UP TOA: Living Legend

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DRIVING TECHNOLOGY INTO POLE POSITION
I N T E R N A T I O N A L
MAY 2010 NO. 115 UK 4.95 USA $9.99 www.racetechmag.com
The quest to make Lotus
a force in Formula One
LIVING UP
TO A LEGEND
THE SECRETS OF
INDY 500 SUCCESS
750FORMULA BUILD
PROJECT UNDERWAY
WHY LOOSE WHEELS
DRIVE US NUTS!
PAT SYMONDS
SPECIAL REPORT
ON COATINGS
LPGS BID FOR
BTCC HISTORY
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INDUSTRY NEWS
Radical options discussed for next F1 tyre contract; DeltaWing wind tunnel tests
reveal 50 per cent drag reduction over current Indycar; BTCC reprieve for rear-
wheel drive; new NASCAR spoiler performs well
FORMULA ONE
Pat Symonds examines the generation of temperature in racing tyres and the
different strains the rubber endures
Why loose wheels drive us nuts! Pat Symonds sheds new light on a familiar problem
A frank account of the tempestuous infancy of Hispania Racing
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY
The LPG engine project that is ruffling feathers with its pace in the
British Touring Car Championship
THE SECRETS OF SUCCESS IN THE INDY 500
The Indy 500s special place in the US racing industry
When everybody has the same technical package, what gives teams the extra edge
it takes to win the Indy 500? We find out
Why the future of the great race relies on technological innovation
MOTORSPORTS GOLD RUSH: SPECIAL REPORT ON COATINGS
Why an ever-increasing number of applications are being found for sophisticated
surface coatings in motorsport
PRACTICAL RACER
Front wishbones are on the agenda as Graham Templeman and Rod Hill embark on
their T5 750Formula build programme
RACE EQUIPMENT DIGEST
The latest products launched in the motorsport sector
COVER STORY - PAGE 28
LIVING UP
TO A LEGEND
THE QUEST TO MAKE LOTUS
A FORCE IN FORMULA ONE
Volume 17 Issue 7
Published May 2010
The next issue will be published
in early June 2010
ISSN 1356-2975
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May 2010 CONTENTS ISSUE 115

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3
Contents 115.qxd:Section.qxd 30/4/10 21:19 Page 1
T
HE NEWS that Williams has increased its stake to 78% of Williams
Hybrid Power would seem to indicate that there are still great
opportunities to be had in developing hybrid technology. It also
vindicates the decision by the FIA to encourage Formula One teams to adopt
KERS (kinetic energy recovery systems). It is just a pity that it has been dropped
by the teams this season.
When I interviewed Hartmut Kristen, head of Porsche Motorsport, he was very
complimentary about Williams Hybrid Power, saying that when his company
was investigating hybrid technology that it was the British company that not
only had the right answers but also asked the best questions. The fact that
Porsche, of all companies, should be progressing this technology really is a sign
of the times. A class win in only its second race speaks volumes and makes one
wonder just what the future will hold once the Weissach carmaker really gets to
grip with this technology.
I remember a few years ago when Toyota and Honda were making hay with
their production hybrid models. Much to the surprise of the domestic and
European carmakers, these Japanese companies managed to ride the wave of
green motoring. While the German carmakers in particular were promoting
diesel technology as the sensible powertrain of the future, and were committing
vast resources to it, Toyota and Honda were winning the PR war in the ever-
important US market. I remember being briefed by senior executives from
virtually all the European car companies 10 years ago that hybrid technology
was just a flash in the pan and that once the benefits of the common-rail diesel
were explained that it would see the end of alternative powertrain technology.
That, of course, did not happen. While hybrids have not really caught on in a
big way in Europe due to the diesel stranglehold, the reality is that there is a
market for them and carmakers also need to be seen to be going that route. If
the carmakers go that route, then so should the sports governing bodies. They
should be encouraging different series to adopt hybrid technology, not at the
expense of petrol and diesel engines, but devising formulae so that no one
particular technology has a big advantage. In other words, not to follow the
Autombile Club de lOuests example whereby the petrol car is so heavily
disadvantaged to the diesel. That really does not do anyone any good at all.
We have entered a new world, one where energy conversation is very high on
the agenda and one to which motorsport must be responding to in a more
considered manner than it currently does.
William Kimberley EDITOR
PORSCHE
POINTS
THE WAY
EDITOR
William Kimberley
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT
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ART EDITOR
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INTRODUCTION ISSUE 115
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Intro 115.qxd:Section.qxd 30/4/10 12:01 Page 1
MOTORSPORTS PROFESSIONAL
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May 2010 6 www.racetechmag.com
6
By Chris Pickering
MELKSHAM, UK Michelin
may not be the only tyre
company contemplating a return
to Formula One. Cooper Tires is
also understood to be in
discussion with the relevant
parties over a plan to supply tyres
through its UK-based Avon Tyres
Motorsport operation, although
there has been speculation that
an F1 bid would use the Cooper
name as Avon is less well known
outside the UK. Either way the
company has refused to
comment at this stage.
Not only does this revive
competition to Michelins bid
after Bridgestone pulled out of
talks, but it is also understood to
be a rather different proposition.
Michelin stated several provisos
for its return to F1, including
that it wanted to be in
competition with another tyre
manufacturer, it wanted to be
paid for its involvement, and,
crucially, it wanted to switch
from the current 13 inch
diameter wheels to 18 inch rims,
making the technology more
relevant to road car tyres.
The principal objection to the
French firms bid so far is cost.
The projected bill is thought to
be around 45 million in total,
but the Cooper Tires bid is
rumoured to be far lower. Allied
to this, sources suggest that
Cooper would retain the 13 inch
wheel size, virtually eliminating
the need for a costly redesign.
Commenting on the switch to a
larger diameter, Race Tech
contributor Pat Symonds said: If
you assume the tyres outside
diameter and width are to
remain roughly the same, then
the fronts will drop from an
aspect ratio of around 66%
down to around 40%, and the
rears from 50% to around 30%.
Those are pretty low profile tyres
and theyre likely to be pretty stiff
as a result, which could mean
some big changes.
At present the suspension
geometry is very much dictated
by aerodynamics. The wishbones
are steeply inclined upwards
towards the inboard end on the
front of current Formula One cars
simply because the chassis has
been placed so high. That leads
to things like high roll centres
and poor camber compensation,
but to a certain extent you can
get away with that when you
have a nice big compliant tyre.
When youre looking at a 30 or
40% aspect ratio, youre going to
have to examine the geometry
far more carefully in order to get
the contact patch flat on the
ground though.
Currently the tyre sidewalls also
account for something like 50%
of the wheel movement in an F1
suspension system, meaning that
significantly softer, longer travel
springs would be needed to
News 115.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 18:10 Page 1
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7
compensate. The upside to this,
of course, is that more of it could
now be controlled and adjusted
with the dampers and that is
not the only potential benefit.
Larger wheels are likely to give
more room to position the
outboard suspension pickups.
Likewise, it would provide more
room to package the brakes in,
and this may even mean it's
possible to make the brakes last
longer, reducing costs.
THE RACE IS ON
A smaller volume would also
result in less gas in the tyres, so
they would be less pressure
sensitive, which could even raise
the possibility of abolishing
blankets, Symonds noted. This
would make the drivers fight to
warm the tyres up when they
come out of the pits in order to
retain track position, which
strikes me as a good thing.
The potential change would be
a mixed blessing to the
aerodynamicists. Stiffer tyres with
less sidewall deflection are likely
to make the aerodynamics more
consistent and sticking with
our assumption on overall size
the basic frontal area would not
change much. The larger wheel
diameter would, however, clearly
put more aerodynamic emphasis
on wheel design. Finally, there is
also the safety implication. A
lower profile tyre with a smaller
gas volume would contain less
elastic energy than the current
tyres and would therefore
bounce around less if liberated
from the car in an accident.
The final agreement on next
years tyre suppliers is due to be
announced at the Spanish Grand
Prix this month. One thing is
certain only one wheel
diameter will be allowed, so we
are highly unlikely to see
Michelin and Cooper fighting it
out on the track. Until the
decision is made, however, the
fight for Formula One is very
much still on.
BELOW The debate is on as to which
company will become the tyre supplier
to Formula One in 2011
www.racetechmag.com
8
BATHURST, Australia Aston Martin, Ferrari,
Lamborghini, Mosler and Porsche could all be
racing at the Bathurst 12 hour race next year as
the classic endurance race is opened up to other
brands next year. However, the news has not
been received with universal acclaim with some
entrants stating that they will boycott the race.
Some GT drivers have also expressed the view
that a 12-hour race for their cars will make a
massive dent in their race budgets.
The momentum for this exciting initiative has
come from our drivers and entrants and it is a
natural progression for the expansion of the GT
category and brand to compete in the 12 hour at
the iconic Bathurst circuit. A race of this nature is
what GT cars are all about, said a press release
issued in the names of GT directors Martin
Wagg, Rachael Wagg and Terry Little.
The GT Championship has grown
tremendously in recent years and these
vehicles will now join production cars in the
12 Hour Race enabling the event to grow
further including the attraction of an
international audience, said, James OBrien,
the Bathurst 12 Hour promoter.
He added that when the 12 Hour was
reintroduced in 2007, it was always the intention
to incorporate GT vehicles but that the timing
had to be right. The introduction of GT vehicles
will assist in attracting more competitors, more
spectators and a larger viewing audience via
television and the internet.
The Armor All Bathurst 12 Hour has the
capacity for a 72 car grid, and with 42 cars
entered for the 2010 event we are targeting a
50 plus entry for 2011, he said.
GT CARS TO RACE AT BATHURST 12 HOURS IN 2011
By Chris Pickering
INDIANAPOLIS, IN
DeltaWing Racing Cars radical
concept for the 2012 Indy
Racing League, featured in our
March issue, has now
completed preliminary wind
tunnel testing at the Windshear
facility in North Carolina. Until
now the aerodynamic
development had been carried
out exclusively with CFD, and
DeltaWing LLCs designer and
chief technical officer Ben
Bowlby was keen to stress that
the physical tests were largely
for the purpose of validation:
The tests went extremely well.
Ive never gone as far with the
development of any car using
only CFD, let alone one so
unusual, so we were
anticipating a few surprises, but
in reality the correlation was
extraordinarily close.
The headline grabbing figures
produced by the 140mph full
size test were a drag reduction
of over 50% and a proportional
level of downforce to the
current car: At Indy we race at
about 760lb of drag at
200mph in typical ambient
conditions. By comparison, the
DeltaWing is going to be
somewhere around 330 to
350lb of drag. Under the same
conditions, we generate around
the vehicles weight in
downforce so around 1,800lb
and the DeltaWing will also
pull its own weight, this time
around 1,000lb.
The dramatically low drag
figures, allied to reduced
weight, would allow a modest
300 to 350 bhp engine
around half the current figure
to produce straightline
performance comparable to
todays IndyCars. DeltaWings
simulations predict that overall
lap times on street courses
would be two to three seconds
a lap quicker than the current
cars, and fuel consumption
could be as low as half.
The goal was to produce
something that was a
stepchange in efficiency
something that could
demonstrate the performance
capability of modern
technology, said Bowlby.
We wanted something very
lightweight and very efficient
thats still at least as fast and
as spectacular as a current
racecar.
It was not just performance
that was under scrutiny, either.
According to Bowlby a wet
road simulation showed
minimal spray from the front
of the car hitting the cockpit
area and also significantly less
spray behind the car. The
design is also intended to
promote close racing.
Following cars are said to
only suffer half the loss in
downforce that those behind a
traditional open-wheeler
would. Likewise Bowlby said
the wind tunnel tests appear
to confirm the CFD predictions
of greatly improved yaw
stability over a conventional
machine. Current single-seater
designs tend to suffer a
dramatic fall in downforce at
relatively modest yaw angles,
but the DeltaWings yaw range
could allow the aerodynamics
to remain effective at far
greater slip angles. The idea is
this could see a return to the
more flamboyant driving style
of the pre-downforce era and
produce a more dramatic
spectacle as a result.
