 5:575, 5:575*
aeromagnetic map 2:87f, 2:93f
Bouguer gravity anomaly 2:92-94, 2:93/
East European Craton 2:34-35, 3:648
East Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,
2:91f, 2:92f
2:90-91, 4:467
seismic profile 2:91f, 2:92f
tectonic evolution
island arcs 2:88
Trans-Uralian zone 2:86, 2:87f, 2:88f,
2:91f, 2:92f, 4:468
Ural Mountains
Carboniferous 4:201
East European Craton 2:41 f
gemstones 3:12
4:467f
INDEX 797
Ural Mountains (continued)

Permian 4:214-215, 5:511 f
Silurian 4:192-193
tectonic map 4:467f
Timanide Orogeny
foreland thrust-and-fold belt 2:50f,
2:51
Urals Seismic Experiment and Intetgrated
Studies (USEIS) experiment 2:88f,
2:90, 2:91f, 2:92f
Urals Wide-Angle Reflection Seismics
(UWARS) experiment 2:90
uraninite (UO 2 ) 3:585?, 3:630t
uranium (U)
Australia 1:218/, 1:221
carbonatites 3:222, 3:223?, 3:224t
economic deposits 1:437, 1:438t
3:28f
fission track analysis
Helium Partial Retention Zone
1:50-51
spontaneous fission 1:44, l:44f,
1:45 f
radiometric dating 1:88?, 3:20, 3:604,
4:202f, 5:518
toxicity 2:22?
Venus 5:246?
Urannah Complex 1:247f
uranospinite 3:508f
uranotungstite ((Fe,Ba,Pb)(UO 2 ) 2 (WO 4 )
(OH)4-12H2O) 3:587t
Uranus
ring system 5:290, 5:290?
satellite image 5:2 89f
satellite system 5:290-291
Ariel 5:290-291, 5:291?
Miranda 5:290-291, 5:291?
Oberon 5:290-291, 5:291?
Titania 5:290-291, 5:291?
Umbriel 5:290-291, 5:291?
urban geology 5:557-563
cities 5:557
Cities of the World 5:558, 5:559?
discontinuities 5:558, 5:563f
engineering contributions 5:560?
environmental geology
built environment 2:29, 2:29f
geomaterials 2:29, 2:29f
urban environments 2:25, 2:26f
foundation materials 5:558f
geotechnical constraints 5:560?
groundwater 5:558
importance 5:557
site characterization 5:558, 5:558f,
5:561?, 5:562, 5:562?, 5:563f
societal issues 5:562?
soils 5:558
urban construction constraints 5:558,
5:561?, 5:562?
urban development 5:558, 5:558f
ureilites 5:231?
urengoites 5:445f, 5:451
Urey, Harold 3:187-188
urtite3:219/"
Ussher, James 1:257, 3:170
Utah, United States 3:123, 4:177, 4:216,
5:476-477
uvanite ((UO 2 ) 2 (V 6 O 17 )-15H 2 O(?)) 3:589?
uvarovite (Ca3Cr2Si3Oi2) 3:561
uytenbogaardtite 3:119?
Uzbekistan 1:167, 5:51 If
V
Vaalbara 4:14f
Vacqueros benthic foraminiferal stage
5:473f
vadose zone 4:684f
Vaigach Island 2:53
Vail, Peter 5:159
Vaiont Landslide 4:632, 4:688, 4:692
Valais basin 2:125-126, 2:126f, 2:127,
2:127f, 2:133f, 2:133-135
Valanginian stage
Brazil l:322f,l:325f
5:517f
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:363?
Valentian subdivision 4:185
Valeria lophostriata 4:358
valeriite 5:394?
Valles Marineris 5:279
Val Verde Basin 4:67

Vampyroteuthis 2:395
vanadinite (Pb 5 (VO 4 ) 3 Cl) 3:589?
vanadium bronzes 3:588, 3:589?
vanadium (V)
carbonatites 3:223?
magmatic ores 3:641
3:502?
5:114?
oil content 4:257, 4:257f
toxicity 2:22?
vanadate minerals 3:588-590
vanadium bronzes 3:588, 3:590
vanalite (ca NaAl 9 (V 12 O 44 )(OH) 4 -33H 2 O)
3:589?
Van Allen radiation belts 5:217
Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
Canada 4:38
VanuaLevu4:118, 4:119f
Vanuatu
geology 4:115, 4:115f
obsidian 3:274-275
volcanoes 5:567f
Vanuatu Trench 4.-115/", 4:115-116
vanuralite(Al(UO 2 ) 2 (VO 4 ) 2 (OH)-HH 2 O)
3:589?
vanuranylite ((H 3 O,Ba,Ca-K) 2
(U0 2 ) 2 (V0 4 ) 2 -4H 2 0(?)) 3:589?
Vanuxem, Lardner 2:195
Varanger Peninsula 2:50
Varanodon 2:486-487
Varanops 2:486-487
variograms 4:323, 4:327f
central Europe 2:79, 2.-80/", 2:81/, 3:651
Devonian 2:78, 2:79
Europe 2:95
Iberia 2:80, 2:82/i 2:83f
2:76f, 2:77f
3:653
foreland 2:97
798 INDEX
Variscides Orogeny (continued)

2:101f
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Saar-Nahe Basin 2:96, 2:97, 2:98-99,
2:101f
Silurian 2:78
Suess, Eduard 2:238
tectonic processes 2:76f, 2:79, 2:80f,
2:81f
3:652f, 5:455
5:538
western Europe 2:80, 2:82f9 2:83f9 3:651
See also Hercynian Orogeny
variscite 3.-50S/", 5:122
varved clays 1:562, l:S63f
varves 4:554, 4:555f
Vatulele4:118
Vaughn, Arthur 3:62
vauquelinite(Pb 2 Cu(CrO 4 )(PO 4 )(OH))
3:533*
Vauquelin, Nicholas 3:178
veatchite-A (Sr4B22O37-7H2O) 3:513*
vector data representation 4:421, 4:422f
Veen,J. der 3:192
vegetation
angiosperms
2:423-424
cell structure 2:420f
Cretaceous 3:370
floral diversity 2:419f
magnoliids 2:418, 2:419f
origins 2:420, 2:422/
Palmoxylon 2:420f
pollen 2:418, 2:420-422, 2:424f,
2:426f
Quercus 2:420f
water lily 2:425f
Antarctica 1:136, 1:139
C4 photosynthetic pathways 5:482,
5:483, 5:484, 5:491
Carboniferous 4:206f, 4:209, 4:209f
China 1:353
conifers 4:206f9 4:209f
Cordaites 4:206f, 4:209f

3:382, 3:383f
Eocene 5:469, 5:471
fungi
Ascomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441
2:440-441
Chytridiomycetes 2:437, 2:438f9
2:439f
fossil fungi 2:437
Rhynie chert 2:437, 2:438f, 2:439f
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
lichens
hyphae 2:441-442
Nematophytes 2:441
Araucaria mirabilis 2:45'Of
Carboniferous 1:262-263, 1:263 f
Cretaceous 1:262-263, 1:263 f9 3:370
definition 3:351
Glossopteris 2:451f
Jurassic 1:262-263, I:263f9 3:359
major groups
Coniferales 2:450, 2:450f, 2:451f
Cordaitales 2:449
Glossopteridales 2:450, 2:451 f
Gnetales 2:453
Pentoxylales 2:452
Voltziales 2:449
Metasequoia 2:451 f
origins 2:445
Permian 1:262-263, 1:263 f
phylogenetic relationships 2:445'f
Triassic 1:262-263, 1:263 f
Holocene 2:147, 2:149f, 2:152f, 2:153f,
2:155 f
Jurassic 3:359
Kyrgyzstan 1:167, l:168f
Lycopods 4:206f9 4:209f
Miocene 5:483
Oligocene 5:475
palynology
Quaternary 3:464
Permian I:186f9 4:217, 4:218f
3:349f, 4:220
Pleistocene 5:495
Pliocene 5:489, 5:491
Pteridosperms 4:206f9 4:209f
South-east Asia 1:178-182, l:186f
Sphenopsids 4:206f, 4:209f
tree ferns 4:206f, 4:209f
Triassic 1:167, I:168f9 3:348, 3:349f
Velfreyan substage 4:183f
Vendian 4:371-381
bioturbation 4:378
Caledonian Orogeny 2:73, 2:73f
chronostratigraphy 4:17Of
East European Craton 2:36, 2:38f9 2:54f
geological events
carbonates 4:372
glaciation 4:372
Ediacarans 4:373, 4:376*, 4:378f
metacellularity 4:373, 4:376*
INDEX
Vendian (continued]
predators 4:379
Russia 4:456, 4:458f, 4:458-459, 4:461
Timanide Orogeny 2:49-50, 2:51, 2:53,
2:54f
Vendoconularia triradiata 4:374-375
Venera 15/16 orbiters 5:244-245
Venezuela 1:311
Venezuelan Andes 1:121, l:121f
Ventastega 2:472, 2:472f
ventifacts 4:615, 4:615f
Venus 5:244-264
Atalanta Planitia 5:257f
atmosphere 1:200
atmospheric composition 1:197?, 5:246t
geological history models 5:262
heat loss mechanisms 5:260
impact craters 5:246, 5:247f, 5:248f
Lavinia Planitia 5:253f
mantle convection 5:258, 5:260
physical characteristics 5:245
properties l:422t
radar mapping 4:416
regional plains
lobate plains 5:249?, 5:256, 5:260f
shield plains 5:249?, 5:252, 5:256f,
5:257f, 5:258f
volcanoes 5:249*, 5:256, 5:260f
wrinkle-ridged plains 5:249?, 5:255,
5:259f, S:260f
Sapas Mons 5:260f
spacecraft missions
Magellan orbiter 5:244-245,
5:260-261, 5:262-263
Pioneer Venus 5:244
Venera 15/16 5:244-245
surface rock composition 5:246?, 5:247?
tectonic features
dense fractures 5:248, 5:249?, 5:251f,
5:252f
groove belts 5:249?, 5:250, 5:253f,
5:254f, 5:255f
ridge belts 5:248, 5:249?, 5:252f,
5:253f, 5:254f, 5:255f
ridged and grooved plains 5:248,
5:249?, 5:252f, 5:253f, 5:254f
rift zones 5:249?, 5:251, 5:255f,
5:256f
tessera terrain 5:245/", 5:247, 5:249?,
5:250f
topographic characteristics 5:245f,

