How Close is Too Close: The Effects of Ecotourism on the Giant River Otter

Noah Hawthorne Human Biology Research Project, Summer 2004 Stanford University

Abstract Reserves and national parks coupled with the strategy of ecotourism have been successful responses to the pressures of deforestation and shrinking habitats in the South American rainforest. Yet with these new parks has come the problem of tourists, whose desire to view animals in the most pristine locations conflicts with the needs of the animals themselves. The presence of tourists can both help and hurt in the preservation effort, bringing in money to sustain the local community in a less destructive economic venture, but also having an unavoidable impact on the animals they are coming to see. To look at this problem, I traveled to the Tres Chimbadas Oxbow Lake, close to the Parque Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene in Southern Peru. There, I studied the interactions between tourists and the wild giant river otter population, a much endangered species especially susceptible to environmental stressors, and a charismatic species that attracts tourists from around the world. Specifically, I looked at how different tourist groups and boat types affect the otters, either by eliciting a startle response that forces the otters into other areas of the lake, or changing their behavior in other more minor ways. While the impact of ecotourism is preferential to many other economic ventures in the Amazon, my research suggests that it still has a noticeable impact on otter behavior, causing increased levels of tension among family groups and deviations in swimming and fishing patterns. Theoretical Framework Balancing the conservation of charismatic species with tourism interests: An Overview Spectacular animals, endangered species, and unique and fragile biospheres are some of the most sought-after tourist destinations in the world. One of the fundamental paradoxes that exists within the field ecotourism is that the number of tourists who come to see the animals and ecosystems often with the best of intentions are in fact causing some amount of harm through their presence. And, with the hordes of tourists that flock to the most beautiful places on earth, the intrusive effects become additive until the tourists seeking to revere, observe, and often protect, are often harming that which they admire so much. Attempts to control for these effects through regulations are often hampered by the fact that the tourism industry brings huge amounts of money to a given economy, and short-term economics demand that impoverished countries as well as business-minded areas embrace all of the tourists that they can in order to make money. A balance between the need for income, appeasement of tourists desires to see animals, and conservation must be reached in order for a sustainable system to continue into the future. In the case of the

giant river otter in Tambopata, after decades of hunting and significantly reduced numbers, throngs of people are coming to see the otters and posing a significant threat to their tenuous survival. Conservation and Environmentalism in Context: Each year, an estimated 13 million hectares of forests are destroyed, and 14,000 to 40,000 species disappear from tropical forests. With fewer trees, less carbon dioxide is converted to oxygen through photosynthesis. This, in addition to increased emissions of carbon dioxide, is contributing to the occurrence of global warming. Greenhouse gas emissions are likely to increase Earths temperature by 1 to 4C in the next century, leading to the possibility of increasingly severe droughts and floods, enhanced rates of species invasion and extinction, and thus significant economic harm (Kremen 2000). Why is it important to conserve the giant river otter? With the economic rationalization for conservation in order to avoid global warming, environmentalism has gotten a powerful foothold in todays society. However, the value of conservation has several less dramatic components as well, as conservation of individual species can have a very specific value. Certain animals, known as keystone species, are indicators of the general environmental health of their ecosystem. Preservation of these species generally involves conservation efforts in several diverse areas and when successful generally signifies an increase in the health of the ecosystem as a whole (Fauth 1999). Preservation of the giant otter, a keystone species in the Tambopata region would include a preservation of the waterways and habitat, maintaining water purity, eliminating hunting, and maintenance of the general health of the surrounding rainforest. Tourism also plays an important role as a motivator for conservation. With the giant otter as a key charismatic species that draws tourists to the area, a priority to preserve the otter would improve tourism revenues in the future. Finally, successful protection of a certain species or ecosystem can set an example to be followed for more effective conservation attempts in the future. With several various definitions and a host of diverse proponents, conservation has often been juxtaposed with the concepts of preservation. A workable definition for

conservation was proposed by Redford and Richter who qualified it as the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to current generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations (Redford 1999). It is important to remember that Environmentalism is not an attempt to solve specific problems or protect nature from unnecessary destruction. Rather, Environmentalism is a political doctrine (Gibson 2002). Perhaps the first text to introduce the concept of environmentalism was written by Moritz Arndt, a fanatical German nationalist who connected ideas about nature and the need to protect German soil. His 1815 essay entitled On the Care and Conservation of Forests introduced what is known as modern environmentalism with such observations as the importance of the survival of the cohesive whole living biosphere due to a connectedness of living things (Arndt 1815, as cited in Gibson 2002). Some authors see the origins of conservation in political practice first occuring in the colonial practices of the 1800s. Using the example of 19th century colonial India, author Richard H. Grove suggests that environmentalism emerged in India as the bureaucracy of the colonial British Empire became more settled, well established, and powerful, and was able to see some of the terrible environmental losses occurring in India during the time as a result of the presence and policies of the British Empire. Grove states that modern environmentalismemerged as direct responses to the destructive social and ecological conditions of colonial rule (Grove 1995, as cited in Giblin 1997). This British movement wasnt nationwide, but instead as an element of upper-class English culture, and therefore reflected to a greater extent in British governmental policy (Gibson 2002). Regardless of its origins, the idea of conservation has spread rapidly, becoming a stated objective of national governments, state agencies, local agencies, and scientific organizations around the world. Billions of dollars have been spent on preserving biodiversity in the name of conservation, and to date over 150 national governments have signed a treaty committing themselves to biodiversity conservation (Redford 1999). Political environmentalism in the United States and its reverberations around the world has an interesting history. During his presidency, US President Harry Truman made a call for progress, and encouraged the southern states of the US and the underdeveloped countries of the world to make an effort to catch up the industrialized North (Sachs 4). This

call for development has been taken up wholeheartedly in the United States, with industrialization and consumption reaching very high levels. In the 1950s it became clear that investments werent enough on their own, and these was supplemented in the with man-power development, and then with social development in the 1960s. In the 1990s it became clear that impoverished peasants could no longer be overlooked, leading to the concept of rural development, along with the likes of equitable development and the basic needs approach guaranteeing everybody certain basic rights. Today the worlds economy and consumption has outstripped the capacity of the earth to continue to provide. This was noticed, and produced gradual change until recently, when the United Nations Conference on Economic Development (UNCED) decreed the current era as the era of sustainable development (Sachs 9). This brings the process of western consumption to a new era of sustainability and concern for the environment and for the future. The question that now arises is whether governments who support conservation are effectively implementing strategies to support their political goal. Conservation Actions and the Usefulness of Ecotourism: With the importance of protecting the environment through a policy of sustainable use a strong priority for many, the strategy of ecotourism has been especially appealing. Conservation can be divided into two categories, consumptive and non-consumptive. Consumptive use occurs when an organism or any of its parts is deliberately killed or removed. Non-consumptive use does not involve direct removal and is best typified by wildlife viewing and photography (Campbell 1998). Consumptive use of habitat is perhaps the largest current threat to several animal species that depend on those habitats for survival. Habitat destruction can result in decreasing food sources, toxins in the habitat area, decreased migration capabilities and a corresponding decrease in genetic diversity. With certain species already at critically low levels, any type of consumptive use could lead to a decrease in genetic diversity which leaves the species particularly vulnerable to infectious diseases (Lafferty 2002). Wildlife and the allure of striking scenery in many developing nations has lead to a surge of foreign tourists looking for a respite from the concrete of industrialized western

cities. These tourists bring in large amounts of money, but complications as well. In 1990, developing countries attracted 50 million tourists who left revenues of 55 billion US dollars (Kirkby 2000). In all, tourism receipts were expected to be nearly $3 trillion in 1996, making travel and tourism the largest industry in the world (Giannecchini 1993). Ecotourism is a large subset of all tourism travel, accounting for an estimated 55-60% of the world travel market (Giannecchini 1993). The powerful driving force behind the model of ecotourism is its combination of conservation strategy with economic incentives. Ultimately, ecotourism has been touted as a way for developing countries to achieve self sufficiency without losing their autonomy (Nixon 1999). It has been also been described as an effective answer to the challenge that faces many conservationists of protecting biodiversity in economically impoverished but biologically rich areas in the developing world (Bookbinder 1998). Ecotourism is a twist on the traditional form of tourist travel, defined by the World Wildlife Fund as Tourism to protect natural areas, in a form that brings economic benefits along with the preservation of natural resources (Smith 39). Its principle attributes include 1) Tourist education on environmental and social issues 2) Conservation of nature through legal government action supported by responsible and professional guides and 3) Investment in the indigenous population (Smith 39). The basic strategy behind ecotourism is the idea that tourism is an economic force that follows and rewards more pristine locations with increased biodiversity, fostering their conservation in a self-promoting cycle. Under the concept of ecotourism, revenues from tourists such as lodging fees, guide costs, food, park fees, local crafts, local travel and taxes are all distributed among the local population. This population when given the choice to exploit the region will refrain from destructive activities in an effort to sustain their link between environmental conservation and individual revenue. This is known as the Standard Model of ecotourism (Yu 1997). It also hopes to provide an economic alternative for the native populations that have been known to be prone to liquidating their natural resources by selling illegal concessions for gold mining and timber harvesting in their lands (Zimmerman 2001). This standard model of ecotourism and its economic investment in native conservation strategy is a very different approach from classical tourism, where many of the services that cater to tourists are based out of first world

