Operating Systems Overview An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c o m p u t e r a n d t h e s h a r i n g o f c o m p u t e r resources.

It hosts the several applications that run o n a c o m p u t e r a n d h a n d l e s t h e operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programminginterfaces. Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs)o r G r a p h i c a l U s e r I n t e r f a c e s k n o w n a s G U I s . I n s h o r t , o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m e n a b l e s u s e r interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application p r o g r a m s a n d t h e c o m p u t e r h a r d w a r e . H e r e i s a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f operati ng systems. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Realtimeoperating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve adeterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event -driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their prioritiesw h i l e t i m e sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interr upts. Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a co mputer systemconcurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable am u l t i p l e u s e r a c c e s s t o a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h t h e s h a r i n g o f t i m e . S i n g l e - u s e r o p e r a t i n g systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at atime. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not makeit a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of theOS makes it a multi-user operating system. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks atone time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of twot y p e s n a m e l y , p r e - e m p t i v e o r c o - o p e r a t i v e . I n p r e emptive multitasking, the operatingsystem slices the CPU time and d e d i c a t e s o n e s l o t t o e a c h o f t h e p r o g r a m s . U n i x - l i k e operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperativemultitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in ad e f i n e d m a n n e r . M S W i n d o w s p r i o r t o W i n d o w s 9 5 u s e d t o s u p p o r t c o o p e r a t i v e multitaski

Examples of Operating Systems 1. Disk Operating System (DOS)DOS (Disk Operating System) was the first widelyinstalled operating system for personalcomputers. It is a master control program that is automatically run when you start your PC.DOS stays in the computer all the time letting you run a program and manage files. It is asingle-user operating system from Microsoft for the PC. It was the first OS for the PC and isthe underlying control program for Windows 3.1, 95, 98 and ME. Windows NT, 2000 and XPemulate DOS in order to

support existing DOS applications. To use DOS, you must knowwhere your programs and data are stored and how to talk to DOS. .2.UNIXUNIX is Multi-user Operating System. The UNIX environment and the client/server programmodel were important elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers. UNIX is written in C.B o t h U N I X a n d C w e r e d e v e l o p e d b y A T & T a n d f r e e l y d i s t r i b u t e d t o g o v e r n m e n t a n d academic institutions. 3. LinuxLinux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, LinusT o r v a l d s , a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f H e l s i n k i i n F i n l a n d . H e b e g a n h i s w o r k i n 1 9 9 1 w h e n h e released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernelwas released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and releasedunder theGNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone.The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source softwarecollaboration; typically all the underlyingsource codecan be used, freely modified,and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses suchas theGNU General Public License. 4. Windows is first introduced as a personal computer operating system from Microsoft that,together with some commonly used bu siness applications such as Microsoft Word and Excel, has become a de facto "standard" for individual users in most corporations as well asi n m o s t homes. However, W indows 95, 98, ME, NT, 2000 and XP are c o m p l i c a t e d operating environments. Certain combinations of hardware and software running together can cause problems, and troubleshooting can be daunting. Each new version of Windowshas interface changes that constantly confuse users and keep support people busy, andInstalling Windows applications is problematic too. Microsoft has worked hard to makeWindows 2000 and Windows XP more resilient to installation problems and crashes ingeneral 5. MACINTOSHThe Macintosh (often called "the Mac"), introduced in 1984 by Apple Computer, was the firstwidely-sold personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). The Macintosh has itsown operating system, Mac OS which, in its latest version is called Mac OS X. Classification of Computers Computers can be classified many different ways -b y s i z e , b y f u n c t i o n , a n d / o r b y processing capacity. We will study the classification of computers by size. The size of acomputer often determines its function and processing capacity. The size of computers varies widely from tiny to huge and is usually dictated by computing requirements. Super Computers The largest computers are supercomputers. They are the most pow e r f u l , t h e m o s t expensive, and the fastest. They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per second. Examples of users of these computers are governmental agencies, such as theNational Weather Service, and the National Defense Agency. Also, they are used in themaking of movies, space exploration, and the design of many other machines. The Crays u p e r c o m p u t e r i s n i c k n a m e d " B u b b l e s " , b e c a u s e o f i t s b u b b l i n g c o o l a n t l i q u i d s . C r a y supercomputers, the first of which was invented by Seymour Cray, now maintain 75 percentof the supercomputer market. Supercomputers are used for tasks that require mammothdata manipulation. Mainframe Computers Large computers are called mainframes. Mainframe computers process data at very highr a t e s o f s p e e d , m e a s u r e d i n t h e m i l l i o n s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s p e r s e c o