5:249?, 5:258
volcanoes 5:565, 5:578, 5:578f
volcano-tectonic features
arachnoids 5:249?, 5:257, 5:2 61 f,
5:262f
coronae 5:249?, 5:255f, 5:257, 5:261f,
5:262f
Lakshmi Planum 5:249?, 5:257,
5:261 f
novae 5:249?, 5:257, 5:262f
verdine facies 3:542, 3:544, 3:545f, 3:547,
5:101
Verkhoyansk-Chukotka orogenic collage
4:468, 4:469f
Verkhoyansk Mountains 4:456
vermiculite
carbonatites 3:221t
cation exchange capacity 1:3 60?
layer type 1:361,1:361?
structure l:360f
Vermiforma 4:377-378
Vernadsky, Vladimir 3:2, 3:187-188
Verneuil, Eduard de 2:195
vertebrates
amniotes
cladogram 2:473f
eureptiles
parareptiles
testudines 2:481
Permian 2:478
reptiles (Reptilia)
pterosaurs 2:508
synapsids 2:479
tetrapods 2:468
amphibians
Cenozoic 2:523-526
2:525f
assemblages 2:523
caecilians 2:525
frogs 2:524, 2:524f, 2:525f
2:524f
Cretaceous 2:523, 3:368, 3:369f
2:523
799
Lissamphibia
albanerpetontids 2:52 If, 2:523
caecilians 2:521/", 2:522
frogs 2:521, 2:521f
Karaurus sharovi 2:521f
salamanders 2:521/", 2:522
Valdotriton gradlis 2:522f
Mesozoic 2:516-523
albanerpetontids 2:52 If, 2:523
caecilians 2:52If, 2:522
frogs 2:521f
Jurassic 2:520
Lissamphibia 2:521
Stereospondyli 2:517, 2:52 7f,
2:518 f
temnospondyls 2:517
temnospondyls
Jurassic 2:520
Sideropskehli2:519f
2:518f
Tertiary 2:523
Archaeopteryx 2:497
dinosaurs (Dinosauria) 2:508,
3:358-359
SOO
INDEX
vertebrates (continued)
2:500t
Eocene 5:469
Jeholornis 2:497
Jurassic 3:358-359
Mesozoic relationships 2:498f
Neornithes 2:497, 2:499, 2:501f
origins 2:495
2:501f
Palaeocene 5:463
radiation patterns 2:499, 2:501 f
Rahonavis 2:497
Zhenzhoraptor 2:497
Carboniferous 4:211
chordates 3:441, 3:445, 3:445f
conodonts 3:440-448
anatomy 3:441, 3:441f, 3:442f
architecture 3:443/", 3:446
Carboniferous 4:212
cladogram 3:445f
classification
Belodellida 3:446
Paraconodonta 3:447
Prioniodinida 3:446
Clydagnathus 3:442f
evolution 3:447
morphology 3:441f, 3:443, 3:443f,
3:444f
preservation 3:441
Promissum 3:44If
Silurian 4:185-186, 4:191
Cretaceous 1:273f, 2:523, 3:368, 3:368f,
3:369f
Devonian 2:468, 2:470f, 4:192f, 4:194,
4:196
diapsids
mosasaurs 2:483
snakes 2:483
Sphenodon 2:483
Squamata 2:483
Younginiforms 2:483
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502, 2:508,
3:358-359
3:381, 3:382f
2:491f, 2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
origins 2:492
Ornithischia
Thyreophora 2:493
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Reptilia 2:490
Saurischia
general discussion 2:492/", 2:494
Theropoda 2:494, 3:3Slf
Triassic 2:492, 2:493f, 3:350, 3:3Slf
embranchements 2:180
Eocene 5:469
fish 2:462-468
acanthodians 2:465
anaspids 2:458, 2:462
biodiversity 2:464f
Carboniferous 4:212
coelacanth fishes 1:274f, 1:276-278,
2:466
Cretaceous 3:368, 3:368f, 3:369f
3:381, 3:382f
Devonian 4:192f, 4:194, 4:196
Eocene 5:469
Haikouichthys 1:351
jawed fish 2:462
conodonts 2:455, 3:440-448
Eriptychius 2:457
galeaspids 2:458
Ordovician 2:457
origins 2:455
ostracoderms 2:457, 2:459
2:459
Silurian 2:457
Thelodus macintosbi 2:459f
Jurassic 3:358
lungfishes 2:467
osteichthyans 2:466
osteostracans 2:462
Palaeocene 5:463
seamounts 4:482
sharks 2:229/~, 2:463
Silurian 4:191
teeth 2:462
teleosteans 2:466/", 2:466-467
thelodonts 2:459, 2:459f, 2:462
Triassic 3:350
hominids 2:541-545
East African Rift 1:31
Homo sapiens 2:543
Pliocene 5:487t, 5:491, 5:491*, 5:492f
Jurassic l:273f, 3:358, 3:359f
mammals
3:381, 3:382f
Eutheria 2:535-540
5:467f, 5:469-470, 5:470f, 5:471
Mesozoic 2:527-534
brain size 2:530
diphyodont dental replacement 2:531
evolutionary features 2:527, 2:528f
jaw hinges 2:528
middle ear 2:528
placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
Oligocene 5:475
anatomy 2:535
INDEX S01
bats 2:539
Carnivora 2:539
epitheres 2:538
evolutionary relationships 2:537f,
2:538
Glires 2:539
hominids 2:541-545
marsupials 2:535-536, 2:538
physiology 2:535
primates 2:538-539
reproduction 2:535
Rodentia 2:539
taxonomy 2:535
tethytheres 2:540
ungulates 2:539
whales 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,
2:539-540
Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f
Mesozoic
birds (Aves)
Archaeopteryx 2:497
2:500t
Jeholornis 2:497
2:501f
Rahonavis 2:497
Zhenzhoraptor 2:497
conodonts 3:441
Archosauria 2:495
birds (Aves) 2:495, 2:497-502,
2:508
2:491f, 2:492f
Diapsida 2:495
ectothermy 2:495
endothermy 2:495
growth 2:496
homeothermy 2:495
origins 2:492
Ornithischia 2:492, 2:492f
physiology 2:495
reproduction 2:496
Reptilia 2:490
Saurischia 2:492f, 2:494
Thyreophora 2:493
Triassic 2:492,2:493f, 3:350,3:3Slf
mammals 2:527-534
brain size 2:530