countries. Many of the services that tourists require such as airline transportation and deluxe accommodations cant be provided by a developing third world countrys native population with limited resources (Yu 1997). This means that when tourists go to another country and stay at a resort or lodge very little of their money is going into the community. The local community is then left without a viable means of steady income except from use of the local environment, which threatens the effectiveness of conservation strategies. However a common problem has been the implementation of the standard model of ecotourism. Many tourism companies will advertise themselves as ecotourism ventures, while engaging in environmentally unsound policies and failing to invest in the local community. Such a strategy among tourism companies is common, and known as greenwashing (Nixon 1999). Companies also find it difficult to employ members of the native population in the ecotourism venture. This seems to be a flaw that both traditional tourism and ecotourism both have, as skilled guides and support staff for tourist areas are difficult to come by in part due to language barriers and a lack of educational experience. A good example for this shortcoming can be seen in the area surrounding the Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal, one of the most heavily visited parks in Asia. In this area 61% of the hotels were owned by non-locals, and only 4% of households in the district reported having family members directly employed in the ecotourism industry. In Nepal, various studies have shown that current economic benefits to local communities from the ecotourism industry are limited, and provide only limited employment potential (Bookbinder 1998). This holds true in the Tambopata area of Peru as well, where local colonists are mostly unable to fill specialized jobs as managers, administrators, guides, riverboat pilots or cooks. Currently, jungle lodges must hire their guides from a combination of foreign and Peruvian biology students (Yu 1997). Yet even in with ecotourism working as it is supposed to, some authors argue that the Standard Model of ecotourism in an ineffective conservation method on its own. Assuming that ecotourism increases income to the local population, this cash income may make the cost of shotgun cartridges and gasoline for chainsaws less prohibitive and allowing the local population to engage in environmentally insensitive activities that would not have been possible earlier (Yu 1997). Also, the temporary low-skill employment offered by lodges makes it less risky for locals to become small-scale agriculturalists, as

they can easily get work if their farm fails (Yu 1997). This has been the case in the Tambopata area, especially with such lodges as the Cusco Amaznico Pueblo Hotel, and Sachavaca Inn (Kirkby 2000). Such environmentally destructive behaviors arent necessary prohibitive to income as the Standard Model of Ecotourism suggests. In fact, most visitors to rainforest lodges are on package tours, and would be unable to effectively judge the level of ecological damage to an area, and unlikely to pass information on to other tourists effectively enough to decrease visitation unless significant ecological harm occurs (Yu 1997). This provides less of an incentive for companies to maintain the purity o their surrounding forests, as an effective marketing strategy to travel agencies and tour companies can prove more effective than expensive and complex conservation strategies. Not all communities see the economic value of tourism either. In Western Uganda a revenue sharing system has been put in place that distributes tourism revenues to build schools, clinics, bridges and roads in the communities surrounding the national parks. However, while nearly all of the residents listed revenue sharing as an advantage to living next to a national park, and 72% said that it had improved their attitudes towards conservation, only 53% thought that revenue sharing from tourism was more important that sustainable use of non-timber forest products (Archabald 2001). With attitudes like this, a significant number of individuals seem bound to continue consumptive use of forest products. So what about ecotourism has worked towards the end goal of conservation? For some authors, ecotourism has been most effective with conservation because of its large economic pull. Bringing large amounts of money into a country has influenced those countries respective governments to enact legislation protecting the companies that are bringing in so much money. In the case of ecotourism, that means the establishment of national parks and reserves, along with enforcement of new laws. This has been the case with Peru especially, where ecotourism exerts a growing and significant influence on national policy (Yu 1997). Encroachment on Charismatic and Keystone Species by Tourists: The Tambopata Case in Context

The giant river otter is definitely not alone in its sensitivity to human encroachment and the effects of tourism. In fact, there are myriad examples of charismatic species that are at risk of being exploited by tourism industries for the cash that they bring in. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, the harp seal is a major tourist attraction. However, the presence of tourists in their habitat has forced a change in behavior for the seals. In this particular case the interaction between mothers and pups was significantly altered by the presence of tourists. Female harp seal attendance to their pups was significantly reduced with tourists present and those females that remained with their pups when tourists were present spent significantly more time alert and less time nursing their pups. Pups were more active with tourists present, resting less and changing location more frequently. Pups also spent significantly more time alert and engaged in agonistic behavior (Kovacs 1990). In Patagonia, one of the largest remaining groups of the southern right whales is under stress from the high incidence of tourists. 8,000 boat trips were required to satisfy a demand of 125,000 people who brought over one million dollars direct revenue and fifteen million in indirect revenue to the local economy over a period of only four years. Most whale watching involved pregnant animals or mothers and calves that often attempted to avoid the boats, stressing the animals and altering the animal behavior (Rivarola 2001). Numerous tourists have also had an impact on the giant river otter in Tambopata. In this case otters have been seen exhibiting defensive territorial behavior, avoiding tourist boats, and stopping feeding and grooming behavior (Dauphine 2001). Such behaviors indicate that the tourists have crossed a comfort barrier for the otters. Repeated exposure to this stressful intrusion can be harmful for the otters, especially with disease. Already highly endangered, the limited number of remaining otters has lead to a more limited gene pool, and a corresponding lack of immunity to infectious disease (Lafferty 2002). However, it has also been shown that stress leads to a decreased immune system response among animals and an increased susceptibility to disease (Lafferty 2003). Yet even causing stress and harming the environment through trail cutting and other typical touristic activities, ecotourism is a far better in the face of alternatives like farming, logging and oil drilling (Yu 1997). The key is to understand that tourism has its flaws, and is not a perfect system for the environment. Once that vital fact is recognized, it is only a matter of research and a desire for change that is needed to reduce the impact of tourism and create an optimal

compromise that is both best for the enjoyment of the tourists and best for the conservation of an ecosystem in perpetuity. Background Information Study Species Overview: Tambopata Giant River Otter Morphology: The Giant River Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is a member of the Mustelidae family which also includes badgers, minks and weasels (Frankfurt Zoological Society 2004). Its length varies between 1.5 to 1.8 meters in males and 1.5 to 1.7 meters in females. The animals can also weigh up to 75 pounds (Carter 1997). The Giant Otter has a very distinctive appearance characterized by a paddle-shaped tail, a hairy nose pad, and large webbed feet. Giant otters also have a unique irregular pattern of whitish or cream-colored hairs on their chins and throats that can be used to identify individuals (Carter 1997). With the local name of lobos de rio or river wolves, the giant otter hunts in packs primarily feeding on fish (FZS 2004). Otters have also been observed hunting in the same area as fresh-water dolphins, driving fish from the shoreline to the feeding dolphins and possibly enjoying predator protection from their association (Defler 1983). Vision has not been studied in the Giant Otter, but studies of the North American River Otter and Sea Otter have found that these species are slightly myopic in both air and water (Carter 1997). When they are above the water, otters have been seen to recognize observers and intrusions at distances of greater than 50 meters (Duplaix 1980, Dauphine 2001). Underwater, the otters hunt using a combination of sight (Carter 1997) and sensory information gathered from their long facial whiskers (Schweizer 1992). It has also been indicated that otters have an excellent sense of smell (Duplaix 1980). Distribution and habitat:

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The Giant Otter can be found in a wide variety of habitats, including in slowmoving rivers and creeks as well as oxbow lakes, swamps and marshes. They were once very plentiful, inhabiting most of South America and ranging from the Guyanas across Venezuela and Colombia, south to northern Argentina and west to the Andes. Due to intense pelt hunting, their numbers have been greatly reduced, completely eliminating populations in many areas. The current population of Giant Otters may be as low at 10003000 individuals (Brecht-Munn & Munn 1988). In Peru, the otters are no longer present in much of their previous territory and are now confined to secluded and protected tributaries to the Amazon (Chehbar 1990). Specifically, giant otters are mostly found in the Manu and Tambopata regions of south eastern Peru (Brecht-Munn & Munn 1988, Dauphine 2001). It has been discovered that the key factors influencing otter habitat choice are low, sloping banks with vegetation for cover and easy access to forest creeks or swampy areas, as well as an abundance of vulnerable prey in relatively shallow waters (FZS 2004). Slow moving rivers and streams as well as oxbow lakes have been observed as preferred habitats conforming to these features (Duplaix 1980). However, with the change in seasons in the Amazon region, and a corresponding change in fish density in many locations, it is not uncommon for the Pteronura habitat choices to depend mainly on a steady, year-round food supply. Pteronura habitats have been characterized into two categories, blackwater and whitewater bodies. The blackwater bodies get their name from that water that is stained dark brown with humic materials derived from decomposing vegetation (FZS 2004). In all habitats a preference is shown for clearer waters with visibility between 1.0-4.3 m, however in habitats with less visibility, otters have been seen to move to isolated areas of clearer water to hunt (Carter 1997). This was seen in Suriname, where it was found that Pteronura brasiliensis particularly favored this type of habitat with water visibility of only a few centimeters due to a heavy silt load, but a dependable food source (FZS 2004). The otter population of South-Eastern Peru, in the Tambopata and Manu regions has been shown to prefer the whitewater oxbow lakes or 'cochas' of the region which characteristically have no current, water depth that is less variable, and a plentiful supply of fish that results from a high concentration of nutrients in the lakes. Moreover, the