We want to put the
Indianapolis 500 back at the
cutting edge of development,
with something truly relevant
to the auto industry, Bowlby
summed up. Wind tunnel
testing is a critical step for the
project and allows us to move
forward towards a final design
with growing confidence. We
are now more convinced than
ever that the DeltaWing
concept will meet or exceed
the parameters that the IZOD
IndyCar Series has established
for the 2012 chassis.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS
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BELOW BTCC series director Alan Gow
hands rear-wheel drive a reprieve
www.racetechmag.com
10
BTCC REAR-WHEEL DRIVE
REPRIEVE ANNOUNCED
By Chris Pickering
LONDON, UK TOCA, the
touring car association that
administers the British Touring
Car Championship, has
confirmed more details of the
forthcoming Next Generation
Touring Car rules and
announced its suppliers for
2011. Perhaps the biggest news
was the decision to include a
provision for rear-wheel drive
cars. Initially the NGTC formula
only covered front-wheel drive
machines, meaning that cars
such as the BMW 320si would
cease to be eligible when the
current Super 2000 based
regulations were phased out.
Although there are several
teams actively campaigning
rear-wheel drive machines in the
BTCC the last factory entry was
way back in 1996. When the
NGTC rules were previewed last
year it wasnt thought there was
enough interest in rear-wheel
drive to justify it. At the time,
BTCC series director Alan Gow
argued that it did not make
sense to compromise the new
regulations and raise issues of
parity for the possibility of
including a single manufacturer,
but the option was left open.
After we released details of
the NGTC programme last year,
I stated that we would revisit
the question of incorporating
rear-wheel drive in the
regulations if there was enough
interest or commitment from
teams and manufacturers of
rear-wheel drive cars to support
it, he stated recently. Having
now had those discussions, Im
confident that there is and so
we have now included it.
As expected, the rear-wheel
drive layout can only be used if it
is featured on the cars standard
production equivalent and, like
the front-wheel drive cars, it
must also use standardised TOCA
front and rear subframe/
suspension assemblies. The units
will be produced by Berkshire-
based GPR Motorsport and
both layouts will feature
double wishbone suspension
with coil-over dampers.
Meanwhile AP Racing provides
the brake package and pedal
box, along with the clutch,
mated to an Xtrac 6-speed
sequential. Cosworth
Electronics has also been
confirmed as the electronics
supplier with a package that
includes the mandated ECU,
dashboard, data-logger and
scrutineering logger.
The NGTC package effectively
represents a kit of components
around which teams or
manufacturers can build their
own car. However GPR
Motorsport will also offer an
assembly service based around a
production car of the customers
choice. The bodyshell must be
based around a 2, 3, 4 or 5-
door car freely available in the
UK through the manufacturers
dealer network. An equalised
width of 1875mm and various
aerodynamic enhancements
such as a flat floor and a
standard rear wing profile will
be specified. The cars will also
feature stylised front and rear
wheelarch extensions which
are intended to give them a
more dramatic look, similar to
those of the old Super Touring
Cars. A rendering released by
the organisers points the way
to how a typical NGTC car
might look.
The main thinking behind the
NGTC rules remains cost
reduction. TOCA is aiming to
halve the budget needed to run
a current BTCC car, through
significantly lower parts and
maintenance costs. "At around
100k, plus engine, they will
then have a better car - which is
easier to maintain and has
greater performance potential at
about half the cost of a current
one, said Gow. It's a win-win
situation for everyone. RT
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12
By Andrew Charman
FORT WORTH, TX Drivers in NASCARs
top level Sprint Cup series have reacted
positively to the first races with a new rear
spoiler on their cars, after NASCAR
abandoned the aerodynamic rear wing that
was such a signature feature of the Car of
Tomorrow introduced in 2007.
While the first races with the new spoiler
were at the short tracks of Martinsville on 28
March and Phoenix two weeks later, the
acid test of the changes was always
expected to be at Texas on 18 April. The
speedway is a 1.5-mile track like many of
the Sprint Cup schedule, and it is at these
tracks where the characteristics of the
spoiler are expected to be most keenly felt.
Despite rain washing out much of the vital
practice at Texas and delaying the race by 24
hours, drivers were very positive about the
spoiler when questioned after the race.
Drivers remarked that the cars had more
grip and were more drivable, particularly
when running side-by-side with rivals. This
had been a major criticism of the rear wing,
drivers complaining that the characteristics of
the aerofoil made it very difficult to run
alongside cars and pass them.
Denny Hamlin, who won the Samsung
Mobile 500 at Texas in his Joe Gibbs Racing
Toyota, said that the spoiler produced better
racing. The car seemed to be planted to
the race track quite a bit more you could
race around guys without the air being
taken off of you as much as it did.
The spoiler is 64.5 inches wide and four
inches tall, placed at an angle of 70 degrees
to the cars rear deck. It has been estimated
to add 20% downforce to the rear of the
car. For the Texas race a side fin was added
to the decklid with the aim of further
improving side forces on the car.
Some drivers have repeatedly commented
on the increase on drag caused by the spoiler.
Following tests at Charlotte Motor Speedway,
Penske Racings Kurt Busch said that the car
felt very stable but had a far more drag. We
are going slower down the straightaways but
we can maintain that speed in the corners.
Were getting the difference weve
needed to help us run side by side better. It
has slowed us down by around 200rpm so
NASCAR will likely need to work on the
gearing. However, the car feels stable, thats
the best thing, thats a thumbs up.
Four time champion Jeff Gordon suggested
that the spoiler would see an end to the
crab-like look of cars racing in the Sprint
Cup. We learnt that with the wing if we ran
the car slightly sideways we could make up
for the loss of drag and downforce with
some side force. With the spoiler we dont
have such an amount of side force but we
make up for it with overall downforce.
Gordon added that the spoiler improved
the look of the car. I like the way the cars
look with the spoiler, thats a plus.
NASCARs rear wing era lasted 93 races,
just under three seasons.
IN OTHER NEWS
In a move that sees it being gradually
phased in this year, all four Roush Fenway
Racing and four Richard Petty Motorsports
Ford Fusions ran the new-generation FR9
engine in a race. The new engine is said to
provide superior cooling and centre of
gravity as well as better handling.
Its really the first across-the-board running
for the FR9, said Ford Racing engineer David
Simon. We ran them at Daytona, of course,
in the (Budweiser) Shootout across-the-
board, but the Talladega race is the first full
one for it as the primary engine for us. The
reason its a milestone is that weve gone
through the validation process on the plate
package, so, at this point, were ready to race
the FR9 full-time in restrictor-plate form. In
the second half of the season, as the
validation process gets completed, the FR9
will become the primary race engine for us in
both the open and plate races.
Uncertainty surrounds the future of Richard
Petty Motorsport after it was revealed that the
team had defaulted on a $90 million loan,
caused by car manufacturer Dodge ending its
financial support of the team Petty has since
switched to racing Ford chassis.
Team owner George Gillett, who is
currently trying to sell his stake in Liverpool
Football Club in the UK, said that the loan
was not an issue, describing it as a
technical problem which would soon be
solved by a restructuring.
However, Petty was further troubled by the
news that its star driver Kasey Kahne will not
renew his contract at the end of the season,
heading instead to Hendrick Motorsports. The
team fears that lucrative sponsorship from the
Budweiser beer brand, which is built around
Kahne, could follow the driver to Hendrick.
In another move, Shell/Pennzoil is replacing
Mobil as the Penske Racing teams official fuel
and motor oil supplier next year. It will also
sponsor the Kurt Busch No 22 car.
NO SPOILING
NASCARS PARTY
ABOVE The new Sprint Cup spoiler, seen
here on Juan-Pablo Montoyas Chevrolet.
(Photo: Rusty Jarrett for NASCAR).
ABOVE Team-mates Jimmie Johnson and Jeff
Gordon battle at Texas in their now be-spoilered
cars. (Photo: John Harrelson for NASCAR)
RT
BELOW John Watson's McLaren at
the Caesars Palace GP in 1982. Is a
return to Las Vegas on the cards?
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14
F1 TO RETURN TO THE US?
GAS TURBINES BACK
ON THE AGENDA
SHANGHAI, China Formula One could
be returning to the US following informal
talks between Bernie Ecclestone, the F1
commercial rights holder, and Tony George
the former Indianapolis Motor Speedway
and Indy Racing League chairman.
George attended the Chinese Grand Prix
in Shanghai at Ecclestones invitation to
examine how and where to get a Formula
One race back to the US. Despite Georges
links with Indianapolis, Ecclestone is known
to favour other venues, his first choice
being New York. However, he is also said to
be considering Las Vegas, Miami and San
Francisco and possibly even two races in
the country following strong support for
the idea from sponsors.
Although he retains a share in the
Speedway, where he spent around
$30 million of the Hulman-George
family fortune to build the 2.6-mile
road course needed for the US GP,
George is a free agent.
The US GP has struggled to find a home
in the US since leaving Watkins Glen in
1980. Long Beach in California was the
home to eight grands prix but the two
events in Detroit and Las Vegas, the single
event in Dallas and the three events in
Phoenix never caught on with the US
public. However, the event left after George
and Ecclestone could not come to an
agreement that made financial sense for
both sides. Reports from IMS management,
though, have stated that they would be
interested in bringing an F1 race back to
the Speedway under the right financial
circumstances, the stumbling block being
the high F1 sanctioning fee.
Athens, Greece: The turbine engine, last
seen in Formula One nearly 40 years ago,
could make a return. Project 1221, a
specialist company based in Athens that is
dedicated to creating and marketing gas
turbine vehicles, claims that it has
approached F1s commercial boss Bernie
Ecclestone with a proposal. It says it could
have an engine ready to power a car by 2013.
The company claims it is working on
different turbine engines for land, sea and
air, working on new concepts to power
supercars, superyachts and even
supersonic business jets.
According to Andreas Andrianos, Project
1221s CEO, gas turbine engines would be
cheaper to run than an internal combustion
unit. While fuel consumption would be higher
than with the current breed of petrol-fuelled
V8s, the inefficiency would be more than
offset by use of bio-diesel fuel, which would
make the engines more environmentally
friendly. With no traditional cooling required,
the engines present fewer packaging
problems, although the units could not be
used as stressed members of the car and
would also cause challenges with the gearbox.
Williams F1 recently acquired a majority
shareholding in Williams Hybrid Power
(WHP), increasing its stake in the
composite flywheel specialist to 78
percent. It comes after WHPs
technology made a successful racing
debut in the Porsche 911 GT 3 R Hybrid,
which won its class at the second race of
the VLN series last month.
Personnel
And finally...
The recent spin-off of McLaren Automotive from
McLaren Group has led to a fundamental
management restructure with Ron Dennis will
resuming his role of executive chairman of
McLaren Group as Sir Richard Lapthorne resigns
from being the non-executive chairman.
However, he will continue is his role as a
consultant to McLaren Automotive.
Reporting to Dennis will be Tim Murnane, group
legal director and company secretary, and Andy
Myers, financial officer, both of the McLaren Group.
Meanwhile Martin Whitmarsh has been
appointed to two new roles chief executive
officer of McLaren Group and deputy chairman
of McLaren Automotive. He will also continue in
his role of team principal of Vodafone McLaren
Mercedes. Antony Sheriff will continue in his role
of managing director of McLaren Automotive.
RT
RT
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16
Pat Symonds examines the generation of temperature in
racing tyres and the different strains the rubber endures
track, there are three distinct areas of tyre
tread we should distinguish when we are
considering the thermal equilibrium.
Figure 1 shows a tyre running on the track
before it has reached thermal equilibrium.
The segment of the tyre that is marked (1)
is the part of the tyre that is adherent to
the road, the segment marked (2) is the
part of the tyre that is sliding and the
segment marked (3) is the large part that
is rotating in contact with the air.
In the adherent area (1) the thermal flow
is from the tyre to the road by means of
conduction (assuming that the tyre is at a
higher temperature than the road). In
segment (2) there is a lot of sliding
I
N THE first part of this article, we
examined the peculiar properties of the
rubber mix used in tyres and identified
why temperature, amongst other things,
was fundamental to the grip that a tyre can
produce. We will now go on to look at the
generation of temperature in tyres and the
effect of the various strains that a tyre
undergoes in racing conditions.
TEMPERATURE EQUILIBRIUM
Before we look at the generation of the
temperature, we should first think about
the temperature equilibrium of the tyre.