2:531
evolutionary features 2:527, 2:528f
jaw hinges 2:528
middle ear 2:528
placentals 2:528f, 2:533, 2:533f
tetrapods 3:350
Miocene 5:483
Ordovician 3:441
Palaeozoic
conodonts 3:441
tetrapods
Permian 4:217
Permian 4:217
Pleistocene 5:495, 5:497f, 5:498f
archosauromorphs
crocodiles 2:485
3:381, 3:382f
diapsids
mosasaurs 2:483
snakes 2:483
Sphenodon 2:483
Squamata 2:483
Younginiforms 2:483
eureptiles
flying reptiles 2:508, 2:508-516
Askeptosaurus 2:504
Augustasaurus 2:506
Clarazia 2:504
Corosaurus 2:506
3:380,3:35^
Cyamodus 2:506
Dakosaurus 2:504
Dermochelys 2:505f
Dyrosaurus 2:504
Geosaurus 2:504
Globidens 2:505
Henodus 2:506
Heschelaria 2:504
Hyposaurus 2:504
Ichthyosauria 2:484, 2:503, 2:503f,
3:358,3:380
Keichousaurus 2:506
Lariosaurus 2:506
locomotion mechanisms
2:502-503
Mesosaurus 2:503f
Mosasauroidea 2:5 04f, 2:504-505
nothosaurs 2:484
Nothosaurus 2:506
occurrences 2:502
Paraplacodus 2:506
Pistosaurus 2:506
Placodus 2:506
Plesiosauria 2:484, 2:506, 2:507f,
3:358
Plesiosaurus 2:506
Pliosaurus 2:506
Psephoderma 2:506
Simosaurus 2:506
Steneosaurus 2:504
Styxosaurus 2:506
Teleorhinus 2:504
Tylosaurus 2:504f, 2:504-505
mesosaurs 2:479
parareptiles
testudines 2:481
pterosaurs 2:508
synapsids
2:485
Eothyrididae 2:485
Mesozoic 2:527
802
INDEX
therapsids 2:489
Tertiary 2:499, 2:523
tetrapods
amniotes
Carboniferous 2:468, 2:473 f,
4:211-212
synapsids 2:477-478, 2:479
China 1:352
Cretaceous 1:273 f
Jurassic 1:273 f
Palaeocene l:273f
Palaeozoic
Permian 4:217
species radiations 1:273f
Triassic 3:350
Triassic 3:350
vertisols 1:557-558, 4:134, 5:196*, 5:199,
5:200
vesignieite (BaCu 3 (VO 4 )2(OH)2) 3:589t
Vesta 5:221*, 5:222f
Vesuvian volcanoes 5:S68t
Vesuvius, Italy 4:387t, 5:575
Viaudechinus 2:352f
Vicksburgian stage 5:473f
Victoria arc 4:82f
Victoria, Australia 4:177-178, 4:191-192
Victoria Land 3:151f
Vietnam 3:12
Vilyui Basin 4:461, 4:463f
Vimy Ridge, France 3:482f
Vinci, Leonardo da 3:169, 5:295
Vine, Frederick 3:200-201
violarite (FeNi2S4) 3:575?, 3:585t
Virginia, United States 3:147, 4:72, 4:73/
Visean stage
glaciation 4:208f
Gondwana 3:139
5:517f
magmatism 2:96f
nomenclature 4:201f
vegetation 4:209f
Vitaliano, Dorothy 3:96, 3:97
Vitiaz Trench 4:116
Viti Levu 4:118, 4:119f
Vitoria-Trindade Ridge 3:315f, 3:316t

Vittatina 4:220
viverrids 5:485
vivianite 3:508f, 5:99, 5:122
Vjalovognathus l:184f
Vogt,J.H.L. 3:268
volborthite(Cu 3 (V 2 O 7 )(OH)2-2H2O)
3:589t
volcanic cones
See seamounts
volcanism
Antarctica 1:139
Arabia 1:151
Argentina 1:161
bedded cherts 5:54
chert 5:53
3:318,3:322
3:383
deep water sedimentation 4:642-643,
4:644
Devonian 4:198
earthquakes 5:329
East African Rift 1:28, I:29f
9 1:30f
4:387t, 4:388f, 4:389
Fiji 4:118, 4:120
Grenville orogeny 3:157, 3:159f, 3:160,
3:161f
hazard analysis
environmental geology 2:31, 2:32f
frequency 1:51 It
(CIS) 4:426
mortality rates 1:517t, l:S18t
Holocene 3:657
black smokers
chlorinity 5:37It
East Pacific Rise 5:366/", 5:388,
5:388f
ecology 3:105
5:388
structure 5:39Of
chimneys 5:390, 5:390f, 5:393f
deposit size 5:390
formation locations
fossil record 5:394
morphology 5:390, S:393f
white smokers 5:365, 5:390f9
5:390-391
igneous processes
assimilation 3:216
fractional crystallization 3:215,
3:215f
magma mixing 3:216
magma transport
diapirism3:213/; 3:214
dike injection 3:213f, 3:214
eruptions 3:214
porous flow 3:213f, 3:214
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211 f
Japan 3:297, 3:299f, 3:300f

definition 3:260
3:262f, 3:263f
nickel-copper-platinum group (Ni-CuPGE) mineralization 3:266
occurrence 3:261
spinifex textures 3:260, 3:261 f, 3:264f
water content 3:266
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574f,
5:576t, 5:576f, 5:577f
Laki, Iceland 3:322
large igneous provinces (LIPs) 3:315-323
age dating 3:318
composition 3:317
3:322
Cretaceous 3:363t
3:383
INDEX
volcanism (continued)
3:318f
mantle roots 3:317
mass extinctions 3:321f, 3:322, 3:383
occurrence 3:315, 3:316t
ocean-basin flood basalts 3:315,
3:318, 3:322
origins 3:320
seamounts 3:316*, 3:318, 3:322
subduction zones 3:318f, 3:319,
3:319f
types 3:317
3:322
volcanism 3:317
a'a lava 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f,
5:567-569, 5:571f
block lava 3:326, 5:567-569, S:571f
clays 1:545-546
clinker 3:325f, 3:326, 3:326f
effusion rate 3:324
flood basalts 3:328
flow speed 3:324
flow volume 3:324
l:546f
natural hazards
3:329f
pahoehoe lava 3:325f, 3:325-326,
3:326f, 5:567-569, S:571f
pillow lavas 3:327,3:327*; 5:567-569,
S:571f
structure
crazing 1:546f
lava tubes 3:327
pipes l:546f
temperature 3:323
viscosity 3:323
3:383
definition 3:335

3:318f
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211 f
plume formation dynamics 3:341,
3:341f
seamounts 4:477
seismic images
D" layer 3:338
superplumes 3:338
superplumes 3:338, 4:14f, 4:460-461
volcanoes 5:566f
Mercury 5:241
4:343f, 4:344f
faulting processes
fault scarps 5:3 84f, 5:385f
5:386-387
melting processes
flux melting 3:212
3:211f
5:404f
causal mechanisms 5:398, S:399f
continental propagators 5:402f,
5:403, 5:403 f, 5:404f
evolution 5:396
implications 5:403
microplates 5:398, 5:400f, S:401f
oceanic propagators 5:396, 5:396f,
5:397f
803
ridge segmentation
5:379f
characteristics 5:376*
discontinuities 5:374f, 5:375,
5:376*, 5:377/i 5:378f, 5:379f
hierarchies 5:377f
magma supply 5:375,5:378f, 5:382f
5:396f
rift valleys 5:438
seamounts 4:475, 4:477*, 4:479
seawater chemistry 5:96
axial magma chamber
5:407, 5:413f
crustal thickness 5:415f9 S:416f
5:413f
S:411f
structural variations 5:414, 5:415f9
5:416f
spreading centres
axial depth profiles 5:375f
gravity measurements 1:101,
lilOlf
morphology 5:373
5:374/", 5:375, 5:396-405
topography 5:374f9 5:384-386
volcanoes 5:566f
North Africa 1:14-16, 1:17
obsidian 3:267-277
artefacts
occurrences 3:272
trade routes 3:276f
composition 3:268, 3:269*
occurrences
California 3:270, 3:272/", 3:273f,
3:274f
Eolian Islands, Italy 3:268, 3:269/f,
3:270*^
3:271f
States 3:270, 3:271f
804
INDEX
volcanism (continued]
Obsidian Cliff, Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming,
United States 3:268, 3:269?
as semiprecious stone 3:271, 3:27Sf
Oceania 4:109
3:224f, 3:225, 3:230f
Oligocene 5:474
Ordovician 4:182
Papua New Guinea 4:110, 4:113
foreland 2:97
Oslo Rift 2:97, 2:101 f
petrogenesis 2:99
Pyrenees 2:99
characteristics
fall deposits 4:390, 4:391f9 4:392t
ignimbrites 2:98, 4:202f, 4:388f,
4:391-393, 4:393f, 4:395,
4:397f
particle size 4:39Ot
4:393f, 4:394, 4:394f, 4:396f
pyroclastic types 4:390t
4:396f, 4:397f
eruption plumes 4:388, 4:388/", 4:389f
4:386, 4:387?, 4:388/", 4:389
natural hazards 5:573, 5:576?, S:576f
zeolites 3:597, 3:S97f
radar techniques 4:419, 4:419f
Samoa 4:121
seamounts 4:475-484
Cretaceous 4:480
development process
deep-water stage 4:480
emergent stage 4:481
flat top formation 4:481
growth stages 4:48If
guyot stage 4:481
ocean island stage 4:481
shoaling stage 4:480
faulting 5:435f, S:436f
geochemical composition 4:475
geophysical characteristics 4:475
global distribution4:476,4:476f, 4:4771
habitat importance 4:482