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sediments eventually settle to the bottom of the oxbow lakes so that the water is clearer than that of the parent river (FZS 2004). Behavior and Development: A typical Giant Otter population usually includes both resident family groups as well as solitary individuals seeking a mate and territory of their own. Giant otters generally live in groups of three to nine consisting of a mated pair and one or two litters. Occasionally very large groups of 12-20 individuals have been observed around especially plentiful food sources (Duplaix 1980). In addition to the family groups, there can be a transient which lacks established territory and a set group. This otter is normally either a sub-adult which has left its family unit as it approaches sexual maturity or an adult which has lost its mate. In either case, the transient otter no longer has a link to a family group, and has been forced into a nomadic way of life, migrating over large distances in order to seek a mate and establish its own home range (Carter 1997). Otters are mainly diurnal, and may travel extensive distances of over 17km a day fishing and patrolling their territory (Carter 1997). During the day, they often groom one another, which according to scientists, promotes group unity. At night, they retire to communal dens, dug ten feet into the ground along cocha shorelines. The dens provide safety as well as warm birth quarters for new pups. There is no obvious hierarchy within the Giant Otter groups, and aggression is rare between individuals (FZS 2004). Much of the data on otter reproduction has been derived from captive individuals. In general, Giant Otters become sexually mature after about 2 years and adult females are receptive for 3 to 10 days within a 21-day oestrus cycle. Otter copulation takes place in the water and breeding is possible year-round although in the wild it usually occurs only once during the dry season, when fish are particularly abundant. This abundance of food insures adequate nutrition for the developing pups and therefore a higher survival rate. An average of 2 to 4 cubs that come from litter sizes ranging from 1 to 6 are born following a gestation period of 64 to 71 days. The reason for this discrepancy between litter sizes and the number of cubs being reared in the wild is due to fairly high rates of infant mortality among the otter pup population. The newborn cubs are cared for by parents as well as their more mature siblings and stay within the family den for 2 to 3 weeks before being introduced to

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the water. There, they are taught to swim and acclimatize to their new environment. Born with their eyes shut, otters open their eyes and are able to swim after about 1 month (FZS 2004). By 6 weeks, cubs are much more active and can be observed playing near their den entrance. In the wild, it was found that after two months the cubs begin to beg noisily for their fish. This begging provides them with their primary food source, as they are not developed enough to travel and hunt with the family unit until they are 3 to 4 months old. Cubs are weaned by 9 months and after 10 months they can no longer be distinguished from adults in the wild. Juveniles remain with the family unit until they reach sexual maturity (FZS 2004). Threats to the Giant Otter: The giant otter has no known predators, though its young have been known to be vulnerable to caiman, anaconda and jaguars (Carter 1997). One of the largest current threats the otter is mankind. Hunting remains one a major threat, with a typical otter pelt fetching $27-90 USD on the black market (Carter 1997). Deforestation and habitat loss is also a major concern, as areas of the Amazon rainforest are being rapidly consumed (Kremen 2000). In the south eastern area of Peru gold mining by dredging produces large amounts of suspended particulate matter in the water with interferes with light penetration, buries algae and asphyxiates fish (Carter 1997). After dredging mercury is used to separate the gold particles, leading to an elevated amount of mercury released into the surrounding environment. This is a toxic chemical which is absorbed by all of the surrounding life forms. Predators, such as the giant otter are especially susceptible to this threat because of the process known as bioaccumulation, where they absorb all of the mercury from the prey that they eat, until their mercury levels have become toxic. This has been observed in Tambopata otters, though the exact extent of this effect is not yet known (Gutleb 1997). Background: Tourism in Peru Wildlife and the allure of striking scenery in many developing nations have lead to a surge of foreign tourists. These tourists bring in large amounts of money, but

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complications as well. Peru has seen great benefits from tourism. Boasting an impressive variety of tourist attractions including pristine Amazon rainforest, the Andes Mountains, Lake Titicaca, and the infamous Inca city of Machu Picchu, Peru has seen a consistent increase in tourism. After the sensationalized discovery of Machu Picchu in 1911 by a Yale University expedition led by Hiram Bingham, and its publication in National Geographic magazine, Peru was made famous. But tourist flow remained slow, with Cuzco receiving only 6, 903 tourists as late as 1954, or whom only 421 were foreigners (Berghe 2000). With the advent and spread of jet travel in the 60s, the tourism business in Cuzco and around Peru began to grow rapidly. Between 1963 and 1971 tourist numbers ranged between 35,000 and 48,000, reaching a peak of 144,000 in 1986 (Berghe 2000). However, Peru saw a major drop in its tourism numbers with increasing activities by the Shining Path terrorist group. Their most infamous activity was the bombing of a San Pedro railway station in 1983, as the tourist train to Machu Picchu was about to depart. The blast killed six tourists, and created the possibly quite justified international impression that tourism to Peru could be quite dangerous (Berghe 2000). Since the arrests of the Shining Path leader in 1992 and government suppression of the guerilla terrorist movement, Peru and Cuzco have experienced a huge boom in tourism, with current totals for Cuzco estimated at 250,000 a year (Berghe 2000). These trends held true for tourism into Puerto Maldonado and the Tambopata area as well, with Shining path activities undercutting the burgeoning tourism industry, followed by a tremendous increase in the later 1990s. (See fig. 2.2). The huge influx of money that this brings has also created a tourism culture among places frequented by foreign tourists willing to part with their dollars for an ethnic experience. One particular example is Cuzco, Peru, known as the gateway to the Lost City of the Incas, Machu Picchu (Berghe 2000). However, the now common use of jet airliner has lead to an influx of tourism, and made the lost city quite accessible. However, this influx of hundreds of thousands of tourists has lead to a city of Cuzco that is often epitomized by the word touristy, with the center square knows as the Plaza de Armas contains dozens of street vendors hawking authentic craft items, shoe-shiners, beggars, women and children in traditional homespun clothes posing for pictures with their llamas

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or lambs, and numerous hotels and restaurants and hotels catering to tourists (Berghe 2000). In addition to being a gateway to Machu Picchu, Cuzco is also a stopover point for tourists wishing to go into the rainforest region of South-Eastern Peru. These regions, the Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone (TCRZ), and the Manu Biosphere Reserve attracted approximately 14,000 and 2,500 tourists each (Kirkby 2000). The annual growth rate in these locations, located within the department of Madre de Dios, has been 22% percent over the last five years, with the vast majority of growth occurring within the TCRZ (Kirkby 2000). Tambopata became a major tourism destination in 1975, however it has only begun to see significant tourism increases Peru regained its political stability in the mid 1990s. For example, in 1990 there were just 3 lodges operating in and around the TCRZ hosting approximately 3,000 tourists per year. By 1998 that number had jumped to 14 lodges and 5 rural guest houses, for a total of 14,000 tourists per year (Kirkby 2000). Recent years have not only seen a growth in tourism in the Tambopata area, but also a new subset of travel known as ecotourism among the lodges in the TCRZ. The conservation aspect of ecotourism has been justified not only as a means to form a sustainable source of income for tourism related businesses, but also as a general action that should be promoted for the good of human kind. One of the most commonly cited examples is that fully one fourth of the drugs sold in the U.S. come from natural sources, with about 50 important drugs coming from flowering plants in the rainforest. In addition, based on the number of plants that havent yet been catalogued and screened for drug potential, it is estimated that about 300 drug producing plants remain undiscovered in the rainforest (Pearson 2001). In order to keep the money from tourism in the country, lodges in the Tambopata region such as the TRC and Posada Amazonas lodges operated by Rainforest Expeditions have developed an ecotourism approach to showing foreign tourists the amazing diversity of wildlife in the Tambopata biosphere. In their plan for involving the community is the arrangement for 60% of their profits to the local EseEja population, with the intention that they will learn to manage the ecotourism trade and take over operation of the lodge sometime in the next 10-20 years, with Rainforest Expeditions only role being in marketing and advising (Rainforest Expeditions, 2004).