If we consider a tyre running on the
A GRIPPING
FORMULA ONE PAT SYMONDS ON TYRE GRIP
FIGURE 1
Formula One-Pat Tyre Grip Part2.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 13:52 Page 1
BELOW With each revolution the
racing tyre gains and loses
temperature in three distinct areas
FORMULA ONE
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Subscribe +44 (0) 208 446 2100 www.racetechmag.com 17 May 2010
17
energy and strain energy putting work into the tyre and hence
producing a large heat flow into the tyre. In the final segment
(3) the tyre is generally at a higher temperature than the
surrounding air and loses heat to the air by the mechanisms of
convection and radiation.
If we consider the temperature of the tyre surface as a function of
time through one revolution and if we assume that the tyre is
hotter than both the track surface and the air but not yet at
thermal equilibrium, we will see the conditions shown in Figure 2.
Area 1 shows the decrease in temperature as heat flows from
the tyre to the tarmac. Area 2 shows the very rapid increase in
temperature as the tyre does work through slippage and area 3
shows the loss of temperature of the tyre as it is cooled by the air.
This follows an approximate Newtonian cooling law.
It can be seen that in the cycle shown above the finishing
temperature of the tyre is higher than the starting temperature by
an amount . This implies that during this one revolution of the
tyre it is still increasing in temperature. Even with pre-heating in
tyre blankets, it still takes some time for the tyre to reach full
working temperature. True equilibrium can take six or seven laps
to be reached and, of course, this equilibrium temperature may
be above the ideal working temperature.
We achieve thermal equilibrium when
where Cp is the specific heat capacity of the tyre and Q is the heat
energy. The inflow of heat arises from the environmental conditions
and external heating discussed below. The outflow of heat is the
conduction to the road and the convection to the air while the
generated heat is the main source of heat energy that we will look
into in some detail.
At this point it is worth trying to decide what we mean by tyre
temperature. Rubber is a very good insulator. It has a coefficient
of thermal conductivity of only 0.16 Wm
-1
K
-1
. By way of
comparison, the Styrofoam used for insulated plastic cups is
about a fifth of this value and aluminium is over 1,500 times as
conductive. This means that the heat generated in any part of a
tyre moves very slowly through it. In Figure 2 we are considering
the tread temperature but this can be quite different to the bulk
temperature of the tyre.
Race teams tend to make three measurements of the temperature
of the tyres. When the car is running they can measure the tread
surface temperature. This is measured by remote infrared sensors.
They can also record the temperature as measured by the tyre
pressure measuring system (TPMS) which relates to the bulk
temperature. Both have drawbacks and need to be treated with
caution. The measurement of tread temperature is very sensitive to
the aim of the focal point of the sensor. Typically, a sensor will have
a viewing angle of around 15 degrees and will average the
temperature of all it sees in its viewing spot. This means that at a
distance of 250 mm it is averaging the temperature in a spot of
over 65 mm diameter. There is obviously a temperature gradient
across the width of a racing tyre that needs to be considered and if
the tyre has grooves or a tread pattern then large inaccuracies can
be present. TPMS systems tend to measure the temperature of
the gas in the tyre cavity. This is, in general, a reasonable
indicator of the tyre rubber bulk temperature. Unfortunately the
TALE
FIGURE 2
ABOVE The flow of heat from the
brakes into the tyres can be a
very significant factor
www.racetechmag.com
18
sensors themselves are difficult to insulate
from the wheel and therefore can be
influenced by the fact that the wheel is
heated quite strongly by the brakes.
The final measurement used is that
made by the tyre technicians in the pits.
This is done with a needle thermocouple
that is stabbed into the tyre. It is essential
to use a thermocouple that has a depth
stop on it so that the temperature is
always measured at the same distance
into the rubber. The technician will
normally make three measurements across
the width of the tread and again it is
important that he makes the
measurements in the same place every
time as, particularly near the shoulders,
there can be large temperature gradients.
This method can be quite accurate as the
slow heat flow in the tyre actually helps
make this a stable measurement. It relies
more than anything on the driver driving
consistently hard on his in-lap something
all drivers should be required to do
anyway. In absolute terms the conditions
on entry to the pit can make a difference.
For example at Spa, when using the F1
pit lane, the temperatures are highly
influenced by the high loadings at
Blanchimont but for comparative
purposes this does not matter.
SOURCES OF TYRE HEATING
There are three primary sources of heat
generation in racing tyres. The first of
these is the heating from what may be
termed the environmental conditions. In
a racing car, a large part of this will be
heating from the brakes. Secondly, there
is the heat generated by the strain energy
loss in the constantly deflecting tyre,
which occurs in the tread bulk and
carcass area, and finally there is heat
generated by the friction of the tyre on
the road or more specifically that caused
by tyre slip. This occurs largely in the
tread surface of the tyre.
Environmental conditions, particularly
track and air temperature, will play a part
in determining the running temperature of
the tyres but is not, at least in the first
order, a source of heating.
Although generally the environmental
conditions will dictate a net heat flow out
from the tyre into either the tarmac or the
surrounding air, there is a particular case
when there can be additional heat flow
The flow of heat from the brakes into the
tyres is not something that is commonly
looked at outside the racing industry
into the rear tyres from the exhaust plume. This has been used as
a tuning aid by at least one Formula One team that had exhaust
tail pipes that were angled toward the rear tyres for use in cold
conditions and away from the rear tyres for use when the tyres
were easily able to achieve their operating temperature.
The flow of heat from the brakes into the tyres is not something
that is commonly looked at outside the racing industry. In a car
with carbon brakes it can be very significant. In racing there is
little that can be done to alter this effect other than to polish the
inside of the rims if it is desired to minimise this effect or to coat
them in a dark colour if it is desired to use this heat energy.
Thermal barriers on the brake cowlings can also have some
influence. This effect is not completely unique to motor racing,
however, as a paper was published in 1998 by authors from
Mercedes-Benz and Pirelli in Brazil that examined the effect of
brake heating on urban bus tyres after a number of tyre failures
on buses in Sao Paulo!
STRAIN ENERGY LOSS
The strain energy loss is a function of the tyre forces in X, Y and Z
directions as well as the camber angle, rotational speed and
inflation pressure. There are other factors, for example while the
slip angle is mainly thought of as a generator of frictional heating,
the deformation of the tyre carcass resulting from the slip angle
causes an additional source of strain energy loss. Strain energy
arises from the tread bulk area.
This strain energy loss contributes around 90% of what is termed
the rolling resistance of the tyre. It is largely generated by the
vertical deformation of the tyre as vertical load is applied to the
carcass as it enters the contact patch area and the relaxation of
that deformation as it leaves the contact patch area.
In Figure 3 we can see that as the tyre flattens in the contact
patch area there is a longitudinal deformation of the crown that
leads to bending as well as shearing and the compression that
arises from vertical force. The angle shown as is known as the
de-radialisation angle which indicates the angular deflection
which leads to shearing in the sidewalls.
The distribution of energy dissipation is approximately 14% in the
bead area, 25% in the sidewalls, 27% in the shoulder and 34% in
the tread. Approximately 70% of the heat build up is therefore in
the tread and shoulder (edge of belt) area. Anyone who worked
with extremely soft qualifying tyres in the past will remember that
they often blistered on the straight. This is the reason why.
Let us look at the strains involved before reminding ourselves of
how these heat the tyre. Firstly we have the bending strain in the
rubber entering and leaving the contact patch. This strain depends
on the change from the initial curvature in the upper part of the
tyre, through its curvature in the transition zone at the leading
edge of the contact patch, and through and out of the contact
patch. In the contact patch itself the radius is of course infinite as
the tyre is flat on the track surface. A simple model known as the
Koutny model can be used to construct the geometry of curvature.
The maximum strain of the tread subject to bending is
where h is the tread thickness, R
i
is the initial radius of curvature
and R
f
is the final radius of curvature. Note that when an object is
flat its curvature radius is infinite and hence 1/R equals 0.
The second strain is the compression strain of the tread and is
defined as the ratio between its deformation (h) and the initial
height (h
initial
) such that
The compression strain depends on the pressure () exerted on
the tread and the modulus of rigidity of the material (M) but the
modulus of the material is also a function of the pressure exerted
on it. This is because rubber is in fact essentially incompressible.
If you apply a load to a block of rubber it will deform in the
direction of the load but at the same time it will bulge out
sideways if unconstrained. This bulging (known as dilation) is
not, however, infinite. Even when unconstrained, the more load
that is applied, the more the rigidity increases. To take this into
account the compression strain may be calculated by the
following formula:
where is the pressure, M
10
is the modulus at 10% stretch or
compression and F is the aspect ratio of the tread footprint defined
as shown in Figure 4.
The final strain involved in the total strain energy loss is the shear
strain. If a block of rubber is placed in shear then it will take an
angular deformation. If the block has a height of h and is displaced
by a distance d then it will have an angular displacement of
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20
FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4
This angle is the so-called de-radialisation angle
shown in Figure 3. It can be shown geometrically that
If we consider these three strain energy losses for a typical rolling
tyre, we may see that the bending strain is around 3% and acts
through both transition areas as well as the footprint itself. The
compression strain will be around 5% (less for a slick tyre as F is
larger) and will act only in the footprint area. The shear strain will
peak at around 8% at the entry to the contact patch and 10% on
exit while reducing in the middle.
SLIPPAGE AND FRICTION ENERGY
In part 1 of this article we considered slippage and friction in some
detail as it is the most fundamental requirement of any tyre, let
alone a racing tyre. Fortunately, it is also much easier to determine
than the various types of strain energy loss. Friction energy arises
from the tread surface area. The total energy from slip is simply the
sum, in the X and Y directions, of the slip multiplied by the force.
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22
ABOVE Even after the use of tyre blankets
it can be half a dozen laps before a tyre
reaches its full working temperature
The stress-strain curve has memory
Adverts 101a.qxd:Racetech.qxd 2/3/09 15:02 Page 1
From Figure 5 we can determine the longitudinal slip speed (Slip X)
which can be approximated for small angles to
Similarly for the lateral slip speed (Slip Y)
The slip energies are therefore, from the X direction:
And from the Y direction:
ENERGY TO HEAT
So how do these energies relate to the heat generation? In part 1
of this article, we looked at the phase diagram for a visco-elastic
material. It is reproduced as Figure 6 in a slightly different form.
In this representation, we have applied a sinusoidal stress to the
material just as before and have a phase lag between that stress
and the subsequent strain. As the X axis is expressed as the angle
of the sinusoidal input we can now express the lag as an angle .
Engineers will often use this phase lag as a measure of hysteresis
by referring to the property of the polymer known as Tan .
This arises from the difficulty of determining a single value for
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24
70% of the heat build up is in the
tread and shoulder, which is why
extremely soft qualifying tyres
used to blister on the straight
ABOVE Track and air temperature
both play a part in determining the
running temperature of the tyres
(Photo: Bridgestone Corporation)
FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6
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26
the modulus of rubber. The stress-strain
curve has memory and does not follow
reversible stress-strain relations. For filled
rubber there is no valid constitutive law.
The higher the value of Tan , the more
inherent damping there is in the rubber.
This leads to higher heat dissipation but
also a higher potential for sliding friction.
In order to describe the modulus of
rubber engineers use a descriptor named
the dynamic modulus. In tension this is
referred to as E*. This value is the stress
amplitude divided by the strain amplitude
but, by means of the phase lag , allows
the modulus to be split into two parts.
The first is the storage modulus (E) which
relates to the spring part of the
KelvinVoight model we introduced in part
1 and therefore converts kinetic energy
into potential energy. The second is the
loss modulus (E) which relates to the
damper element of the model and
therefore converts kinetic energy to heat.
These are related as follows:
So therefore the measure Tan is:
If we consider the two main sources of
heat generation, friction loss and strain
energy loss, then we find that typically,
even in a racing tyre, the strain energy loss
is the more significant. In general, between
55% and 65% of the total heat generated
by both friction loss and strain energy loss
will come from the strain energy loss.
A NOTE ON TYRE WEAR
It may not have escaped your notice that
the slippage and friction energy is the
energy that has the primary influence on
tyre wear. If we integrate this energy with
respect to time we can determine
and
By integrating the slip velocities with
respect to time, the wear is dependent on
the force and the slip distance. If the limits
of integration are zero and the lap time
then the relevant distance is the lap
distance. This integration shows that equal
wear could be obtained under conditions
of low load and high slip as may be
obtained under conditions of higher load
and reduced slip.