n d . T h e y a r e v e r y expensive, costing millions of dollars in some cases. Mainframes are designed for multipleu s e r s a n d p r o c e s s v a s t a m o u n t s o f d a t a q u i c k l y . B a n k s , i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s , manufacturers, mail-order companies, and airlines are typical users. Mainframes are oftenservers-- computers that control the networks of computers for large companies. Microcomputers Microcomputers can be divided into two groups -- personal computers and workstations.Workstations are specialized computers that approach the speed of mainframes. Oftenmicrocomputers are connected to networks of other computers. Microcomputers make upthe vast majority of computers. Notebook Another classification of computer is the notebook computer. A notebook computer can fiti n t o a b r i e f c a s e a n d w e i g h f e w e r t h a n t w o p o u n d s , y e t i t c a n c o m p e t e w i t h t h e microcomputer. Laptop A larger, heavier version is called a laptop computer. Notebooks generally cost more thanmicrocomputers but can run most of the microcomputer software and are more versatile.Like other computers, notebook computers are getting faster, lighter, and more functional. Personal Digital Assistant The smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or aP D A . P D A s a r e u s e d t o t r a c k a p p o i n t m e n t s a n d s h i p m e n t s a s w e l l a s n a m e s a n d addresses. PDAs are called pen-based computers because they utilize a pen-like stylusthat accepts hand-written input directly on a touch-sensitive screen. You have probablynoticed delivery employees using these. PROCESSORS (CPUs) The CPU or Central Processing Unit, is the core of any computer. The processor (really ashort form for microprocessor and also often called th CPU or central processing unit) is thecentral component of the PC. This vital component is in some way responsible for everysingle thing the PC does. It determines, at least in part, which operating systems can beused, which software packages the PC can run, how much energy the PC uses, and howstable the system will be, among other things. The processor is also a major determinant of overall system cost: the newer and more powerful the processor, the more expensive themachine will be. Types of Processors The vast majority of microprocessors are embedded microcontrollers. The second most commontype of processors are common desktop processors, such as Intel's Pentium or AMD's Athlon. Lesscommon are the extremely powerful processors used in high-end servers, such as Sun's SPARC,IBM's Power, or Intel's Itanium.Historically, microprocessors and microcontrollers have come in "standard sizes" of 8 bits, 16 bits,32 bits, and 64 bits. These sizes are common, but that does not mean that other sizes are notavailable. Some microcontrollers (usually specially designed embedded chips) can come in other "non-standard" sizes such as 4 bits, 12 bits, 18 bits, or 24 bits. The number of bits represent howmuch physical memory can be directly addressed by the CPU. It also represents the amount of bitsthat can be read by one read/write operation. In some circumstances, these are different; for instance, many 8 bit microprocessors have an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus. 8 bit processors can read/write 1 byte at a time and can directly address 256 bytes