intraplate seamounts 4:477, 4:479f
island arcs 4:479
mid-ocean ridges 4:475, 4:477?, 4:479
morphology 4:480
mud volcanoes 4:480
nomenclature 4:484
oceanic circulation 4:482
ocean islands 4:475-476
seamount chains 4:476-477, 4:479f
spatial arrangement 4:476-477,
4:479f
subduction effects 4:482, 4:483f
site classification 2:4?, 2:6?
southern Cordillera 4:58, 4:S9f
tephra
description 5:571
volcanic processes 5:576f
seamounts 5:566
Strombolian volcanoes 5:568?,
5:570?
tephra 5:576f
tuff 2:98, 5:572?, 5:572/
Vesuvian volcanoes 5:568?
volcanic disasters 5:575?
volcanic gases 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?,
5:576^
Vulcanian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:570?
See also carbonatites; igneous rocks;
magma
Volga River 5:19t
Volgo-Uralia 2:41f, 2:42f, 2:45f, 2:46,
2:47/i 2:48/i 4:456
Volta Basin 3:129
Voltziales 2:449
vonsenite ((Fe, Mg)2FeBO5) 3:512?
Voronezh Massif 2:35f, 2:37/j 2:41f
Vosges 2:75, 2:81f, 2:126f
Vostok Station l:133f, 1:140
Vredefort impact structure, South Africa
3:283
Vulcan 5:238
Vulcanian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:570?
Vulcanism 3:174
l:200t
Tonga 4:120
Triassic 3:345
tsunamis 5:573, 5:576?, 5:576f
Vanuatu 4:115
volcanic passive margins 3:322
volcanoes 5:565-579
ash clouds 5:571, 5:574f
calderas 1:123f, 1:126, 5:566, 5:567f
central eruptions 5:566
composite volcano 5:567f
debris amounts 5:575?
decade volcanoes 5:575
destructive effects 5:573, 5:576f
earthquakes 5:575
explosivity index 5:570?
extraterrestrial planets 5:565, 5:577f,
5:578, 5:578f
fissure eruptions 5:566
Hawaiian-type volcanoes 5:568?,
5:570?
Icelandic-type volcanoes 5:568?
laboratory volcanoes 5:575
lahars 4:690, 5:572, 5:573, 5:574/",
5:576?, 5:576f, 5:577f
mantle processes 5:565
mitigation methods 5:576?, 5:577f
natural hazards 5:572, 5:573, 5:576?
nuees ardentes 5:568?, 5:572, 5:574f
Pelean volcanoes 5:568?, 5:569f
phreatic eruptions 5:571
Plinian volcanoes 5:568?, 5:568/",
5:570?
run-out distances 5:575?
w
wackestone 3:527f, 5:109f, 5:110, 5:lllf
Waco Uplift 4:67-69, 4:68f
Wadati-Benioff zone 4:344, 4:345/", 5:418
wadsleyite 5:183?
Wagga-Omeo Metamorphic belt
1:240-242, 1:242-243, l:246f,
1:247f, 1:248 f
waif dispersal 5:485
wairakite 3:593?
Wakaleo 5:484
wakefieldite-(Ce)
((Ce,La,Nd, Y,Pr,Sm) [(V, As)O4])
3:589?
wakefieldite-(Y) (YVO4) 3:588-589,
3:589?
Walcott, Charles D. 2:196, 3:68,
5:443_444
Walden Creek Group, Appalachians
4:73-74
Wales
Cambrian 4:163, 4:164
Ordovician 4:177f, 4:177-178,
4:178-179, 4:179f, 4:182
Silurian 4:185-186, 4:188f, 5:511f
Wallaby Plateau 3:315f, 3:316?
Wallace, Alfred Russell: 169
Wallace's Line 1:169, l:171f, l:172f
walpurgite 3:508?
Waltershausen, Wolfgang Sartorius von
3:184
INDEX
Walther, Johannes 2:242-245

biogeology 2:243
fades analysis 2:243, 3:188
influence 2:245
photograph 2:242f
research interests
deserts 2:244
national education 2:244
shallow marine environments 2:243
Solnhofen Limestone 2:244
Walther's Law of the Correlation of Facies
4:487, 4:487f, 5:160
Walvis Ridge 1:323f, 3:315 f, 3:316*,
3:335-336, 4:477-479
Wandilla-Gwydir belt 1:242, 1:250
Wasatch line 4:50
Washington, Henry 3:186-187
Washington, United States 4:38,
5:476-477, 5:480-481
wasps 2:297f, 2:300t
waste management
clays 1:368
nuclear waste repositories 2:31, 2:31f
sanitary landfills 2:30, 2:30/r
Waterford Basin 3:146f
water (H 2 O)
5:246t
beer brewing process 3:79, 3:80t
carbonatites 3:223t
environmental geology 2:28f
kimberlites 3:24*
meteoric water 3:107
obsidian 3:269*
oilfield water 2:17
pore water analysis 5:148f
resource management 2:28, 2:28f
1:200*
Venus 5:246*
whisky distilling process 3:82, 3:83f
See also groundwater; permeability;
porosity; seawater
water lily 2:425f
Waterschoot van der Gracht, Willem van
2:191
Watson, Jane Vida 3:61
wattersite (Hg5O2CrO4) 3:533*
wavellite 5:122, S:122f
wave processes 4:570, 4:571f, 4:572f
wavy bedding 4:599
weathering 5:581-590
atmospheric effects 5:589
biological processes 5:589
chemical reactions 5:197*

clay formation 1:362
cracks and joints 5:581, 5:584f
definition 5:581
dehydration 5:197*
Devonian 4:195
dissolution 5:197*
duricrusts 5:588
Goldich weathering system 5:583f
hydrolysis 5:197*
igneous rocks l:546f
landscape development
chemical weathering 5:5S2*, 5:583,
5:584f, 5:587-588
equifinality 5:587
feedback mechanisms 5:586, 5:587f
inheritance effects 5:5 84f, 5:588
karst landscapes 4:683, 5:583, 5:585
stress effects 5:585
lithological cycle 5:581
long-term carbon cycle I:336f9 1:339f
long-term effects 5:589
mechanisms 5:582*
mineral deposits 3:488-489, 3:489f
oxidation 5:197*
Peltier's zonal classification 5:584f
processes 5:582t, S:584f
rock-forming minerals 5:17, 5:582,
5:583^
rock properties
rock-mass strength l:544f, 5:581
shales 1:548
1:337f
soils 1:560,5:588,5:589
weathering rates 5:582, 5:589
Weaver sharpness ratio 5:65
web-spinners 2:300*
websterite 3:253-254
Weddell Sea
glaciation 1:138-139
3:316*
Palaeocene 5:460
tektites 5:444, 5:445*, S:4Slf
Wegener, Alfred 2:246-253
continental drift theory 2:246, 2:247,
2:247/i 2:251f
Gondwana 3:128
meteorology 2:246
motive forces 2:251
SOS
mountain-building theory 2:249

palaeoclimate 2:247-248, 2:251
palaeontological research 2:249
Pangaea 2:249, 2:250f
photograph 2:246f
plate tectonics 2:241, 2:246, 3:193
polar research 2:246, 2:252f
rift valleys 2:249
Sima (silica/magnesia-rich) layer 2:248f
volcanism 2:249
weinebeneite 3:593*
Weipa, Australia 1:434
Weiss, C. S. 3:500-501
Welbertopora mutabilis l:274f
Wengania globosa 4:3 61 f
Wenlock Series 4:87f, 4:185, 4:186f,
4:187f, 4:188, 5:511f, S:517f
Wentworth, Chester 3:188
Wernecke Supergroup, northern Cordillera
4:39-42
Werner, Abraham
mineral species classification 3:178,
3:500
Neptunism 2:184, 3:167, 3:171, 3:174
portrait 3:167f
West African Craton 3:128, 3:132f, 5:39
West Antarctica
See Antarctica
West Australian Craton 1:208, 1:209f,
1:21 Of
West Congo Belt 1:2/", 1:9
Western Boundary Undercurrent
4:643-644
Western Gneiss Region 5:537
Western Interior Basin 4:55
Westlothiana lizziae 2:473f
Westphalian stage 2:95, 2:96f, 4:202f,
4:208f, 4:209f
Wetzeliella 5:468
Weylandites 4:220
whales (Cetacea) 2:535, 2:536-537, 2:538,
2:539-540, 5:469, 5:482-483
Whatcheeria deltae 2:472, 2:473f
Whewell, William 2:217, 3:176, 3:178
Whin Sill 2:96/i 2:97-98
whisky 3:82-85
distilleries 3:82, 3:83f
Old Red Sandstone 3:84
production process
malting 3:82
water chemistry 3:82
water chemistry 3:82
water sources 3:82, 3:83f
Whiston, William 3:170
Whitcliffe Formation 4:186f, 4:189
Whitcomb, John C. 1:384
White, Charles A. 2:196
White Earth conditions 4:372
White, Ellen G. 1:384
White, Gilbert 4:158-159
S06
INDEX
White Mountains, New Hampshire, United