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The Tambopata Biosphere: An Overview The Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone, is located in south-eastern Peru, and was originally set out as a protected area in 1990, while in 1996 part of it was further protected by the declaration of the Bahuaja Sonene National Park within the reserved zone (Kirkby 2000). It is situated in a unique location, below the towering Andes mountain range, as they plunge down into a sea-level rainforest. This location in a transitional zone between humid tropical and subtropical rainforest and an altitudinal gradient of more than 3,000 meters creates several microclimates whose biodiversity is arguably unequalled anywhere else in the Amazon (Kirkby 2000). It is home to about 600 different bird species (7% or the world population), and about 160 different mammalian species (4% of the worlds population). Whats more, this diversity is packed densely, in a zone of only 14,000 square kilometers (Kirkby 2000). The Tambopata Candamo Reserved Zone is also home to thirteen local vertebrates that are lists in the IUCN Red Data Book and are considered highly endangered. These include the Giant anteater, Giant armadillo, Bush dog, Small-eared dog, Giant river otter, Jaguarundi, Ocelot, Jaguar, Crested eagle, Harpy eagle, Black caiman, Spectacled caiman, and Yellow-spotted side necked turtle (Kirkby 2000). Regional History The Tambopata Province covers 36,629 km2 in the Department of Madre de Dios, a remote region with incredible biodiversity in the country of Peru. Prior to European colonization and European contact the native Eseeja and Harakmbut people farmed, hunted, fished, and traded in the region. Spanish explorers then entered the region in 1566, but the area remained virtually untouched by the hand of colonization until the late 1800s (Naughton 2002). During this time, between 1890 and 1920, the area experienced a huge boom in the rubber industry, as companies imported more than 6,000 workers to Tambopata from Bolivia, Brazil, Japan, and other parts of Peru while enslavement and infectious disease epidemics devastated the native populations (Naughton 2002). When the international rubber market collapsed in the 1920s, immigration rates slowed dramatically.

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Those remaining changed their method of subsistence, planting crops, panning for gold, harvesting forest products such as Brazil Nuts and game (Naughton 2002). Approximately fifteen large landholders in the area exported animal skins, principally targeting the Giant River Otter, spotted cats, and caiman (Naughton 2002). The giant river otter population was especially hard hit. From 1946 to 1973, 24,000 otter skins were exported from Peru, while in the 1960's 20,000 skins were exported from Brazil (PBS 2004). All of these species were hit hard by the hunting, and are now listed as endangered species, with some such as the otter becoming especially rare (Kirkby 2000). In the 1960s the Interoceanic Highway was constructed, connecting Madre de Dios to the Andes (see fig 2.2). This highway led to a second major wave of immigration, as the Peruvian government offered colonists the benefits of easy credit and land parcels as enticements for new settlers. This was part of a larger Peruvian government strategy to assert control over the remote regions of the country (Naughton 2002). New settlers cleared forest and began farming operations. As is typical in the Amazon environment, many settlers found the soil becoming unfertile after two or three planting seasons, causing a movement to livestock production which became especially popular and profitable during the 1980s (Naughton 2002). In spite of these economic opportunities and continuing population growth the department of Madre de Dios continues to have the lowest population density for Peru at 0.9 inhabitants per square kilometer (Naughton 2002). This is much lower than the overall average for Peru of 20 people per square kilometer (Pearson 2001).

Preservation and Prohibition: Establishing the TCRZ and BSNP With a spectacular array of wildlife, the Tambopata region has set itself apart as a key destination for tourists around the world. In an effort to promote this priceless biodiversity, a number of conservation focused NGOs and ecotourism companies lobbied for the protection of the Tambopata region, resulting in the Peruvian government creating the nearly 1.5 million hectare region known as the Tambopata-Candamo Reserve Zone (TCRZ) in 1990 (Pearson 2001). By granting the area a Reserve status, the TCRZ was

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awarded only impermanent protection status, with further study and planning determining whether portions of the park would be upgraded to the full protection of Park status or sectioned off into managed multiple-use zones or open free resource use (Naughton 2002). Since 1990, the organization Conservation International has collaborated with the Peruvian government, in conjunction with other private research groups in order to carry out ecological and social studies to assess current and potential land uses for the region (Foster 1994). Roughly 3,200 people lived inside the northern border of the newly created TCRZ, with another 3,800 residing in the southern extreme of the reserve. Officially, all forest extraction activities are illegal in the reserve unless special permission was given by the government. However, the impermanent nature of the TCRZ and the limited reach of Perus National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA) to effectively manage the area, rules governing resource use are poorly communicated and enforced only sporadically. As a result illegal mining, logging and livestock production have been allowed at a small scale under concession from INRENA (Naughton 2002). Many citizens were initially opposed to the establishment of the TCRZ because they felt that this could potentially cut off their access to resources and land. However support from Conservation International, the MacArthur Foundation, USAID, and Peruvian conservationist NGOs, the TCRZ was finally accepted. Following, in 1995, a third of the TCRZ was combined with The Pampas del Heath National Sanctuary, an area of unique grasslands habitat, to form the 537,053 hectare Bahuaja-Sonene National Park (Pearson 2001). However, by the time the national park was legally established in 1996 it was only 325,000 ha, a third of the originally proposed size because of a deal the Peruvian government had made with an international consortium led by Mobil Oil for an exploratory oil and natural gas concession. This caused an outcry among the local population who had previously agreed to give up future access to resources in the pristine area (Naughton 2002). The Study Site: Cocha Tres Chimbadas The Tres Chimbadas Lake is located about two hours upriver from the town of Puerto Maldonado. This lake is an oxbow lake, known as a cocha in Spanish. This means

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that the lake was once a part of the Tambopata River, and was formed when the river changed course, leaving a stretch of standing water in the form that resembles the path that the river once took. Tres Chimbadas is located about a mile (a 30 minute walk) from the rivers current bank and follows the rivers long and narrow form, measuring between 260280 meters wide, by 3 km long. Tres Chimbadas has a very diverse ecosystem, providing a home for the endangered black caiman, giant river otter, and occasionally macaws along with many species of plants, trees and fish. Little is known about the history of the lake before 1999. However some reports indicate that it was a site for fishing and trapping for the local people and loggers in the region. During the 1990s the family group on giant river otters in the lake was small, numbering only 4 in 1991 (Hajek et al 2003). Prior to 2000 there was no plan in place for the maintenance and conservation of the Tres Chimbadas Lake. Until 2000 boats would travel throughout the lake to view the otters, stopping at various points to fish (Hajek et al, 2003). Swimming and other recreational activities were also provided by the servicing ecotourism companies. In 2000 the Frankfurt Zoological Societys Giant River Otter Project proposed a strategy for conserving the lakes in the region and their families of giant river otters. Included in this plan is the plan for distribution of information about the otters and other key animals to ecotourism companies and local populations. Implementation of open and frequent communication between researchers, tourism companies, locals, and governmental authorities has been established to better understand the priorities, goals, and limitations of the different actors in the area. Finally, specific guidelines for the use of the Tres Chimbadas Lake were proposed. Suggestions for minimized impact included the implementation of a limit line, which isolates half of the lake from tourist boats (Hajek 2003). This step has had some success, limiting the number of alarm calls and alarm behavior. This is a positive sign considering that tourism to the lake has continued to increase to an estimated 5000 visitors in 2003 (Notin 2003). In spite of this the family of otters has reproduced consistently, averaging two newborns from 2000-2002 (Notin 2003). These trends continued into 2003, with two newborns (Dauphine 2003), and into 2004 with another 2 cubs while I was conducting my research. Total family size is up from 4 in 1991 and has varied between 7 and 9, with 7 in 2004.

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One of the main concerns for the future of the lake is that it does not legally protected, and is currently being sustained only through an agreement between to the ecotourism lodges who operate there and the local populations. One area of particular concern is the farms on the north side of the lake which could present a threat to several lake species in the future (Notin 2003). There is also a lot of concern about the feasibility of ecotourism lodges or other entities engaging in potentially harmful activity with impunity as there are no legal protections for the lake should this occur. Tourist Lodges Serving the Tres Chimbadas Lake Posada Amazonas Lodge: This Posada Amazonas Lodge is located in the Zona Reservada TambopataCandamo, a reserved section of land close to the Tres Chimbadas Lake Oxbow Lake, and on the outskirts of the Parque Nacional Bahuaja-Sonene. Because of this location, the lodge is able to provide close access to the wildlife diversity from the nearby national park, and also enjoys the inhabitants of the nearby oxbow lake, a group of Large River Otters. Rainforest Expeditions provides tourists with access to the Tres Chimbadas Lake by running a boat shuttle from the lodge to the lake, and operating two catamarans that are used for tours around the lake itself (RE 2004). Rainforest Expeditions opened both of these lodges as a joint venture with the native community of Infierno, in a partnership that trains the local community in rainforest management and ecotourism business methods, and will eventually hand control of the lodges to them (RE- The Eseeja 2004). Tambopata Research Center (TRC): The TRC is located on the western bank of the Tambopata River in a relatively isolated position 75 km SSW from Puerto Maldonado (Kirkby 2000). It is adjacent to the BSNP and within 200 m of a macaw claylick where spectacular amounts of parrots and macaws come congregate. It has evolved over the last several decades. Originally a research center devoted primarily to the study of macaws in 1989 it was modified in 1994 to accommodate tourists as well. Tourists usually stay at the TRC for an average of 4 days as part of a package with the Posada Amazonas Lodge, also owned by the Rainforest

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Expeditions Company (RE, 2004). Tourists will stay at Posada Amazonas Lodge and go on a trip to the Tres Chimbadas Lake before continuing up the Tambopata River to TRC. A significant amount of research has been done concerning the area, and significant amounts of data are available (Kirkby 2000). Rainforest Expeditions has agreed to abide by the FZS suggestions for the Tres Chimbadas Lake preservation, and does respect the suggested limit zone. Inotawa Expeditions: The Inotawa Lodge is located 15 minutes upriver from the Tres Chimbadas Lake, and has a 30 guest capacity. They have a local network of trails surrounding their lodge, and also offer trips to the oxbow lake. Not all tourists from this lodge visit the lake, only those on select 4 day/3 night, and 6 day/5 night tours who select to go on lake trips (Inotawa 2004). Inotawa brings fewer guests to the lake than Rainforest Expeditions, and has agreed to follow the Frankfurt Zoological Society conservation suggestions for the lake, including the limit zone in the middle of the lake. Albergue Tambo Tres Chimbadas: This simple lodge is set back about 10 meters from the edge of the Tres Chimbadas Lake and is an addition to a plot of farm land by owner Sr. Bocangel. The lodge consists of a covered platform overlooking the lake with several beds. Tourists usually stay for around 2 nights. Lodge use of the lake is limited, with occasional tourist groups of usually less than 5 visiting the lake. The Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge has chosen not to follow the conservation suggestions of the FZS and regularly uses the Northwest portion of the Tres Chimbadas Lake across the limit line.