In generalisation, the wear rate will be a
function of the sum of these energies
multiplied by factors that pertain to the
track abrasion, the general compound
wear characteristics and a coefficient that
describes the change in wear rate with
temperature.
ABOVE The theory isnt confined to the laboratory:
tyre companies have worked hard to improve the
teams assessment of grip and understanding of
the way the car behaves over consecutive laps
FORMULA ONE
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27
ABOVE Energy generated from slippage and friction is
the primary influence on tyre wear. This is Rubens
Barrichellos Williams (Photo: Bridgestone Corporation)
RT
USING THIS INFORMATION
It may seem that this information is largely
academic. In fact, this is far from the case. In
Formula One the tyre companies have spent
considerable effort in the last few years to
develop thermal models that can be used to
supplement the general Pacejka model to
improve the teams understanding of the way
the car behaves over consecutive laps and
give a more accurate assessment of grip. The
ability to predict the bulk temperature of the
tyre, together with knowledge of the thermal
behaviour of a particular compound, can also
be used to determine if the compound may
be prone to blistering on a particular circuit
and, even if blistering is not a problem,
ensure that a compound with a suitable
working temperature range is chosen.
In the concluding article we will look at
how tyre companies may use this
knowledge to choose the correct tyre
compound for a given set of conditions and
how the competitor may use means at his
disposal to alter the characteristics of the
tyre that has been supplied to him.
Of the two main sources of heat
generation friction loss and
strain energy loss the latter is
typically the more significant
COVER STORY LOTUS RACING
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28
Technical chief Mike Gascoyne tells William
Kimberley that having won its race against time
to make the grid, Lotus Racing faces a tough
choice: develop its car or focus on 2011
STICK
OR
TWIST?
ABOVE The T127 has acquitted
itself well in the early races, notably
surviving the punishing heat in Bahrain
When you are sitting there with 15
people and six months to do it, you
have to make value judgements of
how to get the car to the race on time
Cover Story-Lotus.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:33 Page 1
COVER STORY
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29
T
HIS YEAR has been a rather special
one for Mike Gascoyne. Not only is he
returning to the thick of the action on
the Formula One circuit after a short spell
away, but he is also heading up the technical
team of Lotus F1 Racing. As a Norfolk man
through and through, he is aware of the
responsibility that goes with the name, the
baggage of its history and heritage and the
level of expectation that goes with it.
Nothing can escape the fact, though, that
in reality it is still a start-up team, one that
technically did not even have any facilities to
its name on September 14, the day before
team principal Tony Fernandes, founder of
the AirAsia airline, learnt that it had been
awarded the 13th entry in the 2010 World
Championship. In other words, Gascoyne,
upon whom the weight of responsibility fell
as the chief technical officer, had just six
months and two days to get a car designed,
constructed, tested and onto the grid for
the first race of the season.
However, he had already taken the precaution
of doing some groundwork before receiving
the official green light from the FIA on the
offchance that the team was selected. Through
MGI Motorsport, his own Cologne-based
design consultancy, he had already initiated
design work and identified some suppliers.
When we got the entry, the chassis and
primary crash structures such as the nose box,
side impact structures and sidepod inlets were
on critical paths which we had to fix before
wed undertaken any wind tunnel testing
which only commenced in October, he says.
Then final design decisions were being made
after just a month or two of wind tunnel
testing. At the same time the fundamental
architecture had to be fixed without data
from the engine supplier. What this added
up to was that we had to be reasonably
ABOVE The dreams of relocation to Malaysia
are on hold for the short-term, with the team
operating from a factory in Hingham, Norfolk
local companies carrying out work for us.
The Malaysian consortium has pledged to
commit 168m ringgits (30m) to starting
up the team and set an annual racing
budget of 308m ringgits (56m). I think
the Malaysian government is also very
keen to sponsor Malaysian graduates in
the UK with internships and things like
that, says Gascoyne.
LOTUS F1 COMES HOME
That the decision was made to go to
Norfolk in England, home of Lotus Cars and
the original Team Lotus when owned and
run by Colin Chapman, was met with
universal praise. However, it did set its own
challenges, as Gascoyne explains.
Obviously location was a relevant thing
because we decided to locate the factory in
Norfolk at the former Intersport Racing
location in Hingham on which we have a
three-year lease. It is an asset for us because
its well-equipped and was originally designed
as a motorsport facility. We had all the plant
and machinery serviced and calibrated and
with an IT infrastructure, carbon clean rooms
and with all the facilities here, it was very easy
to get up and running. Its very similar in size
to the old Jordan or Force India factory but in
some ways slightly better equipped and its
on a site where there are other buildings
available for expansion purposes.
No matter how romantic that the new team
has located in Norfolk, a more logical choice
would have been to move to a more
centralised region and not one on the edge,
but Gascoyne disagrees. There are quite a
number of people in the industry who work
in Formula One teams that have families in
the county because they come from the
infrastructure that exists around here. So in
the event there have been quite a number of
people who have been willing to move back
to the county as they were originally Norfolk-
based and have family connections here.
The proof of the pudding was that more
than 1,000 people applied for a job when
recruitment began in earnest last autumn.
The main problem, though, has been
getting people with Formula One
experience in quickly enough.
The bigger problem has been in terms of
designers because while Formula One
experience is not necessary on the production
side there are composites facilities in Norfolk
because of the junior formula infrastructure
the main problem is attracting the design and
technical staff, says Gascoyne. Most people
in the industry can be on three or six months
conservative to produce a reliable car.
Being up against it in terms of time and
with little more than a skeleton staff,
Gascoyne had to turn to help wherever it
was offered. It wasnt just about the best
supplier but the one that could do it in the
time available. It was quite different criteria
than usual for selecting suppliers, he says.
Our hands were very tied in some areas
because it was a case of who had the
short-term capability as opposed to where
the best place was in getting a job done.
For example, we had to use some suppliers
in Germany for the major composite and
suspension components.
Apart from work on the car, the other
principal challenge was finding a factory
and then staffing it. At first, the talk was of
establishing a state-of-the-art facility in
Malaysia, home of the investors behind
this Formula One team, but a reality check
quickly established that this was impossible
in the circumstances. The immediate
problem was therefore finding somewhere
suitable in Europe.
Initially it was odds-on that we would
move to Malaysia but there has been a
realisation from the owners that its not really
possible, says Gascoyne. For the
foreseeable future, Lotus F1 Racing is going
to be based in the UK, specifically Norfolk,
and we are looking at setting up research
centres and maybe a wind tunnel and calling
upon the expertise of such local companies
as Carbon Fibre Technologies, which works
closely with Airbus, and establishing a
partnership with them. During any car-build
period even the biggest teams look to get
help from high-quality sub-contracting
experts and we are very lucky in Norfolk to
have so many great companies on our
doorstep. We will also be using specialists
from Europe and beyond and, of course,
Malaysia but already we have a number of
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30
ABOVE & LEFT The evocative sight
of Ayrton Senna at the wheel of the
Lotus 97T at Monza in 1985 (above).
The teams history has burdened it
with expectation. Left, in case of
victory: Colin Chapman would
celebrate wins by throwing his cap
into the air and the team is ready
and waiting if a twist of fate offers it
the chance to emulate its founder
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ABOVE Jarno Trulli in the thick of the action.
The T127 will get an update package for
race five but resources could be switched
early to focus on the 2011 challenger
However, we got it right because we ran and
finished at one of the hottest races of the year
in Bahrain at the start of the season without
any problems. This was the result of some
good engineering decisions being made.
WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Asked whether the diminishing fuel might
upset the handling of the car as the 160 kg
payload at the start of the race disappeared,
Gascoyne responds: In some respects some
of that worry passed us by because we didnt
have time to think about it. We did some
modelling and were aware of where people
were going with weight distribution. There
were concerns in terms of tyre degradation,
especially at the rear with the extra weight,
but we knew where we wanted to aim at
following the modelling in terms of weight
distribution. We are a little limited compared
to some other cars because they have far
more freedom in terms of weight distribution
and can have far more ballast whereas we are
on the weight limit. We estimate that by race
five in Barcelona, though, we will be on our
optimum weight distribution.
So we got the basic assumptions right but
www.racetechmag.com
32
notice but if you have just half a year to do
the whole project it means they cant
contribute very much.
When it came to designing the car,
Gascoyne deliberately chose to follow
conventional lines as time and resource
meant that he could not take risks and look
for the 2010 equivalent of the double diffuser.
Our aim was to develop a reliable
package that would cool and finish the first
four races because no matter how quick you
are, you still need to finish and then wed
make it quicker, says Gascoyne. For
example, we always knew the amount of
time spent on aero would be very limited
which means that there are some pretty big
steps we can be making. We can take plenty
of weight out of the car because we werent
able to instigate some things like FE work
due to the lack of time and people to do it.
We can also lower the car or reduce the
unsprung masses and we dont have carbon
suspension at the moment because it just
wasnt possible to do the iterations and tests
and get it on the car in time, so there is a
project we can very quickly switch onto.
Its similar in other areas: we dont have
any mass dampers because when you
struggle to design a car its left as a future
project once the decks are cleared. We can
run the car, get Penske to do the
adjustable lightweight dampers, all the
good things, but when you are sitting
there with 15 or so people and six months
to do it then you just have to make value
judgements of how to get the car to the
race on time. Likewise we knew we didnt
have time to do a 7-post rig test so we had
to leave it and not worry about it.
The relationship with Cosworth has worked
out very well, says Gascoyne. The engine has
been very reliable its fuel consumption is
good, as is its performance in terms of power.
There are some issues we are solving with
them in terms of general mapping and
driveability things like fuel volumes because
they didnt know what the fuel consumption
was going to be as they had never run an
engine to 18,000 rpm in a race. However, we
were making basic architecture decisions
before we even had the figures that were
predicting what was going to happen. This
meant that we were taking some pretty
rough guesses with cooling numbers based
on average face velocities and assumed heat
rejection figures without any definite data.
didnt have the time to do as much work as some
of the other teams. For example, you only get tyre
data from Bridgestone once you are a confirmed
entrant into the F1 championship. With things like
the revised front tyre for 2010 we didnt have any
data and were doing the basic architecture for the
car without any. It was a challenge but in the end
we dont have any compromises so I think we did
our job pretty well.
However, Gascoyne has a conundrum. While he
knows that he can improve this years car, there is
only so much he can do to bring the car up the
grid whereas next year, with the change in the aero
regulations, it is much more of a level playing field.
We are already looking at the 2011 aero
regulations and the banning of the double diffusers
and how we are going to cope with that and have
accordingly set up a separate design group to deal
with it. Against that, though, is the desire to catch
up this year. However, you dont want to put too
much resource into trying to do so as it may never
happen anyway and consequently you miss out on
the opportunity of starting on a level playing field
next year. So we have to box clever as a new, small
team. I think that for us the priority of putting
people on next years car is very important.
As with every team on the Formula One grid
this year, Lotus F1 Racing is racing under the
Restricted Resource Agreement, the Formula One
Teams Associations (FOTA) response to the
proposed budget cap that was put forward by
the-then FIA president Max Mosley.
I think that what Max was trying to do was
exactly right, says Gascoyne. Formula One and
the spending competition had become totally
unsustainable in todays economy. When I was at
Force India spending 40-50 million a year and
racing not that far off the pace, the argument was
always that if you had 26 Force Indias on the gird
painted in different colours, would the spectator
really notice the difference? And would anyone
notice the difference where the total cost of that
would be 50 million per team? Of course they
wouldnt, so it can be done for that. The problem
was that there was a cartel of manufacturers that
didnt want to give up any advantage.
Formula One had got to the stage like the
Premier League in Britain where only four or five
teams can afford to spend enough money to be at
the top while the smaller teams can never
generate enough revenue from their results to join
the big group, and that was clearly unsustainable.
I still think a budget cap would have been a good
idea. Weve got the Resource Restriction
Agreement and its not bad as a start but I hope it
becomes much tighter so that it really does limit
what people spend because I think thats the only
way forward for Formula One.
COVER STORY
www.racetechmag.com
33
ABOVE The T127 nosecone
undergoing crash testing. Never
mind race wins, just getting the car
to the grid on time was a victory
RIGHT Chief technical officer
Mike Gascoyne oversaw a
frantic dash to get a car
ready for pre-season testing
The spending had become totally unsustainable but a cartel
of manufacturers didnt want to give up any advantage
RT
FORMULA ONE LOOSE WHEELS
www.racetechmag.com
34
WHY LOOSE WHEELS
DRIVE US NUTS!