States 4:95
whiteschist 3:388t
white smokers 5:365, 5:390f, 5:390-391
Whitfield, Robert P. 2:196
Whitlandian stage 4:183 f
whitlockite 5:124-125
Whitneyan land mammal age 5:472,
5:473f
Whitney, JosiahD. 2:196
Whittlesey, Charles 2:196
Wichita Mountains, Oklahoma, United
States 4:21, 4:62f
Wichita Uplift 4:32f
Wickramasinghe, Chandra 2:171
Wien's law 4:432
Wilberforce, Samuel 1:257
Wilkes Land Margin 3:315f9 3:316t
willhendersonite 3:593t
Williamsoniella 2:453
Willis, Bailey 3:189, 3:195, 5:543
Williston Basin 4:33 f
Wilson Cycle 4:72, 4:74f
Wilson, J. Tuzo 3:62, 3:196, 3:199, 3:202,
3:205, 5:417, 5:458-459
Windermere Supergroup, northern
Cordillera 4:39-42, 4:50
wind ripples 4:618, 4:618f
Wind River Ranges, Wyoming, United
States 4:12
wine geology 3:85-89
frost 3:85-87
soils 3:87, 3:87f
solar radiation 3:85, 3:86f
thermal belts 3:85-87
vineyard temperature 3:85
water supply 3:87
Winfrenatia 2:438f, 2:441-442
winonaites 5:23It
Wisconsin, United States 4:21, 4:33-34
Witwatersrand, South Africa 3:121,
3:121f, 3:123-124, 3:490-491, 3:494,
3:494f, 3:585-586
Wolfcampian stage 4:2 09f
wolframite ((Fe,Mn)WO4) 3.-5S5*, 3:587,
3:630*
wollastonite 3:400f, 3:401f, 3:569
Wollaston, William 3:178, 3:62
Wolman, Markley 3:189
Wongawibinda Metamorphic Complex
1:242-243, l:246f
Wood, Harry 3:195
Woodward, Arthur Smith 2:170
Woodward, John 3:170
Woolstonian substage 4:183 f
Worden, A. 5:266*
Wordian stage 4:215*, 4:219f, 4:221 f,
5:511 f95:517f
World Glacier Monitoring Service
4:663-664
World War I
geological maps 3:185-186
World War II
mineral investigations 3:185-186
Wormwood Formation 4:186f9 4:186-188
Worthen, Amos H. 2:196
Wrangel Island 4:469, 5:498
Wrangellia 3:315f, 3:316*, 5:175
Wrangellia terrane 4:42
Wuchiapingian stage 4:215*, 4:219f,
4:221f,5:511f,5:517f
wulfenite (PbMoO4) 3:551-552, 3:552*
Wurm stage 5:493
wurtzite (Zn(Fe)S) 3:575*, 3:576f9 3:580f,
5:394*
wustite (FeO) 4:149f
Wyattia 4:373
Wyoming, United States 4:12, 4:48-50,
4:216, 5:470f9 5:471
X
xenon (Xe)
1:198, l:199f
xenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f9 5:120-128
X-ray densitometry 1:390-391
X-ray diffraction 3:545
Xylacanthus grandis 2:465
Y
Yakutat terrane 4:40f, 4:46-47
Yalin, M. S. 5:8
Yalin's number 5:8, 5:9f
Yamato Mountains, Antarctica 5:236
yanomamite 3:508f
Yanuca (Serua) 4:118
Yap Trench 5:430*, 5:430f
Yapungku Orogeny I:211f9 1:214-215
yardangs 4:615, 4:615f
Yarrol-Tamworth belt 1:242, 1:250
Yasawa Group 4:118
Yeadonian subdivision 4:202f
yedlinite (Pb6Cl6O2CrO4-2H2O) 3:533*
Yellowstone hotspot 4:59f, 4:60
Yemen
See Arabia
Yemen Plateau Basalts 3:315f, 3:316*
Yenisei Ridge 4:464, 4:464f
Yenisei River 5:19*
Yermak Plateau 3:315f, 3:316*
Yilgarn complex, Australia 1:208, l:209f,
1:21 Of, 1:239f, 3:491-492, 5:39
Yoldia Sea 2:150, 2:152f
Yorgia waggoneri 4:375-376
Yorkshire, United Kingdom 4:201
Younger Dryas event 2:147, 2:152, 2:159*
Younginiforms 2:483
Young, J. 5:266*
Young,]. Z. 3:2
Young's modulus 1:545*, 1:549*, 1:552*,

1:570, 1:571
Ypresian stage I:322f9 1:325f, 5:466,
5:467/i 5:468f9 5:469, 5:470, 5:506f
5:517f
ytterbium (Yb)
carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224f
mineral analysis 1:1 OS*
5:114*
yttrium (Y)
carbonatites 3:223*
5:114*
zircon 3:601
yttrotungstite-(Y) (YW 2 O 6 (OH) 3 ) 3:587*
Yudomian stage 4:461
yugawaralite 3:593*
Yugoslavia 5:462
Yukon, Canada 4:37-38
Yukon Plateau 4:45
Yukon River 5:19*
Yukon-Tanana Uplands 4:40f, 4:42,
4:45-46
z
Zagros Mountains 1:26, 1:27f, 5:420,
5:424-425
Zaire 3:7*
Zambezi Basin 3:142-147, 3:146f
Zambezi Belt I:2f9 1:7, l:8f
Zambezi River 5:19*
Zambia 3:7*, 3:12
Zanclean stage (lower Pliocene) 5:486,
5:4S7*, 5:506f,5:517f
Zatheria 2:528f
Zealandia
See New Zealand
Zechstein Sea 2:95-96, 4:215f9 4:216
Zemorrian benthic foraminiferal stage
5:473f
zeolites 3:591-600
Appalachians 4:74f
applications 3:599
chabazite 3:593, 3:593*, 3:594f
chemical composition 3:593*, 3:595,
3:595f
clinoptilolite 3:591, 3:593*, 3:593-594,
3:594f
crystal structure 3:591, 3:593*
heulandite 3:593*, 3:593-594,
3:594f
INDEX S07
zeolites (continued)
metamorphic facies 3:398f, 3:404,
3:405f, 3:412f
natrolite 3:591-593, 3:593*, 3:594f
occurrence
deep-sea sediments 3:597
hydrothermal alteration 3:591,3:591f,hydrothermal alteration 3:591,3:59 If,
3:599, 3:631-632
lava flows 3:591f, 3:598, 3:598f
3:596f
sandstones 3:597
terrestrial pyroclastic deposits 3:597,
3:597f
ZERMOS mapping programme, France
1:469
zhamanshinites 5:451
Zhenzhoraptor 2:497
zibars 4:542, 4:618-620, 4:619f
ziesite (Cu 2 (V 2 O 7 )) 3:589t
Zijderveld diagrams 4:149-151, 4:150f
Zilair formation 2:88-89
Zimbabwe 3:12
zincroselite 3:508f
zinc (Zn)
carbonatites 3:223*