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Methodology and Research Design Objectives: The purpose of my research in the Tambopata region of Peru was to observe the large river otters of the Tres Chimbadas Lake and investigate how different boats from the tour companies serving the region affect the otters, either by changing their behavior, or eliciting a startle response that forces the otters into other areas of the lake. In order to study the effects that ecotourism in the Tambopata region has on the river otter population I will focus my research on three specific questions: 1) Who are the tourists visiting the otters, and what characteristics do they have? 2) What are some of the standard behavioral patterns of the giant river otters? 3) What is the relationship between these observed behavioral patterns, and the tourists? With patterns that develop from my data, I am attempting to find a quantifiable relationship between either the number of people in the tourist boats or the size of the boats, and distance that the boats can approach the otters before causing a notable behavioral change in the animals. I have described this interaction as a zone of tolerance, in other words, the distance at which the otters will tolerate the presence of tourist boat without significant impacts in their behavior. With this relationship, I will then develop a set of guidelines that guides from ecotourism companies could use, where they would input their number of guests, and boat type, and get a recommended distance for observing the otters. This would allow them to get as close as possible to the otters, appeasing the tourists desire to see the animals, while still respecting the otters need for space. Methodology & Procedure: Because of the limited duration of my study, and the intrinsic variability in animal behavior, I decided that it would be best to limit my study group to one specific river otter population in the Tambopata region. This would allow the behavior of the one otter group to be studied more fully, and therefore provide more relevant conclusions than a

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widespread rapid assessment behavioral survey. For my focus family group I looked to the Tres Chimbadas oxbow lake, with a resident otter population of seven individuals. I will be basing my research out of the Rainforest Expeditions ecotourism lodge, which provided daily tourist trips to the Tres Chimbadas Lake that contains that otters. I worked in the region for eight weeks, and went on 35 of the lodges trips to the lake. Every morning I took a small transport boat with 20-40 of the tourists who would be visiting the lake on that given day. Once at the lake I got on board the tourist catamaran that was used to take the group around the lake. I placed myself in the front right corner of the catamaran, which I had determined to be the closest position to the otters, based on their typical behavioral patterns as they moved around the lake. Once in position on the catamaran I divided up my time and research methods in order to address the main questions set forth in the objectives section in the following manner: 1) Who are the tourists visiting the otters, and what characteristics do they have? a. Observations in this area consisted of general behavioral trends that I observed during my time interacting with the tourists on the boat. After I was introduced as a researcher to the tourists on the boat, many of them asked me questions. I later recorded some of these questions, comments, and interesting facts and trends that came up during the conversations in my notes. I also took notes on the behavior of the tourists before, during, and before the otter interaction and did my best to gauge their reaction in a qualitative manner. b. Characteristics that I examined for the tourists included whether or not they were a part of a tour group or had arranged for their visit privately, country of origin, age, and education levels. Towards the end of my research I also distributed a pilot survey to more than 50 tourists in order to get a preliminary look at countries of origin, level of education, and also a quantifiable look at how the various tourists had evaluated their experiences with the otters. 2) What are some of the standard behavioral patters of the otters?

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a. To answer this question I kept a chart running for the entire time that the otters were visible on the lake. Every five minutes I logged the location of the otters, the location of the catamaran, the distance between the two groups, and the behavior of the otters at that particular time. I divided the behavior into five distinct categories: swimming, fishing, eating, relaxing, and alarm behavior. b. I then compared my observations to published data on giant river otter behavior both on the Tres Chimbadas Lake, and in other regions as well. 3) What is the relationship between these observed behavioral patterns, and the tourists? And more specifically, at what distances do these changes occur? a. This was the main focus of my research, in which I attempted to determine how much of an effect the tourist catamarans were having on the otter behavior on the lake, and at what distances those changes would occur. b. In order to measure these changes, I placed myself on the side of the catamaran closest to the otters location, taking distance measurements every five minutes with Bushnell YardagePro Binoculars. For general measurements I measured the distance to the most central member of the otter groups. When I was expecting a zone of tolerance violation, I began continuously measuring the distance to the otter closest to the boat, taking the closest reading before a change in behavior as a data point. In order to measure the distance to the otters, which were usually swimming in the water with little of the bodies exposed, I had to be able to bounce the laser off of the otters heads while they were above the water. I could reliably do this at distances closer than about 250 yards. When the group was farther than 250 yards I attempted to take a direct measurement to the otters, and when I couldnt successfully do that I measured the distance to the bank of the lake closest to the otters, getting a reading with about +/- 20m accuracy. I deemed this to be acceptable because there were never any zone of tolerance violations that I was unable to measure because of their distance. c. When the catamaran was approaching the otters, I made no effort to suggest certain actions to the guides who were in charge of moving the boat.

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Instead, I monitored the distance and took notes on the different strategies that the guides used to approach the otters. Instrumentation - Binoculars with laser rangefinder - Recording data sheets - Digital Camera Significance: I am particularly drawn to this topic because of its relationship with conservation ecology and the possibility to help find a balance between the tourism that brings a large amount of money to the Peruvian economy, and the need to conserve and protect the animals in the rainforest. I have decided to use the large river otter as a sample for this conflict because the otters are a key charismatic species of Tambopata and are also one of the most easily threatened by the human presence. The river otters are also highly endangered because in the past the native population would kill the otters for their pelts, which were very valuable as trade items. Today the pressure continues from tourism, increased boat traffic on rivers, pollution, and also from local fisherman who view the otters as prime scapegoats for the diminishing productivity of their fishing grounds. In the course of this project I have observed various otter behaviors, tourist interactions with the otters, and talked to guides about approach strategies in the effort to produce some preliminary recommendations that once supplemented by further study could prove to be very helpful in maintaining a good equilibrium between the needs of tourists and the needs of the otter population on the Tres Chimbadas Lake.

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Results and Discussion Overview of Tourism use of Tres Chimbadas Lake Rainforest Expeditions Lodge had the largest presence in the Tres Chimbadas Lake, running trips there every day. The only exceptions when trips were not offered were in cases of severe weather. During my stay in the months of July and August, the high season for tourism in Peru, there were only three days in which a boat trip to the lake was not offered. A trip to the oxbow lake was the standard activity for the morning on the second day of tours for all tourists, regardless of their particular package. Most people would have arrived the afternoon before, had a short walk in the rainforest, and possibly a view of the surroundings from the RFE canopy tower followed by dinner. In some cases because of delayed arrivals, tourists did not get the chance for any rainforest activities before their trip to the lake. I found that for many of the people the trip to the oxbow lake served as a sort of first look at the rainforest, shaping their perspective on the rainforest in many ways. Trips for the tourists began at 4:30 am when the boat/s would leave from the dock at the Posada Amazonas Lodge, and travel about 10 minutes up the river to a trailhead. From that trailhead tourists and guides walked 30-40 minutes to the oxbow lake. Group sizes varied considerably for each trip, and were highly dependent on number of new reservations at the lodge. Groups for the lake during my stay ranged between 11 and 48 passengers, with an average of 25 tourists visiting the lake on any given day. Groups started their tour of the lake at an average time of 6:29, and median time of 6:12. Boats had completed the lake activity by an average time of 9:17 and median time of 9:04. The total time on the lake for a given RFE group averaged slightly less than three hours. For the first part of my research there was only one catamaran operational, and all tourists had to fit onto the one boat for their tour of the lake. This lack of a second boat led at times to groups as large as 29 on the one operational catamaran. However group sizes did remain high throughout the summer mainly because it was the tourist high season, with tourists and their guides numbering over 70 for some nights at Posada Amazonas. Posada Amazonas did follow the proposed circular route around the lake, and would typically start that route looking primarily for birds, caiman and the giant river otters. By 8:30 the boat