With all the technology at our disposal in Formula One, it
seems crazy that loose wheels are still the cause of retirements.
Pat Symonds sheds new light on a familiar problem
A FORMULA ONE car is an incredibly sophisticated piece of
equipment designed by some of the best engineers on the planet and
maintained by technicians chosen for their understanding of
engineering and their attention to detail. How, therefore, can a
fundamental problem like a loose wheel cause a race retirement a
situation we saw twice in the first three races of the season?
Losing wheels is certainly not a phenomenon exclusive to
motorsport. Reports can even be found in Horse and Hound magazine
about accidents caused by wheel nuts coming off horseboxes.
[1]
Prior
to EU rules on the subject, many heavy goods vehicles used left-hand
threads on the wheel nuts fitted on the left-hand side of the vehicle.
Recent research carried out in both the UK and Finland
[2]
showed
that there was a bias toward the problem occurring on the left-
hand side of vehicles. However, the bias was small for loose wheel
nuts but large for wheel detachment, suggesting that the thread
hand influence may be a small factor in the root cause of nut
loosening but may be a large influence in the subsequent
unwinding of an already loose nut. The fact that similar numbers of
wheel loss incidents occurred in countries that drove on the left as
those that drove on the right again suggests that the hand of the
thread is fundamental to this problem.
MULTI-STUD WHEEL FIXINGS
Before we consider centre lock wheels we should examine the
common coned wheel nut or bolt.
If this type of nut were to come loose then the weight of
the vehicle forces the cone to rest in the bottom of the
conical socket in the wheel. This is shown, with exaggerated
clearances, in Figure 2.
The result of this is that the nut has a smaller effective
diameter than the socket formed by the wheel and hence rolls
at a speed greater than that of the wheel. Expressed a different
way, it rotates on the stud in the same direction as the rotation
of the wheel. If the thread of the stud is right-handed,
therefore, nuts on a right-hand wheel will tend to tighten while
those on a left-hand wheel will tend to loosen. With tapered
nuts and wheel recesses, the effective gearing of the mechanism
will alter as the nut unwinds and so any loosening occurs at an
ever-increasing rate.
With this in mind, it was common practice some years ago to fit
left-hand threads on the left-hand side of vehicles. This was
particularly true of heavy goods vehicles but in the USA until
1965 Buick, Pontiac and Oldsmobile used left-hand threads on
the left-hand wheel nuts and Chrysler used them on some models
until 1975. Perhaps the extreme example will be one known to
many a home mechanic: the rear hub nuts on the Mini. On this
vehicle the left-hand rear hub nut was not only of a left-hand
thread but was also castellated and fitted with a split pin!
1
http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/article.php?aid=55832&cid=397
2
TRL Ltd project Report PPR086 Heavy vehicle wheel detachment: frequency of occurrence,
current best practice, and potential solutions Knight, Dodd, Grover, Bartlett & Brightman
FIGURE 1 A conventional wheel nut
FIGURE 2
F1-Loose Wheels.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:36 Page 1
FORMULA ONE
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35
CENTRE LOCK WHEEL FIXINGS
While wheels with a single central nut (or centre lock as
they are commonly known) may be a completely
different design to the multi-stud fixings described
above, the problem is a similar one. Many British and
European sports cars were fitted with centre lock wheels
up until the 1970s. These nearly always had a left-hand
thread on the right-hand side of the car. Interestingly one
notable exception was the Lotus Elan that used left-hand
threads on the left-hand side.
If we examine a typical centre lock wheel as used on
most race cars that are involved in pit stops we see that
they use a coned male nut which locates in a female
coned wheel (Figure 3).
It can be seen that there are topographical
similarities between this design and the simple
coned wheel nut used on many road cars. There is a
difference in that with the road car wheel the drive
torque is transmitted through the wheel stud (or
bolt). In the typical racing design, the torque is
transmitted through drive pegs. On classic British
sports cars, the drive was taken through a spline on
the axle that engaged with a female spline in the
wheel. If these drive mechanisms were a perfect fit
then there could be no relative radial movement
between the wheel and axle or indeed between the
wheel and nut. In reality, there has to be clearance
in order to be able to fit the wheels.
In a typical Formula One wheel the drive peg holes in
the wheel are elongated to allow for the vastly different
ABOVE & BELOW The wheels coming off the wagon is far
from a new problem. Above, Michael Schumacher retires with
a loose wheel on his Mercedes in Malaysia 2010. Below,
Nigel Mansell lost the 1987 Hungarian GP when the right
rear wheel nut came off his Williams FW11B
FIGURE 3
torque. Finally, the clearances that we have
shown in a very exaggerated way come into
play as they provide the fundamental
gearing between the components.
In practice the cone angle of the wheel nuts
and the wheel recess are slightly different to
ensure that there is a controlled line contact
between the parts and hence the interface
between the nut and the axle is the dominant
one. This, if a left-hand thread is fitted on the
right-hand side, will ensure that the natural
tendency is one of self-tightening.
It is interesting that of the two occurrences
of loose wheels so far in 2010 both involved
left-hand wheels but in one case the nut
was a right-hand thread and in the other a
left-hand thread. In addition, one occurred
before any pit stop had been made and the
other after a pit stop. There are obviously
more things that can go wrong in a pit stop
just due to the hurried nature of it. On the
grid, the wheels are carefully torqued either
with enormous torque wrenches or with
www.racetechmag.com
36
interface but that the nut will rotate
clockwise relative to the wheel due to the
nut/wheel interface. If we consider that
rotationally the wheel is locked to the axle
by means of the drive pegs then the latter
movement amounts to a clockwise
rotation of the nut relative to the axle.
This means that effect of the two
interfaces is contrary.
Thinking of these two interactions on a
system with a left-hand thread fitted to the
right-hand side of the vehicle, then the
interface between the axle and the nut will
tend to tighten the nut while that between
the nut and the wheel will tend to loosen it.
So which is the dominant effect? The
answer will depend on three basic factors.
The first and most obvious is the friction
developed at each interface. This will be a
function of the lubrication and surface
finish. Secondly, the diameters are of
significance as a given frictional force acting
at a larger radius will transmit a greater
expansion rates of the magnesium wheel
and the steel or titanium axle. In some
cases the drive peg may be fitted to the
wheel and engage in a slot in the axle or
disc bell. The effects are the same.
If we now consider this mechanism with
exaggerated clearances by looking at the
section marked A-A on Figure 3, we see
what is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.
We can now see that there is a subtle
difference to the simple wheel stud
considered originally in that there is a
geared mechanism between the wheel
and the nut as well as the nut and the
axle. Considering clockwise rotation, we
can see that the axle will rotate clockwise
relative to the nut due to the axle/nut
ABOVE The refuelling ban has reintroduced lightning-fast pit
stops to F1 but mistakes can be made under pressure. Here
Renaults mechanics produce a slick stop to send Robert
Kubica on his way (Photo: Steven Tee/LAT Photographic)
There is a geared mechanism
between the wheel and the nut
as well as the nut and the axle
FIGURE 4
www.racetechmag.com
38
carefully calibrated air guns.
Formula One cars can generate enormous
braking torques. When Sebastian Vettels
wheel came loose in Australia it was not into
a turn with very severe braking but
nevertheless the left front wheel drive system
would have been resisting over 2,500 Nm of
torque. The Red Bull car has the drive pegs
in the wheel itself. On the front wheel there
are just three of them, each with a diameter
of around 10 to 12 mm. Even if these are
made of maraging steel the shear stress
under heavy braking would be
uncomfortably close to, or even over, the
yield strength so some additional torque
transfer mechanism is required.
A typical Formula One axle has a thread of
around 60 mm diameter and a pitch of 1 mm.
The nuts are done up to around 700 to 750
Nm. This generates an enormous clamping
force between the wheel and the hub,
normally via the disc bell, and this makes a
significant contribution to the drive system.
The static friction coefficient between dry
magnesium (which the wheel is made of) and
dry aluminium (which the disc bell is made
of) is around 0.6 so this clamping load
contributes a significant amount of the drive. I
suspect that when Vettels wheel came loose,
his drive pegs sheared, losing the ability for
that wheel to react the braking torque.
LOCKING SYSTEMS
A search of patents finds an enormous number
of locking devices for threaded fasteners, with
several specifically dedicated to the problem of
wheel nuts. Among the interesting ones are
those of Lees
[3]
and Vanderdrift
[4]
as well as a
patent by Wolfgang Weiss
[5]
that has been
presented to Formula One teams in the past.
Perhaps, though, the most intriguing in its
simplicity is a patent filed by J.V. Pugh in
1911 entitled Improvements in and relating
to detachable wheels in which he simply
inverts the gender of the nut and wheel such
that the wheel has a male register and the
nut a female one as shown in Figure 5. This
rather old patent was brought to light more
recently by Thorpe
[6]
whose discussion is
summarised here.
If we now consider the cross section
shown as A-A in Figure 5 (with
exaggerated clearances) we see an
arrangement as shown in Figure 6.
Once again, this figure shows the
clearances taken up by the weight of the
vehicle on the wheel. While the axle to nut
interface is still at the bottom of the
assembly, the wheel to nut interface is now
at the top. If we consider the wheel
rotating clockwise and the vehicle moving
forward, the whole system rotates but the
interface lines remain vertically aligned.
The axle to nut relative rotation is similar to
the standard coned wheel nut to wheel
rotation shown in Figure 2. The nut
therefore rotates anti-clockwise relative to
the axle. If we consider the wheel to nut
interface, it can be seen that the wheel will
rotate faster than the nut due to the
gearing and the nut therefore is subject
to an anti-clockwise rotation relative to the
wheel. As the wheel and axle is constrained
rotationally by the drive pegs, this implies
an anti-clockwise rotation of the nut
relative to the axle. The axle-nut interface
and the wheel-nut interface therefore both
cause the nut to rotate in the same
direction relative to the axle.
With this arrangement, the relative
rotations are more clearly defined and less
reliant on local conditions. As shown, the
vehicle would require left-hand threads on
the right-hand side and vice-versa and
would inhibit the loss of a loose wheel nut.
SOLUTIONS
So what, if any, is the solution to this
aggravating and yet potentially serious
problem? With a conventional internal,
centre lock, wheel nut (that is a male nut
that engages a female wheel), it is probable
that the physics are such that a left-hand
thread on the right-hand side of the vehicle
and a right-hand thread on the left-hand
side of the vehicle are best. With multi-stud
fixings the opposite is true and left-hand
threads should be used on the left-hand side
of the vehicle. However, to eliminate the
worries brought about by inconsistencies,
the external nut proposed all those years
ago by Pugh is worthy of adoption.
Having said that, there is one vital point to
get across: if a wheel nut is tightened
properly, it will not come loose irrespective
of the design of the axle thread and the nut.
Equally and even more importantly, if a
wheel nut is loose then using threads of the
correct hand for the particular side of the car
will inhibit the departure of the wheel nut
but no more than that.
ABOVE Sebastian Vettel
streaks clear of the field in
Australia, only to surrender
a potential 25-point haul
when his Red Bulls wheel
nut worked loose RT
3
US patent 6,916,144B2 July 2005 Wheel Nut Assembly
4
International patent WO 97/14892 October 1996 Self locking Ratchet Nut
5
US patent 7,445,413B2 May 2003 Screw nut assembly including an integrated securing arrangement
6
T.E. Thorpe Self Locking Wheel Nuts Proc IMechE Vol. 209
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
FORMULA ONE HISPANIA RACING F1 TEAM
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40
THE PAIN
IN SPAIN
BELOW The key action has
taken place in the garage,
rather than on the racetrack
The infancy of Hispania Racing has been uncomfortable, but gradually
order is emerging from chaos. De facto technical director Geoff Willis
gives Matt Youson a frank account of a tempestuous beginning
F1-Hispania.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:40 Page 1
FORMULA ONE
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41
ABOVE Bruno Senna claimed it was a miracle just
to have the cars running at the first grand prix
W
HICH IS the most impressive
team in Formula One at the
moment? Would anyone
accept it is Hispania Racing?