16 bit processors can read/write 2 bytes at a time, and can address 65,536 bytes (64Kilobytes) 32 bit processors can read/write 4 bytes at a time, and can address 4,294,967,295bytes (4 Gigabytes) 64 bit processors can read/write 8 bytes at a time, a n d c a n a d d r e s s 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes (16 Exabytes). Various Manufactures of Processors 1 INTEL Corporation Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC; SEHK: 4335; Euronext: INCO) is an American technologycompany, and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel wasfounded on July 18, 1968, as Integrated Electronics Corporation (though a common misconceptionis that "Intel" is from the word intelligence) and is based in Santa Clara, California, USA. Intel alsomakes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory,graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing.Intel 4004, Intel 8080, Intel 8088, Intel 80286, Intel 80386, Intel 80486, Pentium 1,Pentium pro,Pentium MMX,Pentium2,Pentium 3,Pentium 4,Intel Atom,Intel Xeon,Celeron,Int el Dual Core,Intel core 2 duo,intel corei3,i5,intel corei7 etc.are the some of the premium processor of intel. 2 AMD Technology Advanced Micro Devices ( AMD) is a leading global provider of innovative processing solutions inthe computing, graphics and consumer electronics markets. AMD is dedicated to driving openinnovation, choice and industry growth by delivering. The company started as a producer of logicchips in 1969, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. AMD K5, AMD K6, AMD Athlon. AMD Athelon XP, AMD Sempron, AMD Duron, AMD Athlon 64, Amd phenom, opteron etc are the some of the processors of AMD. 3.Cyrix 4. Cyrix Corporation was a microprocessor developer that was founded in 1988 in Richardson, Texas as a specialist supplier of highp e r f o r m a n c e m a t h coprocessors for 286 and 386 microprocessors. T h e c o m p a n y w a s f o u n d e d b y former Texas Instruments (TI) staff members and had a long but troubled relationshipwith TI throughout its history. Cyrix founder Jerry Rogers aggressively recruitedengineers and pushed them, eventually assembling a small but efficient design teamof 30 people. Cyrix merged with National Semiconductor on 11 November 1997. Thef i r s t C y r i x p r o d u c t f o r t h e p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r m a r k e t w a s a x 8 7 c o m p a t i b l e F P U coprocessor. The Cyrix FasMath 83D87 and 83S87 were introduced in 1989. The FasMath was the fastest 386-compatible coprocessor and provided up to 50% moreperformance than the Intel 80387. Cyrix FasMath 82S87, a 80287-compatible chip wasdeveloped from the Cyrix 83D87 and has been available since 1991. 5.MOTHERBOARD 6. A m o t h e r b o a r d i s t h e h a r d w a r e c o m p o n e n t t h a t c o n n e c t s a l m o s t a l l o f t h e other parts together in a computer. The motherboard is, in many ways,

the mostimportant component in your Computer. It's a large silicon wafer to which all other computer components connect

O r g a n i z a t i o n : I n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , e v e r y t h i n g i s e v e n t u a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o themotherboard. The way that the motherboard is designed and laid out d i c t a t e s h o w t h e entire computer is going to be organized. Control:The motherboard contains the chipset and BI OS program, which betweenthem control most of the data flow within the computer. Communication:Almost all communication between the PC and its peripherals, other PCs, and you, the user, goes through the motherboard. Processor Support:The motherboard dictates directly your choice of processor for use in the system. P e r i p h e r a l S u p p o r t : T h e m o t h e r b o a r d d e t e r m i n e s , i n l a r g e p a r t , w h a t t y p e s o f peripherals you can use in your PC. For example, the type of video card your system willuse (ISA, VLB, PCI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard uses. Performance:The motherboard is a major determining factor in your system ' s performance, for two main reasons. First and foremost, the motherboard determines whattypes of processors, memory, system buses, and harddisk interface speed your system canh a v e , a n d t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s d i c t a t e d i r e c t l y y o u r s y s t e m ' s p e r f o r m a n c e . Second, theq u a l i t y o f t h e m o t h e r b o a r d c i r c u i t r y a n d c h i p s e t t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a n i m p a c t o n performance. Motherboard Form Factors The form factor of the motherboard describes its general shape, what sorts of cases and power supplies it can use, and its physical organization. For example, a company can make twomotherboards that have basically the same functionality but that use a different form factor, andthe only real differences will be the physical layout of the board, the position of the components,etc. In fact, many companies do exactly this, they have for example a baby AT version and anATX version.

1: Motherboard Layout

Chipset A chipset, PC chipset or chip set refers to a group of integrated circuit or chips, that aredesigned to work together. They are usually marketed as a single product. The chipsetalso controls data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDEchannels. The chipset consists of two main components, the North- and South- Bridgechips, which are connected over the PCI bus. The CPU, Memory and AGP talk to the Northbridge and the Southbridge handles all the I/O, including the ISA bus.Processorsthemselves also have different chipsets. Therefore, whenever you upgrade your computer's hardware, make sure you buy components that are compatible with thechipsets in your machine. Major Motherboard Manufactures ASRockASUSBioStar Gigabyte TechnologyIntel CorporationMSITranscendFoxConnMicrostar International Diagram of a motherboard chipset

Random Access Memory Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers tocomputer chips that temporarily storedynamic data to enhance computer performance. By storing frequently used or active files inrandom access memory, the computer can access the data faster than if it to retrieve it from the far-larger hard drive. Random access memory is also used in printers and other devices.Random access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents once power is cut. This isdifferent from non-volatile memory such as hard disks and flash memory which do not require apower source to retain data. When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in randomaccess memory is committed to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the nextboot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, and with files opened by the user