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would stop near the limit zone and fish for piranha. This fishing break served as a way to occupy tourists if the otters hadnt been spotted on a given day, and provided an alternate activity for some tourists who werent as interested in the animals. Rainforest Expeditions use of the lake constituted the majority of tourist visits to the lake. Two other lodges also ran services to the lake, though they were less frequent and had fewer passengers. Inotawa Expeditions was the second most frequent user of the Tres Chimbadas Lake, and would arrive some days between 9:30 and 10:00 am, right as the RFE group was leaving the lake. Their groups consisted of 10 or fewer passengers, averaging around five. Inotawa would use the same boats and port as RFE, and followed the FZS suggested circular route around the lake. The Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge also ran tours to the lake. This lodge had the fewest tourists, and as such, did not run trips to the lake as frequently. Over two months Tambo Tres Chimbadas visited the lake only four times between the hours of 6 am and 10 am. They used a long canoe, and typically had 4-6 passengers with two guides. This lodge did not repect the limit zone and crossed it on three of their four visits to the lake. The one day that the limit line was not crossed was because the tourists were visiting the lake for the second day in a row and were not looking for birds and animals, and instead headed to another part of the lake for a fishing activity. Tourists who visit Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lake One of the key aspects to the lake use includes understanding the tourists who are visiting the lake. It is interesting to note that the people who generally use Posada Amazonas are very well educated. Of the people I surveyed 89% had a college degree or more. 57% of the Posada Amazonas visitors to the lake whom I surveyed had postgraduate degrees. Only 2% of the visitors had not attended at least some college. All of this presents the clear case that the tourists who visit of the Tres Chimbadas Lake are very well educated, at least compared to the general populace. Tourists were generally from the United Stated, Britain, Germany, and Australia, with others from Italy, Spain, Peru, and New Zealand. Tourists had an averaged 42 years of age. Despite the common tie of being well educated and well into their careers, there were definite differences between how the tourists approached their visits to the Tres

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Chimbadas Lake, and how they viewed their experience with the otters. One of the main differences that I observed, and was a common sentiment echoed among the guides and staff at the Posada Amazonas Lodge, was the large difference between the tourists who had arranged their trip to Posada Amazonas on their own and those who had come with a tour group. Tourists who were part of a tour group had generally arranged for their trip out of country and had a tour guide escorting their group throughout their trip in Peru. Most of the tour group people who I talked to had come to Peru to see Machu Picchu especially, along with some other Inca ruins. For most of them the trip to the rainforest was purchased as an add-on, and generally consisted of a 3 day/2 night excursion. 35% of those I surveyed were a part of these tour groups. The distinction between the tour groups who visit the lodge and those who come on their own is something that I believe is very important. My observations, combined with those of the guides seems to indicate that those who come from the tour groups generally (not always) are there on an extension to their planned trip and are less interested in the content of their visit then on saying that they had been to the rainforest itself. In looking at tourist behavior on the lake it was clearly apparent that there were tourists with very different expectations for their experience on the lake, with the otters, and with different levels of interest in the natural world. A part of this was definitely tied in with the tour groups, who had come to the rainforest with very few expectations, little to no knowledge of the place, and who were there only for a very short time. For these people there was generally less of a general idealistic interest in the preservation of the environment, and less involvement and interest in the otter activity at the Tres Chimbadas Lake. This group remains an untapped resource for change that has thus far been underutilized by the Posada Amazonas Lodge. Currently there is a problem in the education of the tour group members who are coming to Posada Amazonas. They have generally come to the rainforest without any significant exposure to what the rainforest has to offer and without any particular interest in conservation and ecology. To this end, a better program educating the tourists about what they could expect and why certain aspects of the rainforest are important could be highly effective in increasing the average tourist interest in their respective rainforest experience and increase tourists interest in conservation and conservation activities after they leave Posada Amazonas for their home countries.

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In another area of distinction, there were a variety of responses to the observation of the otters that should be examined in order to form a better formula for interaction between otters and tourists in the future. In general there was not a clear explanation of what the tourists could expect regarding the quality and nature of their interaction with the otters before the activity started. On a given day the tourist catamarans only came within a few hundred meters of the giant river otters, and then stopped. Some tourists were clearly disappointed that the boats were not approaching the otters as close as they would have liked. In general they were appeased by the explanation that this strategy was in the otters best interest. However while the tourists might have been satisfied with the boat not approaching the otters more closely, they did not always feel as much of a connection to the giant otters, interest in their conservation, or as satisfied with their overall tour. It would make sense then for the companies bringing people to Tres Chimbadas to maximize the tourists level of engagement and enjoyment of their interaction with the otters while still having a minimal impact on the otters. This would keep the otter population stable for the future, but will also increase tourists interest in otter conservation, and willingness to recommend their trip to their friends as well. This makes sense for both conservation and for business. The question is: How can this balance be maintained between the tourists desire to come as close as possible to the otters and the needs of the otters to have a certain degree of free space? Influence of Ecotourism on Otter Behavior The primary goal of my study was to observe the effect that the boats servicing the Tres Chimbadas Lake had on otter behavior in order to determine how much space the otters needed to have uninterrupted behavior. I also tried to determine the distance at which the boats had this impact on behavior so that impact could be minimized in the future. This is especially important since it has been clearly observed that giant otters are especially sensitive to the human presence, which happens to be quite significant at the Tres Chimbadas Lake which draws at least 5000 visitors each year (Notin 2003). In all I found that the main impact of boats on the lake was with otter fishing behavior and success. There was very little impact on otter behaviors such as relaxing and swimming that

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occurred as a result of ecotourism boats operated by Posada Amazonas and Inotawa. Otters that were swimming to another portion of the lake would encounter the catamarans, deviate from their swimming pattern and continue on. Boats never came close enough to the otters that were sunning or eating on logs to cause them to leave and move to another portion of the lake. The majority of tourism impact was seen in variations in otter fishing behaviors. Otters that were fishing on the lake would generally not stay in the same spot. They would fish in on particularly productive area for a time and then move around the lake diving for fish as they swam. When the otters would find fish on their dives, the group would stop and begin fishing again. It was common for the otters to be diving in their moving fishing pattern and have to deviate from their chosen route to avoid the catamaran. As the otters neared the zone of tolerance point they sped up their swimming, regardless of whether they had been swimming or fishing before. When the group was fishing they dove more frequently, and with some exceptions were less willing to eat fish that they had caught within 100 meters of the catamaran. Previous research has shown that this change in fishing patterns could be one of the larges effects that ecotourism has on the otters relating to their overall fitness and ability to thrive in their environment in the future. In 2003, the Tres Chimbadas otter group caught significantly fewer fish in the hour following an alarm call, compared to normal catch rates (Dauphine 2003). While I did not have the capacity to measure catch rates during the course of my research I was able to observe that the otter family group never caught a large catfish while fishing within 150 meters of the catamarans. Fishing in this distance was sporadic and catch consisted mainly of white and yellow piranha both relatively small fish. This lack of success could be mainly a result of the otters increased speed and lack of time to practice sufficient hunting strategies. The decline in the catch of larger catfish which weighed several kilograms each could prove to be a significant negative impact in the future. However, if care is taken to keep the tourist boats outside of the otters zone of tolerance then such an effect could be kept to a minimum.

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Passenger number effect on Zone of Tolerance

300
Zone of tolerance (meters)

y = 4.3373x + 65.142 R2 = 0.4232

250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20

Number of passengers

The distance at which otters would not enter varied greatly, and depended on a variety of factors. Through my study I found some consistent points at which the otters would stop their fishing behaviors, altering their swimming patterns to

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40

move farther from the boats. I categorized alterations in fishing routes and swimming routes as a violation of the otters zone of tolerance. The average zone of tolerance
Closest Distance all types of Boats
300 250 Zone of tolerance Distance 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Number of Passengers y = 4.98x + 43.571 R2 = 0.6442

violation where the otters would stop approaching the catamaran was 148 meters, with a median of 147 meters and a standard deviation of 53 meters. In my view this large deviation is due to the wide variety of tourists present on the catamaran, both in their number and in the noise level that they create. To test this

theory I measured the average zone of tolerance between the otters and my single person canoe. With fewer passengers (1) and a carefully controlled noise level I observed an average zone of tolerance of 55.5 meters with a standard deviation of only 6.6 meters. Closer analysis shows a clear relationship between the number of tourists on the catamaran and the distance at which the otters are willing to approach. By looking at the graph to the left we can see the impact that noise level and the behavior of the tourists can have on the otters zone of tolerance. For a given number of passengers there are a number of different distances that the otters considered too close, and decided to leave the area. This difference could be due to the fact that some boats with the same number of people were just noisier than others, limiting the distance that the otters are willing to approach. This correlation between number of passengers and zone of tolerance can also be seen when we look at the closest distance that the otters were willing to approach. This data