Red Bull clearly has a quick car; Force India
is arguably the most improved. Renault is
better than anyone expected and Lotus
seems to have a pragmatic and tidy base on
which to build but Hispania is something
different. Its car has no testing, its crew no
experience. Many of the parts are quick-fixes
and last resort bodges and yet it made it to
the grid in Bahrain, crawled to the chequered
flag in Australia, enjoyed a comparatively
spritely double finish at Sepang and repeated
the feat in the rain in China. Compared to
where it was 24 hours before the racing year
began in earnest, that must surely go down
as the achievement of the season.
After a stalled development programme,
financial difficulties, poor supplier
relationships and an 11th-hour transfer of
ownership, Hispania arrived for the first race
of the year with no testing and its cars still as
yet unassembled. Working 24-hour days, it
managed to get one bolted together and on
track for second practice on Friday and the
second for qualifying on Saturday. The gap to
the leaders was around 11 seconds. Given
that the interval between front and back had
by the end of 2009 fallen to as little as 0.7
seconds, Hispanias debut was reminiscent of
the disastrous MasterCard Lola of 1997.
Lolas problems were caused by a pushy
sponsor demanding the team enter a year
ahead of time. Hispanias issues came about
through a lack of sponsors (pushy or
otherwise) but its problems were broadly
similar the car simply wasnt ready. But
while the Spanish team was a long way out
of its depth, it was at least racing. It also
gained recognised management. In February
the experienced Colin Kolles had arrived as
team principal and Geoff Willis as a technical
consultant; the hired guns were there to
stabilise things and get the team moving in
the right direction. Gradually they have done
precisely that, while acknowledging there is
a great deal wrong with the team, and a lot
of work to do before it will be able to
compete with Virgin and Lotus.
The other new teams (save the ill-fated
USF1 project) had their cars built up by mid-
February, a few weeks behind the
established outfits. With the HRT F110 being
first fired up on March 12 it suggests the
team was nominally a month behind in its
development programme. Willis, in a brief
respite from fire-fighting, argues the
situation was actually far, far worse.
Because the car build started so late,
corners were cut in many areas. Bodywork
had to be trimmed manually, various
brackets werent completed, some systems
were being drawn and made on the fly, so
it really wasnt a normal car build,
regardless of when it took place.
Also, Dallara had not built an F1 car in
many, many years, and I think they simply
underestimated the level Formula One has
now reached. With an F1 car we try to
minimise the amount of customisation that
goes on at the build stage; we try to
design everything so that the car can only
be built one way. The reasons for that are
at least partially based on the packaging
demands: we need to know exactly where
everything is because things wont fit if
they dont go in exactly.
Finally, the astounding reliability now
experienced in F1 is based upon taking
nothing for granted: every part of the
electrical loom is properly supported;
hydraulic lines are anti-vibration mounted
and are the correct lengths and not under
strain. All the services in the car are
properly laid out and that level of detail is
just missing from this car, which puts a
huge load on the car build itself.
"GP1" RATHER THAN F1
Willis is obviously critical of the way in which
Dallara has managed the project. Having
been in Italy for the initial build, he expresses
surprise that the manufacturer did not hire a
greater number of experienced F1 personnel.
With reference to the companys successes in
GP2, he suggests what it has produced is
more akin to an advanced GP2 chassis than
a fully-fledged F1 car. Its GP1 rather than
F1 and Im sure the integration, the detail
and the quality of components in the
garages next to ours [ie those of the other
new teams] will be significantly better.
The problem, says Willis, is that the project
falls between two stools. If not intending to
enter with a competitive car it would, he
argues, be perfectly feasible to begin life in
F1 as a Super-GP2 team, gain experience,
build up a technical group, ramp up quality
and slowly advance to the higher level, but
what we have is neither cheap enough and
sufficiently easy to work on to take that
route, nor is it of a high enough quality to
follow the conventional approach.
The big question being wrestled with at the
time of writing is whether HRT will continue
Hispania arrived for the first
race with no testing and its
cars still to be assembled
Willis shopping list includes the usual
teething problems that afflict most new
builds but also some fairly fundamental issues
in need of remedy. We certainly need some
more cooling options on the brakes and
were going to redesign the steering wheels,
he says. We want to give the hydraulics a
facelift to improve the packaging and the
reliability; weve got to do something about
the driver installation because the cockpit
isnt tidy enough, which means we dont
have enough freedom to move the drivers
where we want them to go. Added to that
are a whole series of serviceability issues
that need to be addressed: it takes too long
to make a suspension change; too long to
put a floor on; there are too many fasteners
in the bodywork and its too dependent on
individual hand-building. The car is just too
difficult to work on so we have to simplify
all of that.
With the future ownership of design
responsibility uncertain, the question of
who will address these issues is also
ambiguous. There is a discussion about
the level of fault resolution that comes with
the new car design but when does fault
resolution become car development? asks
Willis rhetorically.
Hispanias problems do not begin and end
with design and manufacturing, it also faces
the experience deficit with which any new
team must cope. Of the small crew, only three
of those working on the mechanical side of
www.racetechmag.com
42
You have to make sure every problem is properly
reported, not just dealt with quietly at the scene
ABOVE Sennas F110 runs wheel-to-wheel with the Lotus of
Heikki Kovalainen but the team knows it will be a long hard
fight to drag itself up to the level of its fellow newcomers
from more effort at the design stage, and
which are the product of the choice between
doing it the way it has been done or not
having a car. In some instances its easy to
judge what has been rushed through,
jumping [manufacturing] stages all the way
the quality of composite components
depends an awful lot on the pattern, mould
and paint preparation, the time taken to
laminate and de-mould and cure and trim.
Work at the proper rate and you get a
quality product; rush it and what you get
doesnt look very nice
the partnership with Dallara, or obtain the
geometry for the F110 and set up its own
development programme. Those are the
two options available to us. The latter will
take a few weeks to sort out and realistically
any standalone programme would be 10 or
15 weeks away from producing anything for
the car, Willis says.
Rare for a Formula One team, development
isnt top of the priorities list at Hispania.
Understanding what it has, and then
optimising it, is viewed as the more urgent
matter. With a non-negotiable deadline of
Bahrain qualifying on March 13, neither car
was built to its design specification. For
example, steel suspension makes its return to
F1 because there was not sufficient time to
manufacture composites, and both cars are
running with a minimal racing loom, limiting
data channels to the bare necessities.
Of the parts the team does have, Willis says
some are well-concepted and manufactured,
while others are rather crude. In terms of
refinement, the design is certainly some way
behind where a mid-grid F1 car would be.
How far behind is difficult to say; certainly the
BARs of the early 2000s would be much
better integrated and easier to work on.
How much that reflects the target of
Dallara and how much it reflects the lack of
time at the end of the programme is difficult
to judge. I will need to go through on a
component by component basis and
determine which parts could have benefited
ABOVE Out of the darkness:
the Hispania Racing F1 Team
was born only after an 11th-
hour change of ownership
carbon main case a no-brainer. Seamless
shift is likewise desirable, but there is
sufficient experience in the pit lane to do it
yourself if somebody elses geometry didnt
precisely suit your needs.
Despite the problems of its birth, the more
the technical director is able to discuss the
long-term future, the more the problems of
the moment appear to be transient.
Over the last decade there has been a
tendency to think of F1 development in
terms of the things that are most readily
apparent. Horsepower and aerodynamic
efficiency are at the top of the list, followed
by suspension and handling for the more
enquiring. Anything that isnt a
performance differentiator falls off the radar
because it simply isnt relevant. Hispanias
issues shine a light into a dark corner long
forgotten. Issues such as manufacturing
methodology, process control, packaging
practices and fault reporting arent ever
discussed because theyve become second
nature; the attention to detail may be
extraordinary but the application of the
extraordinary has become mundane.
The difficult beginnings of Hispania serve
to bring those underlying foundations back
into view. Doubtless as the team improves
over the coming months they will once
again be covered and forgotten, until the
next new teams appear.
www.racetechmag.com
44
the operation have prior F1 experience. The
rest, while experienced in motorsport, are
learning on the job. And without being
snobbish, there is a fundamental difference,
says Willis. This is the only formula with an
engine that revs to 18,000 rpm: the
vibration from that does a lot of damage to
sensors, actuators, looms etc; the intensity of
braking and kerbing events causes higher
acceleration levels; and the packaging is
much tighter than anywhere else. Le Mans,
for example, is equally high-speed, but those
are much bigger cars, much heavier and can
absorb more weight to protect systems,
while also having more room to play with.
F1 has all sorts of unusual quirks which make
it a very difficult environment to work in and
if you havent got the experience, you have
issues with the car because of problems you
havent seen before.
Reliability comes predominantly from
design and then quality control through
manufacture and then procedure and
attention to detail in the car build stage
but certainly not least through the fault
reporting mechanism in the garage. You have
to make sure every problem is properly
reported and not just dealt with quietly at the
scene: it should be reported, it should be
fixed, and the fact its been fixed should be
reported, so that somebody is required to
come up with a proper solution, whether it
requires a process or a design change. Were
just not in a position to do that yet.
The yet in that sentence is important. In
stark terms Hispania seems chaotic, but the
work going on in the garage is calm and
methodical; the team got one car home in
Australia and both in Malaysia and China,
albeit several laps off the pace. Willis
acknowledges that he is putting together a
design group with experienced F1 personnel
that will subject to a budget being agreed
begin to look at topics covering a wide
spectrum of performance and non-
performance related issues.
TECHNICAL COLLABORATION
In the longer term he doesnt rule out the
possibility of a technical collaboration with an
established team (similar to the Force India-
McLaren arrangement), but he is encouraged
by the performance of Hispanias current
engine package: It [technical collaboration]
is certainly a possibility but at the moment
the Cosworth looks like a pretty good
engine. It has a glitch mid-range but in
terms of fuel consumption and top-end
power, Im pretty happy with it.
Willis does, however, also say that the
current Xtrac gearbox is too heavy and that
the proposed regulations regarding greater
gearbox longevity make the need to source a RT
INSET Paper trail: many of the
systems that F1 teams take for
granted are only just being put in
place at Hispania Racing
BELOW Having run 11 seconds off
the pace initially, the team has made
steady progress. In Malaysia and
China it got both cars to the finish
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY TEAM AON LPG FOCUS
www.racetechmag.com
46
LPG BECOMES
FOCUS OF
ATTENTION
BELOW Although tyre troubles at Thruxton masked the
true pace of the LPG-fuelled Team Aon Focus, pole
position at Rockingham left nobody in any doubt
Engine Tech-LPG Focus.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:43 Page 1
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY
www.racetechmag.com
47
Chris Pickering investigates the LPG engine project that is ruffling
feathers with its pace in the British Touring Car Championship
T
HE BRITISH Touring Car
Championship is a rather interesting
place to be at the moment. Youve
got front-wheel-drive cars racing against rear-
wheel-drive cars, saloons against hatchbacks,
turbocharged engines against naturally
aspirated units, and the impending upheaval
of next years rule changes. And now, as if
that wasnt enough for the scrutineers to deal
with, a new fuel has just been thrown into the
mix. Whats more, the powerplant doesnt
strictly fall into any of the existing categories.
While the familiar naturally aspirated Super
2000 engines continue to dominate at least
in numbers the only official regulations for
turbocharged units are those which fall under
the Next Generation Touring Car (NGTC)
rules for direct-injection petrol engines. The
new unit, developed by Essex-based
Mountune Racing and campaigned in the
Ford Focuses of Team Aon, is neither. It uses a
turbocharger, like the forthcoming NGTC
engines, but its actually based on a Super
2000 unit, with conventional manifold fuel
injection. Theres also the small matter of the
LPG system, of course. All this puts it quite
literally in a class of its own at the moment,
with a one-off homologation agreed with
series organisers TOCA.
DOUBLE WHAMMY
The project came about last year while the
team was considering its engine options for
2010. It was assumed at the time that the
TOCA NGTC package engine would be the
way to go performance-wise, but the team
was uneasy about fitting a non-Ford engine.
Although officially unbranded, its origins
from one of the blue ovals closest
competitors are fairly widely known. At the
time the team was also on the lookout for a
new sponsor and a solution was about to be
found to both problems. Paul Onslow-Cole,
father of Team Aon driver Tom Onslow-Cole,
has an LPG fitting business and it was he who
introduced the team to LPG specialist Calor.
When the possibility of a significant
sponsorship deal was mooted the switch to
LPG was all but agreed.