Different RAM Types and its uses The type of RAM doesn't matter nearly as much as how much of it you've got, but usingplain old SDRAM memory today will slow you down. There are three main types of RAM:SDRAM, DDR and Rambus DRAM. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) Almost all systems used to ship with 3.3 volt, 168-pin SDRAM DIMMs. SDRAM is not anextension of older EDO DRAM but a new type of DRAM altogether. SDRAM started outrunning at 66 MHz, while older fast page mode DRAM and EDO max out at 50 MHz.SDRAM is able to scale to 133 MHz (PC133) officially, and unofficially up to 180MHz or higher. As processors get faster, new generations of memory such as DDR and RDRAMare required to get proper performance. DDR (Double Data Rate SDRAM) DDR basically doubles the rate of data transfer of standard SDRAM by transferring data onthe up and down tick of a clock cycle. DDR memory operating at 333MHz actually operatesat 166MHz * 2 (aka PC333 / PC2700) or 133MHz*2 (PC266 / PC2100). DDR is a 2.5 volttechnology that uses 184 pins in its DIMMs. It is incompatible with SDRAM physically, butuses a similar parallel bus, making it easier to implement than RDRAM, which is a differenttechnology. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) Despite it's higher price, Intel has given RDRAM it's blessing for the consumer market, andit will be the sole choice of memory for Intel's Pentium 4. RDRAM is a serial memorytechnology that arrived in three flavors, PC600, PC700, and PC800. PC800 RDRAM hasdouble the maximum throughput of old PC100 SDRAM, but a higher latency. RDRAMdesigns with multiple channels, such as those in Pentium 4 motherboards, are currently atthe top of the heap in memory throughput, especially when paired with PC1066 RDRAMmemory. DIMMs vs. RIMMs DRAM comes in two major form factors: DIMMs and RIMMS.DIMMs are 64bit components, but if used in a motherboard with a dual-channelconfiguration (like with an Nvidia nForce chipset) you must pair them to get maximumperformance. So far there aren't many DDR chipset that use dual-channels. Typically, if youwant to add 512 MB of DIMM memory to your machine, you just pop in a 512 MB DIMM if you've got an available slot. DIMMs for SDRAM and DDR are different, and not physicallycompatible. SDRAM DIMMs have 168pins and run at 3.3 volts, while DDR DIMMs have184-pins and run at 2.5 volts.RIMMs use only a 16-bit interface but run at higher speeds than DDR. To get maximumperformance, Intel RDRAM chipsets require the use of RIMMs in pairs over a dual-channel32-bit interface. You have to plan more when upgrading and purchasing RDRAM. Cache Memory Cache Memory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the processor and mainmemory. The cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a trip allthe way back to slower main memory. The memory structure of PCs is often thought of as just main memory, but it's really a five or six level structure:The first two levels of memory are contained in the processor itself, consisting of theprocessor's small internal memory, or registers, and L1 cache, which is the first level of cache, usually contained in the processor. The third level of memory is the L2 cache, usually contained on the motherboard. However,the Celeron chip from Intel actually contains 128K of L2 cache within the form factor of thechip. More and more chip makers are planning to put this cache on board the processor itself. The benefit is that it will then run at the same speed as the processor, and cost less toput on the chip than to set up a bus and logic externally from the processor.The fourth level, is being

referred to as L3 cache. This cache used to be the L2 cache onthe motherboard, but now that some processors include L1 and L2 cache on the chip, itbecomes L3 cache. Usually, it runs slower than the processor, but faster than main memory.The fifth level (or fourth if you have no "L3 cache") of memory is the main memory itself.The sixth level is a piece of the hard disk used by the Operating System, usually calledvirtual memory. Most operating systems use this when they run out of main memory, butsome use it in other ways as well. Older Memory Types Fast Page Mode DRAMFast Page Mode DRAM is plain old DRAM as we once knew it. The problem with standardDRAM was that it maxes out at about 50 MHz .EDO DRAM EDO DRAM gave people up to 5% system performance increase over DRAM. EDO DRAMis like FPM DRAM with some cache built into the chip. Like FPM DRAM, EDO DRAMmaxes out at about 50 MHz. Early on, some system makers claimed that if you used EDODRAM you didn't need L2 cache in your computer to get decent performance. They werewrong. It turns out that EDO DRAM works along with L2 cache to make things even faster,but if you lose the L2 cache, you lose a lot of speed.