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set counts only one boat/otter interaction per day and could be a more relevant measure of tourist effect on the otters as it controls for acclimatization when the otters approached the boat to different distances throughout the day, coming closer each time as the boat became more familiar. This trend of gradual decrease in zone of tolerance data held true for 2/3 of the days where there were multiple zone of tolerance violations. In this analysis we again see an increase in the distance necessary between the otters and the boat changing at 4-5 meters per passenger added. Zone of tolerance data was entirely determined by the dominant female (mother) of the group. She would consistently be the one to lead the family between destinations. When swimming, the family group would form a straight line behind her and follow her positions exactly. During the course of my research, when the mother was leading the family in a circular pattern around the lake the family group took careful note of the distance that the mother determined safe. When the family group was deviating in an arc around the catamaran the breeding male and rest of the group varied from the mother in their distance from the boat by an average of only +/- 3 meters. During fishing behavior the mother would generally lead the group in a given direction while they were all intermittently diving underwater searching for fish. The family group was more spread out and not in an exact line. It was in these situations that the closest otter approaches occurred, as the younger otters became curious and approached the boat slowly before the fishing mother took notice and called them back. This coincides exactly with what is known about giant otter behavior where the breeding female is usually the head of the family group and controls much of the family group behavior. Previous research by David Dauphine on the same family group in 2003 showed the average alarm call in response to catamarans occurred at 165 meters with a standard deviation of 86 meters. He found the average distance between the otters and boats throughout their time together on the lake to be 721 meters, with a standard deviation of 518 meters (Dauphine 2003). To date this is the only other catamaran to otter distance data available. This data was taken a GPS mapping system and is probably less accurate than the line-of-sight laser rangefinder used for my data. However there are some valuable comparisons that can be made from the data surveying the family group over two subsequent years from 2003-2004. In 2004 the average alarm call distance had decreased to

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58 meters with a standard deviation of 18.4 meters. This result is encouraging, indicating that severely disturbing activities from the catamarans eliciting an alarm call at distances greater than 100 meters had ceased. Behavior on the boat has then become more constant, with less variability seen in the distance of alarm calls and only a more static baseline of human interference. Current alarm calls mainly stemmed from the younger members of the otter family coming closer to the catamarans out of curiosity, and then being called back by the mother of the family group with an alarm call. Alarm calls decreased to from 15 in 2003 to 7 in 2004. Six calls were from the mother calling her family back to a distance she deemed safe and the previous fishing behavior quickly resulted, indicating that there had been a minimal overall negative effect from the human intrusion. One alarm call was prompted by a tourist using flash photography while the otters were within 50 meters of the catamaran. The otters fled to the other side of the lake and did not resume fishing behavior for more than 20 minutes. In addition to fewer alarm calls, otters generally were closer to the tourist catamarans, with the average distance of 520 meters (std dev 226 meters) much lower than the 2003 number of 721 meters. Otter distance and behavior also had a significant interaction with the weather. Otter sightings were rare around time of the cold spells that swept through the region on occasion. There were times when the otters had been absent from the lake for several days. Once they returned they were observed fishing very intently, and had a larger zone of tolerance, as they were less likely to approach the boats. Especially noticeable was a total absence of curiosity, as the otters spent their entire time on the lake fishing. Conversely there were times when the otters had had several successful days of fishing in a row. When this happened they would come closer to observe the catamaran before the mother felt uncomfortable with the distance and lead them away. There also seems to be significant evidence that a single zone of tolerance for all giant river otters does not exist. While my research of the Tres Chimbadas family group showed an aversion to distances closer than 147 meters, different family groups in other areas have a different tolerance for a human presence. In some areas of Manu otters have been recorded coming as close as five meters from tourist boats, and show no fear of the human presence (Brecht-Munn and Munn 1988). It is standard for recommended distances

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for observation by researchers to vary by territory and otter family group (Groenendijk 2004). Because there are very few interactions between otter family groups, due mainly to the fact that otter territories are separated by great distances, it is likely that there is a vertical transmission of behavioral patters from one generation to the next. In this model the mother of one family group will set the norms for behavior that will be followed by her subsequent descendants. This could also be the case with a family groups tolerance for humans. Evidence for this could perhaps be found in the zones of tolerance that differ based on family group. The family group on the Tres Chimbadas Lake has seen at least some sporadic forms of human activity on the lake since the mid 1900s, with heavy tourism use starting in 1999. Now, even with upwards of 5000 tourists visiting the lake every year, the Tres Chimbadas otters do not seem to have acclimatized significantly, and are nowhere near approaching the five meter tolerance level seen in other family groups. This could indeed indicate a baseline behavioral standard that has been followed over time with any variations occurring very slowly. Further studies tracking the change in tolerance levels over time would be needed to validate this hypothesis. Suggestions for Change Since it seems as though the primary otter reaction to the catamarans on the lake is based on the number of people on board, there are a number of possible changes that can be made to either decrease the number of people, or decrease the effects that a large number of people can have such as noise. There is currently a possibility that the Posada Amazonas Lodge would build an observation tower on the side of the Tres Chimbadas Lake. This would allow the otters to freely travel throughout the lake without having certain fishing spots limited by tourist presence. While this tower would be a good step there would still be a problem with tourists making noise, even if they would be in a tower. One of the reasons that there were times with high noise levels was because there was not a consistent expectation for tourist behavior as they went to the lake. For Posada Amazonas tours, expectations for the tourists were given in a quick speech by the guides as the catamarans pushed off into the lake and varied significantly based on the guide who was giving the instructions. The fact that the tourists should remain silent when the otters

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were in sight was always included, but rarely emphasized. Also, when going to the lake tourists had often heard very little about the giant river otters, only that they were endangered and could possibly be seen during their trip to the lake. For this reason tourists were not as informed or excited about the otters as they could be when they first went to the lake. Lake visits always included a short talk on the river otters, but only at the end of the visit as the catamaran was returning to the port after the otter observation had been completed. This isnt the best way to organize the Tres Chimbadas visit as tourists are uniformed during their visit and unable to fully appreciate the otters that they are seeing on the lake. This means that they dont fully appreciate the sensitivity of the otter family, their incredibly sensitive nature and endangered status, and the full importance of remaining silent during the visit. I found that for most visits tourists would be quiet and cooperative when the otters would first come into sight, and would be less quiet and less interested in interactions later in the lake trip. In order to allow the tourists to appreciate the otters and lake ecosystem more I recommend that tourists have an educational program before they come to the lake or at least before they see the otters. This could consist of a quick talk after dinner for all of those who will be going to the lake the next day, or giving the talk about the otters as the boat is leaving the port and before the otters appear. There are also no clear guidelines for tourist behavior on Tres Chimbadas Lake. This presents a dilemma, as the guides are put in the position of enforcing vague rules and run the risk of alienating their group. This is something that they are less willing to do since a sizable portion of their salary can be based on tips. In order to take the burden off of the guides and ensure greater cooperation by tourists there should be a clearly defined set of rules that is posted in the lake area. One set of the rules should be at the entrance to the trail, and the other should be placed as a plaque on the catamaran itself to remind tourists throughout the trip of correct behavior without forcing the guides to assume a policing role. A suggestion for the sign on the catamaran would be as follows: The giant river otters are highly endangered and sensitive animals. Please observe the following guidelines while the otters are present on the lake. Your cooperation will help protect the otters and maximize your experience by allowing the otters to come closer to the catamaran.

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Please remain in your seat Please dont talk above a whisper, especially while otters are within 100 meters Please refrain from flash photography

Another possibility that could be utilized in the Tres Chimbadas case would be an informative packet with a waiver to be signed. This has been well tested by ecotourism companies in central Africa. Tourists there who wish to see the Mountain Gorillas have to read a brochure containing a quick overview of the species, and what tourists wont be allowed to do during the visit and why. For example, the brochure explains that tourists must avoid eye contact with the gorillas because this can be interpreted as a dominance challenge by the animals and can lead to unsafe situations. At the end of the brochure there is a final list of suggestions, with a section at the bottom requiring a tourists signature saying that they understand and will abide by the rules. Instead of being seen as demanding and constraining, these rules instead make the whole experience seem more important and special, causing people to remember how to minimize their impact on the animals they are coming to see. Implementing a similar system for those tourists going to see the giant otters at the Tres Chimbadas Lake would likely lead to people who are more knowledgeable and excited about the otters and who are more willing to remain quiet for the duration of the time that the otters are on the lake, and not only for the initial sighting. Having a clear set of rules, whether posted on the catamaran, or presented in a pamphlet, would take the guides out of a policing position and allow them to spend more time explaining things about the lake and building a relationship with their tourists. There are two additional points of concern that are minor, as they occurred rarely, but should be discussed nonetheless. First, both Inotawa and Posada Amazonas include fishing as a part of their trip to the lake. There were times where tourists would become very animated and loud while fishing and this proved to be a disturbance, driving the otters further from the catamaran. Guides should take care to only start fishing activities once the otters are sufficiently far from the boat and should encourage their groups to remain quiet throughout. There was also one occasion where I observed two RFE catamarans returning to the port at the end of their trip to the lake. They were spread apart, and perhaps didnt 36