The next call was to BTCC technical chief
Peter Riches, who agreed he liked the idea
of LPG and offered to work with the team
on the regulations. With the NGTC rules
still far from finalised at the time,
Mountune was given a basic set of
guidelines and left to carry on. There was
an acknowledgement that time was short
and the team were basically told get on
with it, just dont push your luck, recalls
Mountune founder David Mountain. The
key restraints were a capacity of two litres,
in line with both the NGTC and Super 2000
cars, and a turbo boost pressure of no more
than 1.8 bar absolute and a maximum
7,000 rpm (again, as per the NGTC rules).
Perhaps not surprisingly, the fuel system has
provided the main challenge. While
Mountune is no stranger to forced induction,
or indeed the Ford Duratec, LPG in a race
application was new territory. LPG was
something of an unknown when we ran
the budget numbers for the team that was
the only bit we couldnt predict, recalls
general manager Roger Allen. We knew how
much it was going to be from the injector
down, but before that we needed help.
ABOVE The turbocharged powerplant on the dyno. Note the thermocouples at the back of
the engine used to monitor exhaust gas temperatures and infer combustion conditions
combustion chamber without things like
quartz lenses and high-speed photography,
and we didnt have access to that sort of
thing, so we just went back to basics with
tests on the dyno, explains Mountain. We
discovered that moving the injectors back
provided a definite improvement and we
believe the fuel is now fully gaseous once it
enters the combustion chamber.
The fuel injectors themselves made for
something of a challenge, mainly because
the pressure the system runs at would slow
the internals right down on a normal
gasoline unit. To get the necessary speed
Mountune uses Prins side-fed injectors.
Based on a Bosch design, these feed from
the side, unlike conventional end-fed
www.racetechmag.com
48
LPGs lower calorific value means
you need 20 per cent more fuel
mass for the same power output
tendency to ice up. On the dyno you can
sometimes see ice forming on the outside,
Allen casually admits. If its a bit on the
cold side and the system is idling, when
fuel flow is lower, it can get close to
freezing up, but as soon as you pick up the
revs and the fuel starts to flow this ceases
to be a problem.
Unlike most road-going LPG conversions
the engine doesnt use an evaporator to
vaporise the fuel, instead its injected into
the manifold as a liquid. This removes
weight from the system, simplifies the
Thats where Calor stepped in. Most of the
LPG hardware comes straight from Calors
Dutch sister company Prins. Mountune took
a lot of advice from the company on things
like the correct pipes and pumps: Its
important to have the correct seals, flow rates
and pressures. Its not something weve
delved too deeply into here, but Calor and
Prins have done a lot of work in this area.
In reality the LPG fuel system isnt quite as
alien as you might first assume. It sounds
exotic, but its essentially just like the contents
of a barbeque gas bottle, notes Allen.
ABOVE Tom Chilton smashed the Rockingham
lap record to earn LPG its first pole position start
installation and also provides additional
charge cooling as the liquid vaporises. It
wasnt without its problems, however. In
theory the LPG is supposed to evaporate as
soon as it leaves the injector, but the
development team soon discovered there
was a noticeable time delay. Running at
fairly high air speeds and injecting close to
the inlet valves, the first engines didnt
always have time to fully vaporise the fuel
before it entered the cylinder. The result was
several piston failures on early engines,
which are thought to have been caused by
thermal fatigue as the cold LPG hit the
warm surface of the piston. It wasnt long
before a simple solution was found,
however. Its difficult to monitor the
Treated with a few basic precautions LPG isnt
a difficult substance to handle, but there are
a few issues. Firstly, it readily evaporates
under normal atmospheric conditions and
can cause severe cold burns if it comes into
contact with skin. Its also heavier than air so
it will tend to run down hill and accumulate
in dips if spilt. In most respects, however,
the technology in the fuel system isnt that
different to a normal petrol or diesel setup.
A turbine pump, located inside the tank,
works with a pressure regulator to supply
fuel direct to the injectors. It does need to
be kept at a somewhat higher pressure
than a petrol system (6 to 8 bar plays 3 to
5 bar), but its still broadly the same order
of magnitude. The only other issue is a
ABOVE The rapid cast alloy manifold can be
seen in this dyno shot, as can the two fuel
lines heading to each set of twin injectors
injectors which feed the fuel straight onto
the pintle and have a tendency to slow it
down at high pressure. The other benefit of
this architecture is that it moves the solenoid
further away from the fuel, reducing heat
transfer that might otherwise evaporate the
fuel. Similarly, plastic fuel lines are used for
their insulating properties.
TWIN INJECTORS
The other major problem posed by the fuel
system was simply achieving adequate flow.
One injector per cylinder wasnt quite
adequate to provide the fuel supply the
engineers wanted, so they resorted to an
eight injector setup. This is normally
prohibited in the BTCC rules, but the team
was granted dispensation to do so, and
Mountain is quick to point out that its not a
performance enhancing feature: We agreed
to run them side-by-side, rather than
locating them separately. This means its
effectively the same as running a single large
injector and it doesnt offer us any benefit.
Using twin injectors also means were
carrying a bit of extra weight and some
additional complexity. We would like to get
back to a single injector (per cylinder) and
we are experimenting with some currently,
but if they do go into the car it wont be
until halfway through the season.
At the business end, the injectors are
encased in a cast alloy inlet plenum
manufactured using an innovative lost wax
casting process developed by WCM Rapid.
The benefits of this rapid casting technique
were essential in the short time available
and its also said to work out somewhat
cheaper than sand casting for very small
batches. It begins by creating a wax model,
which is rapid printed straight from the CAD
files. Next the master model has a wax
running system developed around it. Its
then coated in plaster and baked in an
oven, which dries the plaster and melts the
wax out. This leaves the cavity form to
which aluminium is poured in under
vacuum to produce the metal casting. The
whole process is tool-less and can be
completed in a matter of days.
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY
www.racetechmag.com
49
THE MOUNTUNE project wouldnt have
been possible without a small army of
suppliers providing parts and services.
Foremost among these are Calor and sister
company Prins, who were vital in speccing
and supplying the LPG system. Perhaps
the next most significant change to
Mountunes former S2000 unit was the
addition of a turbocharger. Its a fairly
standard Garrett GT28 roller bearing turbo,
mated to a Tial wastegate and a quick-
release exhaust housing designed to
enable fast changes. The exhaust system
itself, meanwhile, comes from Berkshire-
based Simpson Race Exhausts.
Inside the engine we find many of the
usual suspects at work: Carrillo conrods,
CP Pistons, Supertech valves and an Arrow
Precision crankshaft. NGK spark plugs and
Cosworth Electronics Pectel ECU
complete the powertrain shopping list.
SUPPORTING CAST
also takes its Pectel SQ6M engine control
unit from the NGTC specification. Unlike the
TOCA engine, it also features an additional
boost pressure monitoring system that feeds
straight into a sealed TOCA data logger
presumably just in case Mountune ever feels
tempted to turn the wick up.
Despite raiding the BTCC parts bin, the
build hasnt been a straight swap. The fuel
tank, for example, still provides all the usual
challenges associated with fuel surge and
low running quantities, but its also added
to the LPG cars weight issues. The tank
alone weighs 30 kg and you need to fill it
with a greater quantity of liquid than you
would a conventional system. If you really
want to get David Mountain talking,
however, its worth mentioning the subject
of the lubrication system. Although this isnt
an LPG-specific issue, its clearly a point of
contention in touring car circles.
Weve said for a long time that a dry
sump system would be cheaper, more
reliable and easier for everyone, he
comments. Big parts of the budgets are
routinely spent trying to make a wet sump
system with the standard production sump
pan work in a racing environment [as
mandated by most touring car series]. Its
been nothing but a nightmare for every
project weve been involved with, right back
to the Sierra Cosworth days.
www.racetechmag.com
50
Once the mixture is fully vaporised and
safely inside the cylinder the combustion
process is broadly the same as a spark
ignition petrol engine, but there are some
differences. LPG burns somewhat richer
than petrol and its calorific value is lower,
meaning you need around 20 per cent
more fuel mass for the same power output.
It also burns cooler, with exhaust gas
temperatures typically 70 to 100 degrees C
down (which bodes well for exhaust valve
and turbo durability), but its not without
its problems. LPG doesnt have the same
lubricating properties as petrol does and
its not unknown for LPG engines to suffer
valve seat recession. Some road car systems
use an additional lubrication system to
supply oil, but Mountune has elected not
to do this because it lowers the octane
rating and the mileages in question arent
really high enough to cause problems. We
did consult our oil supplier and the
response was that normal lubrication
would be fine for LPG in a racing context,
confirms Mountain. Indeed, barring a
problem with the oil breather system on an
early test run, the engines appear to have
fared very well in-car.
When the concept first emerged there had
been talk of running the car in a naturally
aspirated configuration. In order to make it
competitive on LPG the engineers
hypothesised that they would need to raise
the compression ratio to something like 14
or 15:1 as well as re-engineering the head
to provide considerably larger valve lift.
Fortunately the idea of turbocharging
eliminated this problem, and enabled them
to run what is in many respects a fairly
standard Super 2000 engine.
PICK AND MIX
As the concept took shape Mountunes
engineers, along with the scrutineers, pieced
together a kind of pick and mix of touring
car regulations. The fundamentals, such as
compression ratio and component weights,
were taken straight from Super 2000, while
the lower 7,000 rpm rev limit and the boost
pressure settings were taken from NGTC.
Internally it remains fairly conventional; the
head is said to be pretty much identical to
the old unit from the plenum downstream,
with the only real changes to the
reciprocating assembly.
Weve gone up a spec on the pistons and
rod, explains Allen. The torque is
somewhat higher, so weve gone for a
turbo-style rod and pistons. Theyre just
slightly beefier designs optimised for low
speed, high cylinder pressure, high torque
applications. The team hasnt had a chance
to carry out a cylinder pressure study, but
its thought to be relatively close to the
equivalent turbocharged petrol unit. The car
ABOVE & RIGHT The fuel tank in the back seat is from
Propane Performance Industries and draws on the
companys expertise with alternative fuels. It involves a
lot more than just bolting a gas tank in the back of the
car, said Arena boss Mike Earle after Rockingham. Until
youve tried it, nobody will understand what a technical
challenge this programme presented us with.
Last year Mountune, along with several
other engine builders, had persistent
problems with oil surge in the standard
sump, which forced it to homologate an
Accusump system. This is effectively an
additional pressurised oil reservoir which is
used to supplement the standard wet sump
lubrication system when the pressure drops.
It solved the lubrication issues, but meant
adding extra weight to the car and finding
space for the reservoir, so Mountune began
developing a new wet sump system. The car
retains the standard Ford sump pan as per
the BTCC regulations but extensive
internal changes to the baffles and pick up
pipes have improved delivery to the point
that the Accusump could be removed. We
had some interesting ideas from the aircraft
world and weve done some testing with
prototype sumps that have given a very
good oil trace, Mountain notes.
Due to the rapid timescale no simulation
work was carried out during the LPG project
and Mountunes first chance of gauging the
engines progress was when it hit the dyno. It
was back to basics stuff, but the development
team did have a few tricks up their sleeve.
Thermocouples were tapped into the exhaust
system to measure exhaust temperature
distribution, which allowed them to infer the
mixture and any cylinder-to-cylinder
distribution created by the intake system. Its
a good way to get an idea of the distribution
quickly, explains Allen. All you need is a few
bosses in the manifold and then all other
things being equal you get a basic idea of the
mixture strength coming out.
GOOD RELIABILITY
The engine first found its way into a car at
the beginning of this year. The first
shakedown was on February 13 and the
engine stayed in the car for the next four
tests, only coming out just before the season-
opener at Thruxton. When the engine was
removed it was, says Allen, absolutely
pristine, pinning high hopes on reliability.
Sadly the tyre woes which caught out several
of the teams made it a rather mixed
weekend for Aon too. Its no secret that the
Focus is running considerably over the
weight limit; not that its anything unusual,
as even the lightest of the turbo cars are
thought to be something like 20 kg over the
minimum. Thruxton is also notoriously hard
on tyres and the additional weight of the
LPG car, combined with whats thought to
be the highest torque levels in the BTCC,
didnt bode well. Both cars succumbed to
tyre issues in race one quite spectacularly in
Tom Chiltons case and they continued to
experience troubles throughout the day. The
final race did, however, see them finish
seventh and eighth, recording the first ever
BTCC points for LPG cars.