5:114t
toxicity 2:22*
zinwaldite 3:549-550
zirconium (Zr)
carbonatites 3:223*, 3:224*
komatiites 3:264f
5:114*
zircon 3:601-608
analyses
samples 3:605
sensitive high-resolution ion
microprobe technique
(SHRIMP) 3:606
thermal ionization mass
spectrometry (TIMS) 3:605
chemical composition 3:601,
3:602*
economic aspects
aeolian placers 3:603*, 3:604
beach placers 3:602, 3:603*, 3:604f,
3:605f
mining 3:604, 3:607f
placer classification 3:603*
processing 3:604, 3:607f
uses 3:604
world production 3:604, 3:606*,
3:606f
fission track analysis 1:45, 1:47

hafnium (Hf) 3:601
igneous rocks 3:602
3:607f, 3:607-608
occurrence
aeolian placers 3:603*, 3:604
beach placers 3:602, 3:603*, 3:604f,
3:60Sf
optical properties 3:602, 3:602*
properties 3:601, 3:601*
xenotime 3:601, 3:608, 3:608f
zircon crystals
Appalachians 4:76-77, 4:78
kimberlites 3:256*
magmatism time-scales 3:245,
3:245f
provenance studies 1:47, 1:52-53
Zirkel, Ferdinand 3:184
Zodiacal Light 5:227, 5:227f
zoisite 3:401f
Zoophycos 5:44, 5:45f, 5:46f, 5:47f
zuenerite 3:508f
Zuni sequence, North America 4:25-26,
4:26f, 4:27/i 4:28
Zygomycetes 2:437, 2:440-441,
2:441-442
Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
2005 Elsevier Ltd.
The following articles are 2005, The Natural History Museum, London, UK:
FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/Hominids
Palaeontology
PALAEOZOIC/Silurian
PRECAMBRIAN/Overview
Terranes, Overview
Conservation of Geological Specimens
MINERALS/Olivines
MINERALS/Sulphates
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pleistocene and The Ice Age
Environmental Geochemistry
Biological Radiations and Speciation
PALAEOZOIC/Ordovician
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Eocene
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Paleocene
FOSSIL PLANTS/Angiosperms
FOSSIL PLANTS/Gymnosperms
Biozones
MESOZOIC/Cretaceous
MESOZOIC/End Cretaceous Extinctions
Stratigraphical Principles
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Molluscs Overview
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Trilobites
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Echinoids
TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pliocene
FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Bryozoans
MINERALS/Feldspathoids
Russia
The following article is a US Government work in the public domain and not subject to copyright:
NORTH AMERICA/Atlantic Margin
"Earth from Space" endpaper figure reproduced with permission from Reto Stockli, Nazmi El Saleous,
and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen and NASA GSFC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Rights Department in Oxford, UK:
phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mailpermissions@elsevier.com.
Requests may also be completed on-line via the homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions).
First edition 2005
Library of Congress Control Number: 2004104445
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-12-636380-3 (set)
This book is printed on acid-free paper
Printed and bound in Spain
EDITORS v
Editors
EDITORS
Richard C. Selley
Imperial College
London, UK
L. Robin M. Cocks
Natural History Museum

London, UK
Ian R. Plimer
University of Melbourne
Melbourne, VA
Australia
CONSULTANT EDITOR
Joe McCall
Cirencester
Gloucestershire, UK
vi EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Editorial Advisory Board

Jaroslav Aichler
Georg Hoinkes
Czech Geological Survey

Jesen k, Czech Republic
Universitat Graz
Universitatplatz 2
Graz, Austria
Andrew R Armour
Revus Energy A/S

Norway
R A Howie
John Collinson
Shunsho Ishihara
Delos, Beech
Staffordshire, UK
Royal Holloway, London University

London, UK
Geological Survey of Japan

Tsukuba, Japan
Alexander M Davis
Gilbert Kelling
Infoscape Solutions Ltd.

Guildford, UK
Keele University
Keele, UK
Peter Doyle
Ken Macdonald
University College London

London, UK
Wolfgang Franke
Institut fur Geowissenschaften

Giessen, Germany
University of California Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Norman MacLeod
The Natural History Museum

London, UK
Stuart Marsh
Yves Fuchs
Universite Marne la Valle

France
British Geological Survey

Nottingham, UK
Joe McCall
Paul Garrard
Cirencester, Gloucestershire, UK
Formerly Imperial College

London, UK
David R Oldroyd
R O Greiling
Universitat Heidelberg
Heidelberg, Germany
University of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW, Australia
Rong Jia-yu
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology

Nanjing, China
Gwendy Hall
Natural Resources Canada

Ottawa, ON, Canada
Mike Rosenbaum
Robert D Hatcher, Jr.
Peter Styles
University of Tennessee
Knoxville, TN, USA
Keele University
Keele, UK
Twickenham, UK
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD vii
Hans D Sues
S H White
Carnegie Museum of Natural History

Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Universiteit Utrecht
Utrecht, The Netherlands
John Veevers
Macquarie University
Sydney, NSW, Australia
FOREWORD ix
Foreword
Few areas of science can have changed as fast as geology has in the past forty years. In the first half of the last
century geologists were divided, often bitterly, between the drifters and those who believed that the Earth and
its continents were static. Neither side of this debate foresaw that the application of methods from physics,
chemistry and mathematics to these speculations would revolutionize the study of all aspects of the Earth
Sciences, and would lead to accurate and detailed reconstructions of world geography at former times, as well
as to an understanding of the origin of the forces that maintain the continental movements. This change in
world-view is no longer controversial, and is now embedded in every aspect of the Earth Sciences. It is a real
pleasure to see this change, which has revitalized so many classic areas of research, reflected in the articles
of this encyclopedia. Particularly affected are the articles on large-scale Earth processes, which discuss many
of the new geological ideas that have come from geophysics and geochemistry. Forty years ago we had no
understanding of these topics, which are fundamental to so many aspects of the Earth Sciences. The editors
have decided, and in my view quite rightly, not to include detailed discussion of the present technology that is
used to make geophysical and geochemical measurements. Such instrumental aspects are changing rapidly and
become dated very quickly. They can easily be found in more technical publications. Instead the editors have
concentrated on the influence such studies have had on our understanding of the Earth and its evolution, and in
so doing have produced an excellent and accessible account of what is now known.
Any encyclopedia has to satisfy a wide variety of users, and in particular those who know that some subject
like sedimentation or mineral exploration is part of geology, and go to an encyclopedia of geology to find out
more. The editors have made a very thorough attempt to satisfy such users, and have included sections on such
unexpected geological topics as the evolution of the Earths atmosphere, the geology of Jupiter, Saturn, and
their moons, aggregates, and creationism. I congratulate the editors and authors for producing such a fine
summary of our present knowledge, and am particularly pleased that they intend to produce an online version
of the encyclopedia. Though I have become addicted to using the Internet as my general encyclopedia, I will be
delighted to be able to access something concerned with my own field that is as organized and scholarly as are
these volumes.
Dan McKenzie
Royal Society Professor of Earth Sciences
Cambridge University, UK
INTRODUCTION xi
Introduction
Civilization occurs by geological consent
subject to change without notice....

Will Durant (1885 1981)
Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham from 1333 to 1345, divided all knowledge into Geologia, earthly
knowledge, and Theologia, heavenly knowledge. By the beginning of the last century, however, Geology
was generally understood to be restricted to the study of rocks: according to the old dictum of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain If you can hit it with a hammer, then its geology. Subsequently geology has been
subsumed into Earth Science. This includes not only the study of rocks (the lithosphere), but also the
atmosphere and hydrosphere and their relationship with the biosphere. Presently these relationships now
form a nexus in Earth System Science.
The Encyclopedia of Geology is what it says on the cover. What appealed to us when first approached to
edit this work by Academic Press was a request that the encyclopedia should be rock-based. Readers are
referred to the companion volumes, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Encyclopedia of the Solar System,
Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment and Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences for knowledge on the other
branches of Earth Science. Nonetheless we have extended our brief to include articles on the other planets and
rocky detritus of our solar system, leaving others to argue, as no doubt Bishop Richard would have done,
where the boundaries of earthly and heavenly knowledge might be. (His Grace would probably have charged
the editors of the Encyclopedia of the Solar System with heresy.)
One of the first, and most difficult, tasks of editing this encyclopedia was to decide, not only which topics
merited articles, but also how these articles should be grouped to facilitate the reader. This is easy for some
branches of geology, but difficult for others. It is relatively easy to logically arrange articles on mineralogy and
palaeontology, since they are defined by their chemistry and evolutionary biology. Articles that describe Earth
history may be conveniently arranged in a chronological order, and articles on regional geology may be
presented geographically. Other topics present problems, particularly in the area of sedimentology. There is,
for example, a range of inter-related topics associated with deserts. This area could be described geomorphologically, and in terms of the aeolian and aqueous processes of deserts, aeolian sedimentary structures, and
aeolian deposits. All of these aspects of deserts deserve mention, but there is no obvious logical way of
arranging the discrete topics into articles. To help us in this task we relied heavily on our editorial board,
whose individual members had more specialized knowledge of their field than we. To the Editorial Board
Members, authors and anonymous referees of each article we give heartfelt thanks. We were also, of course,
constrained by the willingness of expert authorities to contribute articles. To some degree therefore, the shape
of the encylopedia owes as much to the enthusiasm of experts to write for us, as for our wish list of articles. To
facilitate readers finding their way around the Encyclopedia of Geology great care has been taken in crossreferencing within and between articles, in providing See Also lists at the end of articles, and in the index. No
doubt it will be easier for readers to navigate around the online version of the work, than to manipulate the
several hard copy volumes.
As geological knowledge expands there is always more to learn and understand. While preparing the
Encyclopedia of Geology we have ourselves learned a great deal about geology, both within and beyond
our own specialties. We invite you to read this encyclopedia and join us in the field trip of a lifetime.
Richard C. Selley
L. Robin M. Cocks
Ian R. Plimer
1 August 2004
References to related encyclopedia published by Elsevier, Academic Press:
Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 1998
Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001
Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2002
Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xiii
Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia

Structure of the Encyclopedia
The material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order. Most entries consist of
several articles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry.
Some entries comprise a single article.
To help you realize the full potential of the material in the Encyclopedia we have provided three features to
help you find the topic of your choice: a Contents List, Cross-References and an Index.
1. Contents List
Your first point of reference will probably be the contents list. The complete contents lists, which appears at the
front of each volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry. On the
opening page of an entry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry are
immediately available.
Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as your
guide. To assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates the
current entry and the current article within that entry.
You will find 'dummy entries' where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped together
related topics. Dummy entries appear in both the contents lists and the body of the text.
Example
If you were attempting to locate material on erosional sedimentary structures via the contents list:
EROSION see SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Fluxes and Budgets; Aeolian Processes; Erosional
Sedimentary Structures.
The dummy entry directs you to the Erosional Sedimentary Structures article, in the SEDIMENTARY
PROCESSES entry. At the appropriate location in the contents list, the page numbers for articles under
Sedimentary Processes are given.
If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Erosion then the
following information would be provided in the dummy entry:
EROSION
See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian Processes; Fluxes and
Budgets
xiv
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
Alternatively, if you were looking up Sedimentary Processes the following information would be provided:
Contents
Erosional Sedimentary Structures
Depositional Sedimentary Structures
Post-Depositional Sedimentary Structures
Aeolian Processes
Catastrophic Floods
Deep Water Processes and Deposits
Fluvial Geomorphology
Glaciers
Karst and Palaeokarst
Landslides
Particle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity Processes
Deposition from Suspension
Fluxes and Budgets
2. Cross-References
All of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced.
The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions. For example, at
the end of the PRECAM BRIAN: Overview article, cross-references are used:
i. To indicate if a topic is discussed in greater detail elsewhere.
Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic Biosediments and
Biofilms Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science.Europe: East European Craton;
Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny. Indian
Subcontinent. North America:Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.
Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran, Russia, Sedimentary
Rocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.
ii. To draw the reader's attention to parrallel discussions in other articles.
Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments and
Biofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science. Europe: East European Craton;
Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny Indian
Subcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.
Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacdran. Russia. Sedimentary
GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xv
iii. To indicate material that broadens the discussion.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments and
Biofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Earth Syatem Science. Europe: East European Graton;
Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwantand and Gendwana. Grenvillian Orogeny. Indian
Subcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.
Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran. Russia. Sedimentary
3. Index
The index will provide you with the page number where the material is located, and the index entries
differentiate between material that is a whole article, is part of an article or is data presented in a figure or
table. Detailed notes are provided on the opening page of the index.
4. Contributors
A full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume.
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Contributors
Abart, R
University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Best, J
University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Aldridge, R J
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Birch, W D
Museum Victoria, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Al-Jallal, I A
Sandroses Est. for Geological, Geophysical
Petroleum Engineering Consultancy and Petroleum
Services, Khobar, Saudi Arabia
Bird, J F
Imperial College London, London, UK
Alkmim, F F
Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
Allen, P M
Bingham, Nottingham, UK
Allwood, A C
Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Al-Sharhan, A S
United Arab Emirates University, AI-Ain,
United Arab Emirates
Anderson, L I
National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK
Arndt, N T
LCEA, Grenoble, France
Arnott, R
Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford, UK
Asimow, P D
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
Atkinson, J
City University, London, UK
Bacon, M
Petro-Canada, London, UK
Black, P
Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
Bleeker, W
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Bogdanova, S V
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Bommer, J J
Boore, D M
United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Bosence, D W J
Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK
Boulanger, R W
University of California, Davis, CA, USA
Braga, J C
University of Granada, Granada, Spain
Branagan, D F
University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Brasier, M D
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Brewer, P A
University of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK
Bailey, J
Anglo-Australian Observatory and Australian Centre for
Astrobiology, Sydney, Australia
Bridge, M
University College London, London, UK
Bani, P
Institut de la Recherche pour le Dveloppement,
Noumea, New Caledonia
Brown, D
Institute de Ciencias de la Tierra 'Jaume Almera'
CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
Bell, F G
British Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK
Brown, A J
Bell, K
Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Brown, R J
University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
Bucher, K
University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Cosgrove, J W
Burns, S F
Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA
Coxon, P
Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Byford, E
Broken Hill, NSW, Australia
Cressey, G
The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Calder, E S
Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
Cribb, S J
Carraig Associates, Inverness, UK
Cameron, E M
Eion Cameron Geochemical Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada
Cronan, D S
Carbotte, S M
Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Currant, A
Carminati, E
Universita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Davies, H
University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby
Papua New Guinea
Chamberlain, S A
Davis, G R
Charles, J A
Formerly Building Research Establishment
Hertfordshire, UK
DeCarli, P S
SRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Chiappe, L M
Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
Los Angeles, CA, USA
Dewey, J F
University of California Davis
Davis, CA, USA, and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Clack, J A
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Doglioni, C
Universita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy
Clayton, C
Eardiston, Tenbury Wells, UK
Doming, K J
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Clayton, G
Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Dott, Jr R H
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl, USA
Cocks, L R M
Doyle, P
Coffin, M F
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Dubbin, W E
Collinson, J
John Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK
Dyke, G J
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Comerford, G
Echtler, H
GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Condie, K C
New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, USA
Eden, M A
Geomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK
Cornford, C
Integrated Geochemical Interpretation Ltd, Bideford, UK
Eide, E A
Geological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway
Cornish, L
Eldholm, O
University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
CONTRIBUTORS xix
Elliott, D K
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
Garetsky, R G
Institute of Geological Sciences, Minsk, Belarus
Elliott, T
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Garrard, P
Eriksen, A S
Zetica, Witney, UK
Gascoyne, J K
Zetica, Witney, UK
Payers, S R
University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
Gee, D G
University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
Feenstra, A
GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Geshi, N
Geological Survey of Japan, Ibaraki, Japan
Felix, M
Giese, P
Freie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Figueras, D
BFI, Houston, TX, USA
Fookes, P G
Winchester, UK
Forey, P L
Fortey, R A
Foster, D A
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Frda, J
Czech Geological Survey, Prague, Czech Republic
Franke, W
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Franz, G
Technische Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany
French, W J
Geomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK
Fritscher, B
Munich University, Munich, Germany
Frostick, L
University of Hull, Hull, UK
Fuchs, Y
Universit Marne la Valle, Marne la Valle, France
Gabbott, S E
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Garaebiti, E
Department of Geology and Mines, Port Vila, Vanuatu
Giles, D P
University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
Glasser, N F
Gluyas, J
Acorn Oil and Gas Ltd., Staines, UK
Gorbatschev, R
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Gordon, J E
Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh, UK
Gradstein, F M
University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Gray, D R
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Greenwood, J R
Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
Grieve, RAF
Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Griffiths, J S
University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
Hambrey, M J
Hancock, J M
Formerly Imperial College London, London, UK
Hansen, J M
Danish Research Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark
Harff, J
Baltic Sea Research Institute Warnemunde, Rostock,
Germany
Deceased
xx
CONTRIBUTORS
Harper, DAT
Geologisk Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark
Howell, J
Harper, E M
Howie, R A
Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK
Harrison, JP
Hudson-Edwards, K
University of London, London, UK
Hatcher, Jr RD
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
Huggett, J M
Petroclays, Ashtead, UK and The Natural History
Museum, London, UK
Hatheway, A W
Rolla, MO and Big Arm, MT, USA
Hauzenberger, C A
University of Graz, Graz, Austria
Hawkins, A B
Charlotte House, Bristol, UK
Haymon, R M
University of California-Santa Barbara
He Guoqi
Peking University, Beijing, China
Head, J W
Brown University, Providence, Rl, USA
Heim, N A
University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Helvaci, C
Dokuz Eyll niversitesi, Izmir, Turkey
Hendriks, B W H
Hughes, N C
University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
Hutchinson, D R
US Geological Survey, Woods Hole, MA, USA
Idriss, I M
University of California, Davis, CA, USA
Ineson, J R
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland
Geocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Ivanov, M A
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Jger, K D
Martin Luther University, Halle, Germany
Jarzembowski, E A
University of Reading, Reading, UK and Maidstone
Museum and Bentlif Art Gallery, Maidstone, UK
Jones, B
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Henk, A
Universitt Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Jones, G L
Conodate Geology, Dublin, Ireland
Herries Davies, G L
University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Joyner, L
Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Hey, R N
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
Kaminski, M A
Hoinkes, G
University of Graz, Graz, Austria
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Hooker, J J
Kemp, A I S
Home, D J
University of London, London, UK
Kendall, A C
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Hovland, M
Statoil, Stavanger, Norway
Kenrick, P
Kay, S M
CONTRIBUTORS xxi
Kogiso, T
Japan Marine Science and Technology Center,
Yokosuka, Japan
Krings, M
Bayerische Staatssammlung fr Palontologie und
Geologic, Geo-Bio Center, Munich, Germany
Lancaster, N
Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV, and United States
Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
Lang,K R
Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
Laurent, G
Brest, France
Lee, E M
York, UK
Lemke, W
Baltic Sea Research Institute Warnemnde, Rostock
Germany
Lesher, C M
Laurentian University, ON, Canada
Lewin, J
Liu, J G
MacLeod, N
Maltman, A
Martill, D M
Martins-Neto, M A
Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil
Marvin, U B
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Cambridge, MA, USA
Mason, P J
HME Partnership, Romford, UK
Massonne, H-J
Universitt Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Matte, P
University of Montpellier II, Montpellier, France
Mayor, A
Princeton, USA
McCaffrey, W
McCall, G J H
Cirencester, Gloucester, UK
Long,J A
The Western Australian Museum, Perth
WA, Australia
McCave, I N
Loock, J C
University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
McGhee, G R
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Lowell, R P
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
McKibben, M A
University of California, CA, USA
Lucas, S G
New Mexico Museum of Natural History
Albuquerque, NM, USA
McLaughlin, Jr P P
Delaware Geological Society, Newark, DE, USA
Liming, S
University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
Luo, Z-X
Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Pittsburgh, PA, USA
McManus, J
University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK
McMenamin, MAS
Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USA
Merriam, D F
University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Macdonald, K C
Metcalfe, I
University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
Machel, H G
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Milke, R
xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Milner, A R
Birkbeck College, London, UK
Oneacre, J W
BFI, Houston, TX, USA
Mojzsis, S J
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
Orchard, M J
Geological Survey of Canada
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Monger, J W H
Geological Survey of Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canada
and Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
Orr, P J
Moore, P
Selsey, UK
Owen, A W
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Morris, N J
University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Plike, H
Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Mortimer, N
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, Dunedin
New Zealand
Page, K N
Mountney, N P
Keele University, Keele, UK
Paris, F
University of Rennes 1, Rennes, France
Mpodozis, C
SIPETROL SA, Santiago, Chile
Parker, J R
Formerly Shell EP International, London, UK
Mungall, J E
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Pfiffner, O A
University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Myrow, P
Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Piper, D J W
Geological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, NS, Canada
Naish, D
Price, R A
Queens University Kingston, ON, Canada
Nickel, E H
CSIRO Exploration and Mining, Wembley, WA, Australia
Prothero, D R
Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Nielsen, K C
The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
Puche-Riart, O
Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Nikishin, A M
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Pye, K
Nokleberg, W J
United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Norbury, D
CL Associates, Wokingham, UK
O'Brien, P J
Universitt Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Ogg, J G
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Rahn, P H
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology
Rapid City, SD, USA
Ramos, V A
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Rankin, A H
Kingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, UK
Oldershaw, C
St. Albans, UK
Rebesco, M
Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica
Sperimentale (OGS), Italy
Oldroyd, D R
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Reedman, A J
Mapperley, UK
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Reisz, R R
University of Toronto at Mississauga
Mississauga, ON, Canada
Retallack, G J
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
Rickards, R B
Riding, R
Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Rigby, J K
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
Rigby, S
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Rodda, P
Mineral Resources Department, Suva, Fiji
Rona, P A
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Rose, E P F
Rosenbaum, M S
Twickenham, UK
Rothwell, R G
Southampton Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Roy, A B
Presidency College, Kolkata, India
Rushton, A W A
Russell, A J
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon
Tyne, UK
Schmid, R
ETH-centre, Zurich, Switzerland
Scott, E
National Center for Science Education
Berkeley, CA, USA
Scon, A C
Scrutton, C T
Formerly University of Durham, Durham, UK
Searle, M
University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Searle, R C
University of Durham, Durham, UK
Seibold, I
University Library, Freiburg, Germany
Selley, R C
Sellwood, B W
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Shields, G A
James Cook University, Townsville, OLD, Australia
Simms, M J
Ulster Museum, Belfast, UK
Slipper, I J
University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK
Smallwood, J R
Amerada Hess pic, London, UK
Smith, A B
Smith, I
Auckland University, Auckland, New Zealand
Snoke, A W
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Soligo, C
Stein, S
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Steinberger, B
Japan Marine Science and Technology Center
Yokosuka, Japan
Stemmerik, L
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland,
Geocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Stern, R J
The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
Stewart, I
Storey, B C
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Storrs, G W
Cincinnati Museum Center, Museum of Natural History
and Science, Cincinnati, OH, USA
xxiv
CONTRIBUTORS
Strachan, R A
Suetsugu, D
Japan Marine Science and Technology Center, Yokosuka
Japan
Surlyk, F
University of Copenhagen, Geocenter Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denmark
Tait, J
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt, Mnchen, Germany
Talbot, M R
Taylor, P D
Taylor, T N
University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Taylor, W E G
University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK
Tazawa, J
Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
Theodor, J M
Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL, USA
Timmerman, M J
Universitt Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
Tollo, R P
George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
Torsvik, T H
Trendall, A
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
Trewin, N H
University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
Turner, A K
Colorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA
Twitchett, R J
van Geuns, L C
Clingendael International Energy Programme
The Hague, The Netherlands
van Staal, C R
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Vanecek, M
Charles University Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Vaughan,D J
University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Veevers, J J
Verniers, J
University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
Wadge, G
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Walter, M R
Wang, H
China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Ware, N G
Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Warke, P A
Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
Weber, K J
Technical University, Delft, The Netherlands
Welch, M D
Westbrook, G K
University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Westermann, G E G
McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
Whalley, W B
Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
White, N C
Brisbane, OLD, Australia
White, S M
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Tyler, I M
Geological Survey of Western Australia
East Perth, WA, Australia
Wignall, P B
Valdes, P J
Williams, P A
University of Western Sydney, Parramata, Australia
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
Wise, W S
Worden, R H
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Wyatt, A R
Sidmouth, UK
Xiao, S
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA, USA
Yakubchuk, A S
Yates, A M
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg
South Africa
Zhang Shihong
China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
Ziegler, P A