realize that the otters had been fishing in the port area. As the catamarans came back from the lake the otters were squeezed between the two boats, with about 30-40 meters of open water on each side. This prompted an alarm call, and forced the otters to dive under water and swim to the other side of the lake. Generally when RFE operated two catamarans on the lake at the same time they stayed close together and had no more effect on the otters than just one. If care is taken in the future to keep the catamarans together even as they are entering the port this could be avoided in the future. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, in talking to tourists who visited the lake I found that the single most important thing for them to enjoy their experience was their ability to actually see the otters. Most didnt have quality binoculars and had to rely on the telescopes provided by RFE. Unfortunately these telescopes were not high quality at all. All were cloudy, and some had severe water damage. None of them fit into their tripods, and were wedged in with toilet paper and were easily nudged out of place. There were many occasions where the otters stayed several hundred meters away from the catamaran. In order see the otters well the tourists would have needed good binoculars or a quality telescope, neither of which was available. Because of this the majority of the tourists were disappointed with their observations of the otters when otter observations occurred at long distances, and were noticeably more apathetic when it came to asking questions at end of the tour. It would be in Rain Forrest Expeditions best interest to arrange for better telescopes for their lake tours and other activities operated around Posada Amazonas. Giving the tourists a better view of the wildlife they have come to see would undoubtedly increase their satisfaction with their trip and be a good idea for business. Once the telescopes have been either cleaned or replaced, there are several ways to insure that they stay in good shape. Currently the telescopes arent carried in any kind of case. That means that they are subjected to water damage if the group carrying one is ever caught in a rainstorm, and are more prone to damage if they are dropped. Inotawa Expeditions currently uses very simple cases for their telescopes that Rainforest Expeditions could use as a model for their own cases. Inotawa has used a wide PVC pipe with caps at both ends and a carrying strap. PVC pipe is very inexpensive, and cases that are watertight could be built for only a few dollars. This would save telescopes caught in a downpour or those that happened to be dropped in the lake or river. RFE could also

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encourage guides to take better care of the telescopes by initiating a program where the company would assist the guides in purchasing their own telescope once, and would buy it back at fair market value if the guide were to leave the company later. The guides would then presumably take care of the equipment better if it was their own, and the tourists would be able to enjoy more quality viewing experiences. My final suggestion pertains to lake use by the Tambo Tres Chimbadas lodge. Currently their tour starts at the lodge at the center of the lake at sunrise, and goes in a clockwise direction starting at the Northwest side of the lake. The Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge does not use the lake often, and was only seen with tour groups in the limit zone four times during the course of two months. During those four occurrences the otters did not come onto the lake. Anecdotal evidence from RFE guides suggests that this is a common occurrence when Tambo Tres Chimbadas crosses onto the other side of the lake. In my opinion I think that this is because typically the otters would emerge not long after sunset from the Northwest section of the lake, suggesting that this is where there den is located. This location has been suspected by other past researchers (Dauphine 2003, Notin 2003) as well as guides. However, with the Tambo canoe in the Northwest lake shoreline at sunrise it is very difficult for the otters to enter the lake, possibly keeping them in their dens for the duration of the day. Ideally it would be best for the Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge to respect the limit line and give the otters as much space as possible free of human interference. However from the Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodges perspective this might be very difficult. With RFE running 1-2 catamarans on the open side of the lake every day, the Tres Chimbadas Lodge can provide a tour with fewer human distractions and less crowding on the other side of the lake. There also seems to be a lot of tension between RFE and the Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge, making the latter reluctant to move their boats into the open side of the lake prompting more interaction. One the one occasion where this occurred I witnessed a loud confrontation and shouting match between guides from the two lodges over the Tres Chimbadas Lodges use of the lake. In the absence of reconciliation between the two lodges, the Tres Chimbadas Lodges use of the lake is understandable. I believe that with a slight reorganization of routes the impact of current lake use can be minimized. If the Tres Chimbadas canoe continues to pass into the limit zone in order to avoid competition for space in the open side of the lake this can be done in a less

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harmful way. By following a counter-clockwise route and going to the Northeast shore of the lake first the lodge will be able to offer the same sights free of competition, but would also place the canoe on the opposite side of the lake from the otters den at sunrise when they are more likely to enter the lake. Since the lake has an average width of 280 m this would place the canoe well outside of the zone tolerance for a larger catamaran at 147 meters the otters shouldnt be disturbed by the canoe in any way. This strategy is good for all involved. All of the various ecotourism companies get to see the otters more often, while the otters are given more opportunities to enter the lake. In summary, my suggestions for change are as follows: Post signs on catamarans clearly stating behavior expectations. o Possibly have additional informational packet and waiver Delay fishing until the otters are a sufficient distance from the catamaran Clean or replace telescopes and place them in cases (PVC) Encourage Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge to either respect the limit line or to travel in counter clockwise direction around the lake, allowing otters to leave their den. Pilot Survey It has been my premise throughout this research that the tourists are happier with their tour when the see the otters at a closer distance. It has been my attempt to balance that desire with the otters need for space with the best interest of the tourists and companies who cater to their needs and whose success depends at least in part upon the satisfaction of their tourists with their rainforest experience. At the end of my research I distributed a short pilot survey seeking to establish the feasibility of a further study looking at the relationship between the distances that tourists are able to observe the otters, and the value that they place on otter conservation. It is my hypothesis that tourists who get better views of the otters are able to identify with them to a greater extent, and would be willing to go to greater lengths to ensure their conservation in the future. If this were the case it would then make a clearer understanding of a zone of tolerance that much more valuable, as bringing tourists as close as possible to the otters without disturbing their behavior would maximize 39

tourist enjoyment, increase ecotourism business, and indirectly contribute to the otter
60 y = 3.3865x + 0.9295 R2 = 0.1268

conservation effort. The pilot survey showed some promise. In it I asked tourists to rate their satisfaction with their observation distance, and later to give a percentage of their total charitable donations that they would

Conservation Percentage for otters

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 Satisfaction with distance 4 5 6

be willing to give to help preserve the giant river otters. This survey showed indications that people are more likely to give higher amounts on money to the otters if they were more satisfied with their observation distance. The small sample size (n=54) makes these results less reliable, but the results nonetheless encourage further study in this area.

Conclusion In the face of intense human pressures in the Amazon region, ecotourism has provided a way to apply a value to conservation and has encouraged preservation as few other activities can. In the case of the Tres Chimbadas Lake ecotourism companies have constructed an agreement preserving the lake because of its diversity and ecotourism value. However such as agreement is only a temporary solution. Without official legal protection of the Tres Chimbadas Lake the long-term future of its family of giant river otters cant be assured. Yet in the short term, the efforts of the ecotourism companies involved in the lake has been quite successful in its preservation, and have produced a system where thousands of people are able to see the lake every year and enjoy its spectacular biodiversity while having a relatively small impact. By adopting my proposals for change, and being careful to keep boats outside of the giant otters zone of tolerance human intrusion can be lessened even further while providing an even better experience for those tourists who visit the lake.

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With these changes in place and a willingness to adopt new changes in the future the Tres Chimbadas Lake should remain a fantastic place to visit for years to come. Limitations of Study: The major limitation of this study was its rather small scope, and limited duration. Because of the extreme variability of animal behavior, my results from a two month research project might be suggestive, yet it will be hard to call them definitively conclusive. To further support my data further research and a larger data set will be required. With my established methodology and existing data set, further research could be very successful. Since I had limited time I found it best to study one particular family group to get the best perspective of their particular behavior. However, any results from my particular study can only be related directly to this particular group, and not necessarily as conclusive evidence to all otter populations, especially due to family variations in behavior. Another limitation of this study is further related to the short duration of the study. While I was able to gather some interesting data about the otter family during the dry season I did not get a chance to observe behaviors during other parts of the year such as mating behavior or behavior surrounding the rainy season. Because of the fact that I was staying in the Rainforest Expeditions Lodge, and had nearly all of my encounters and observations of the otters with the Rainforest Expeditions guides, my findings and critiques of approach to the otters are only representative of what I have observed through Rainforest Expeditions. Inotawa Lodge, the Tambo Tres Chimbadas Lodge may have used slightly different approach strategies or may have seen different responses to their presence for some reason. However, I still believe that my results could still be generally applied by all lodges interacting with the otter family group on the Tres Chimbadas Lake especially since they used the same boats and had similar tourists. Ethical Issues:

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In all parts of my research I attempted to be an impartial observer. This meant that I did not interfere with any of the disruptive behavior of tourists while otters were close to the boat, I did not suggest that the guides maneuver the catamaran in any way, even if certain actions on the boat were clearly stressing the otters and leading to alarm behaviors. This was done in order to get the best possible idea of what a standard trip to the lake with the Rainforest Expeditions catamaran would be like without my presence. Giving back to the community: My final research paper and the conclusions that I draw from my research will be a good way of giving back to the community. I plan on submitting my findings to Rainforest Expeditions and other tourism companies that bring tourists to see the otters on the Tres Chimbadas Lake. I hope that my findings will give the people in the area a better idea of how close they can get to the otters without disturbing them, allowing a more even balance between the tourists, otters, and native population in the future. It is my hope that some of my research can expose some new questions that future researchers will attempt to answer with more complete studies in the future.

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Appendix: Map of land titles surrounding the Tres Chimbadas Lake. Source: Frankfurt Zoological Society Survey (Notin 2003)

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Acknowledgements: Special thanks to Rainforest Expeditions for providing food, lodging, and support, to Bill Durham for facilitating this amazing research experience, to Jessica Groenendijk and the Frankfurt Zoological Society for their advice and research materials, and the Stanford Undergraduate Research Office for funding travel and materials research costs.

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