Geology - Index

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

ALPS See EUROPE: The Alps

S M Kay, C Mpodozis, V A Ramos

ARABIA AND THE GULF

ASTEROIDS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

BIOLOGICAL RADIATIONS AND SPECIATION

CHINA AND MONGOLIA

H Wang, Shihong Zhang, Guoqi He

CLAYS, ECONOMIC USES

COCCOLITHS See CALCAREOUS ALGAE

COMETS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

DESERTS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deserts

DINOSAURS See FOSSIL VERTEBRATES: Dinosaurs

Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles)

EARTHQUAKES See ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Aspects of Earthquakes;

EROSION See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian

GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING

GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

GEOLOGY, THE PROFESSION

GEOLOGY OF WINE / M Hancock 85

GEOPHYSICS See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles); EARTH

GLACIERS See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Glaciers

GONDWANALAND AND GONDWANA

GRANITE See IGNEOUS ROCKS: Granite

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1780 TO 1835

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1835 TO 1900

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY FROM 1900 TO 1962

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY SINCE 1962

JUPITER See SOLAR SYSTEM: Jupiter, Saturn and Their Moons

LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCES

MANTLE PLUMES AND HOT SPOTS

D Suetsugu, T Kogiso, B Steinberger

MARS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Mars

METEORITES See SOLAR SYSTEM: Meteorites

MICROPALAEONTOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES I J Slipper 470

MILANKOVITCH CYCLES See EARTH: Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch

MINERAL DEPOSITS AND THEIR GENESIS

MOON See SOLAR SYSTEM: Moon

H Davies, P Bani, P Black,

PALAEOECOLOGY E M Harper, S Rigby

RIFT VALLEYS See AFRICA: Rift Valley

ROCKS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Clays and Their Diagenesis

SHOCK METAMORPHISM P S DeCarli

SOIL MECHANICS / Atkinson

STROMATOLITES See BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS

UNIDIRECTIONAL AQUEOUS FLOW

URALS See EUROPE: The Urals

fluid pressure effects 5:307, 5:309f,

palynology 3:418, 3:468, 3:469f

Advanced Visible Infrared Image

transport modes 4:613 f

Miocene 1:17, 1:24

Agassiz, Louis (continued)

methylene blue absorption test 1:41

alder flies 2:300*

stratigraphic dating 4:492

fossil assemblages 2:516

regional metamorphism 3:396f, 4:409,

Andes Mountains (continued]

anorthoclase 3:534/~, 3:534-535

alpha (a)-particle processes 1:50, l:52f

tectonostratigraphical zones 4:81,