The powerplant itself performed well.
Indeed perhaps too well: the cars speed
trap times raised a few eyebrows amongst
rival teams, even though their lap times
were midfield. The pace of the Focus at
Rockingham, where Tom Chilton broke the
lap record to secure the first pole position
for an LPG car, further underlined the
packages potential. Mountain predicts the
team will be regulars up at the front in the
near future. He better hope the
powerplants not too good, of course.
Otherwise you can be sure chief scrutineer
Peter Riches will be knocking on his door
with a nice new air restrictor.
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY
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51
BELOW The LPG powerplant has performed well, with
the pace of the Focus through the speed traps in pre-
season testing causing rumblings amongst rivals
The Focuses speed trap times raised
a few eyebrows amongst rival teams
RT
INDY 500 THE RACES IMPACT
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52
THE GREATEST
SPECTACLE
IN RACING
W
HAT IS the first thing you think
of when I say Indianapolis?
No matter where in the world
you are, if you say Indianapolis most people
respond Indy 500. The Indianapolis 500 is
still the largest, single-day spectator sporting
event in the world and is known as the
Greatest Spectacle in Racing and if you
have ever attended Indy you would agree, it
is an awesome event! However, interest and
coverage of the Indianapolis 500 reaches
way beyond just the state of Indiana. This
years event will be televised in 213 countries
with an audience reach of 292 million
households, while the IMS Radio Network
will be on thousands of stations worldwide
including the US Armed Forces Network.
The racing industry in Indiana, though, is
much more than just the 500. The Indiana
Motorsports Association has a directory of over
1,200 companies in the state of Indiana that
are directly involved in the motorsports
industry. It shows that 80 per cent of the
IndyCar teams have shops in Indianapolis
while other motorsport-related businesses
include manufacturers, suppliers and 49 other
race tracks. In fact, half of them host an event
in the week of the 500 to cater to the race
fans visiting Indianapolis who are looking for
something to do in the evening.
Mark Rosentraub, former professor and
associate dean at the School of Public and
Environmental Affairs at Indiana University at
Indianapolis, authored an annual economic
impact study of the racing events at the
Indianapolis Motor Speedway and the 500 a
few years ago. It showed that the event
itself has nearly a $350 million impact each
year, which is more or less doubled when
the whole year is taken into account. The
study, though, only focused on the
spending of out-of-town guests and does
not include the spending of the local
residents, who make up approximately one
third of the events spectators.
Building on the city and states love affair
with motorsport is the new International
Motorsports Industry Show (www.imis-
indy.com), the inaugural event taking place
last December. This year it has been
expanded from two days to three (December
1-3) and it will double in size. Over 500
hardcore motorsports parts companies from
around the world will be exhibiting their
latest technology and designs.
With so many of the IndyCar teams based
in Indy you can count on them attending
the show to see what they might be able to
find that will help them get to Victory Lane
at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Hope
to see you there with a couple of hundred
thousand of your closest friends!
ABOVE Classic Indy 500 action at the start
of the 2009 race (Photo: Dan Helrigel/IMS)
LEFT The pre-race
atmosphere is electric
(Photo: Chris Jones/IMS)
RT
Tom Weisenbach, executive director of the Indiana Motorsports Association,
explains why the Indy 500 is so special to the US racing industry
Indy 500.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:47 Page 1
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INDY 500 WINNING THE BIG RACE
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54
THE SECRETS OF
INDY SUCCESS
O
VER THE last few years the Indy
500 has lost some of its glamour
due in part to the IRL becoming a
closed series. While there is much to be said
for standardisation as it reduces the costs of
competing, it comes at the expense of
variety, innovation and thinking up outside
of the box solutions.
Looking back over the 98 years that the
race has been run, those events that stand
out tend to be the ones that either had a
close finish or featured cars that redefined the
racing car. The advancement of technology,
sometimes successful and other times not, is
the advantage of having an open formula.
The argument for having a closed formula is
that it ensures a level playing field so that the
driver for an underfunded team has as much
of a chance of winning as one from a wealthy
one, which means that it comes down to
driver skill or does it?
Over the last 10 years, from when the race
was more open with a variety of engine and
chassis suppliers through to the present time
with the closed series, records show that
Penske has won its five times, Andretti
Green and Chip Ganassi twice each and
Rahal Letterman once. It goes without
saying that they all had great drivers but is
there more to it than meets the eye?
The answer, says Mike Hull, a key member of
Chip Ganassi Racing as its managing director,
is process, people, resource and refinement,
to which can be added experience and focus
according to Tom Anderson, senior vice
president of Andretti Autosport.
Its very much a daily process that is
driven by priority and that is how we
approach everything that we do, says Hull.
On the first day back to work after the
Indy 500 we sit down and talk as a group
about how to improve ourselves for the
next race. We look at what was good for us
and what could be improved in all areas.
We look at ourselves with open eyes and try
to make ourselves better so that we can be
ready for the next event.
People, though, and not just the drivers, are
key says Hull who is charged with organising
the process and keeping the large team
focused. I think that in order to be successful
at Indy what you need is an integrated group
of people who are dedicated to the process
of being ready to race the race with the
goal of winning. Anything less than that is
truly disappointing.
You also need the correct amount of time
to prepare, the proper amount of funding or
sponsorship, enough experience or talent in
all departments from the drivers, crew chief,
engineering right on down to the pit crew,
says Anderson who joined the team last
December bringing with him 40 years of
experience. This includes being co-owner and
managing director of Fernandez Racing from
2001 to 2009 and before that the managing
director of Chip Ganassi Racing from 1990 to
2000 when he helped lead the team to four
consecutive CART championships between
1996 and 1999. The team also claimed a win
in the 2000 Indianapolis 500.
The next thing is that you have got to have
the chemistry with everyone getting along
When everybody has the same technical package, what gives teams the
extra edge it takes to win the Indy 500? William Kimberley finds out
ABOVE Helio Castroneves leads the pack. The fit
and finish of the car is crucial as teams seek to
gain an edge by the reduction of friction wherever
possible (Photos: Indianapolis Motor Speedway)
INDY 500
www.racetechmag.com
55
and pulling on the rope together. If you have
all of that and a bit of racing luck, you are
going to have a really good month of May.
What we have done as a team over the
years at Chip Ganassi Racing, says Hull, is
tried to provide equal entries, equal resource,
equal manpower, equal engineering and
equal everything to two equally talented race
drivers. If you look at our driver pairings over
the years thats how weve approached it
whether its the current partnership of Scott
Dixon and Dario Franchitti, Jimmy Vasser and
Tony Stewart or Vasser and Juan-Pablo
Montoya. We absolutely run the two cars as
one and we share the information that we
gather from both cars on a practice or
qualifying day or even in the race itself. We
also train religiously with the guys who go
over the wall to have really good pit stops
its a combination of all those things. It comes
down to a team effort from start to finish.
Managing this is also one of the key points,
one of the attributes of which is being a full-
time juggler, says Anderson. This is because
you dont have the luxury to think about
everything with decisions needing to be made
quickly, so this is where the experience comes
ABOVE Vitor Meiras car catches fire at a pit stop
in last years race. The quick reactions of the pit
stop crews play a crucial role in the outcome of a
race that is often littered with caution periods
in the more you have been to a place like
Indy, the more you understand the pressure
that it creates and the more you can cope
with that environment, the more likely you
are to make better decisions.
In Indy, unlike some other races, a huge
amount is put into the preparation before the
race rather than in the race itself. Once upon
a time it used to be three weeks of
preparation at Indy, then it was down to two
weeks and now its down to one, so its going
to be a real interesting month of May this
year. Understanding the race track and
understanding how the car relates to it and
the weather conditions, which can be variable
at this time of year, is extremely important.
Both Hull and Anderson agree that the
closed formula has altered the way they work
and prepare for the race compared to earlier
times when the race was more open.
I think that any open formula was down to
big bites, says Hull, and typically in a big
bite situation when the box was a great deal
larger, it wasnt necessary to refine the small
details of the racecar. You could rely on the
ability of the guy driving the car and the guys
going over the wall that looked after it for the
pit stops. Other factors included things like
Cosworth possibly giving you 50 more
horsepower or maybe your tyres were more
durable than your competitors tyres, or it
could be that the Eagle chassis was better
than the March one. At Indianapolis over the
years you created an edge with the
technology from various supporting vendor
groups and then on top of that were the
engine companies that would help with
testing and additional engineering support.
These days we do the same thing but we
zero in microscopically with our product
its a totally different way to race in terms of
that today. We examine the fit and finish of
the car with the bodywork where every little
fastener is in the airstream, how the
suspension is oriented to the airstream, how
the driver sits in the cockpit and so on its
all about nailing everything down in minute
detail these days. We refer to it as the
creation of frictionless racing, which is what
we are trying to achieve from an engineering
point of view. If you reduce friction, in a way
you create horsepower.
To reinforce how the game has changed
since 2003, Hull refers to the time when
Ganassi Racing switched from CART to the
Indy Racing League. The year was, he says, a
The creation of frictionless racing
is what we are trying to achieve
from an engineering point of view
jolt for the team. When we left the CART
championship at the end of 2002 to join IRL
on a full-time basis we had our eyes opened.
We got beat up pretty good and although
we won the championship with Scott Dixon
that year, the people we were racing against
were just so much better than we were in
terms of the details on the racecar and
wed won championships.
There was a steep learning curve in what it
took to be really good on ovals. It was a great
educational experience for all of us and made
us all try to be better in terms of refinement
with our product and over time I think thats
where weve been. If you walk up and down
the grid at any IndyCar race now, you are
going to see some well turned out racecars
from end to end on the grid.
There was a time when a boxed stock
car from the manufacturer could win the
race, says Anderson, but those days are
gone. There are things on the car that
were not even thought of when it was
designed in 2003.
Theres now a tremendous amount of
variation in suspension geometry, gearbox
design and fitting and many other things
that in most racing circles would be
considered trivial and therefore not worth
bothering about. Unfortunately, though,
trivial has become reality in the series and
you will get beat by it every week unless
you catch on to it, but that is what it takes
to win the Indy 500.
The race has become a situation where I
would bet a considerable amount of money
that no new team and driver could come in
and cherry pick this race. There was a time
when that could be done, such as when
Montoya won in 2000, but thats not going
to happen any more.
If you are changing chassis every year you
are going for larger pieces but because the
rulebook has contained us in certain areas
its opened doors on others if theres no
gas on the stove, youve got to find another
way to fry the egg.
THE BIG BITES
So what were the big bites to which Hull
was referring? The arrival in 1963 of the
Lotus-Ford type 29, the lightweight rear-
engined car that revolutionised racing at the
Brickyard, is often rightfully highlighted as an
example. Although it finished second due to
yellow flag conditions negating its advantage
of not having to stop so frequently for fuel as
the front-engined Offenhauser-powered cars,
everyone that day could see that the writing
was on the wall for the Indy roadster. Within
two years, when a rear-engined Lotus did win
with Graham Hill at the wheel, the rear-
engine revolution was complete.
However, while this is the most popular
example of innovation at Indy, the event has
always been the breeding ground for pushing
the boundaries since the very beginning. For
example, the fourth running of the race in
1914, just before the outbreak of World War I,
saw some ground-breaking technology that
was to revolutionise the race engine in the US.
Again, the influence was European, but this
time it was from France. An historical moment
was the 1912 French Grand Prix which was
won by Georges Boillot in a 7600 cc Peugeot,
a small engine in comparison with the 14-litre
cars it was racing against. However, the real
point of interest was that it was the first
engine to have twin cams plus four valves per
cylinder in a hemispherical combustion
chamber, a revolutionary concept at the time.
As Griffith Borgeson remarks in his book The
Classic Twin-Cam Engine, it marked the
manifest obsolescence of the ponderous
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56
ABOVE Juan-Pablo Montoya (centre) broke
ranks with the CART series to race and win the
Indy 500 for Ganassi in 2000. Such is the
microscopic attention to detail demanded by the
tight regulations today that a new team would
be unable to come in and win the big race
BELOW Al Unser Jr edges out Scott Goodyear
by 0.043 seconds at the finish of the 1992
Indy 500. With such small margins separating
the cars of the modern era, painstaking
attention to detail in race preparation can make
the difference between victory and defeat
approach to racing car design.
The following year this engine came to
Indianapolis. Following some persuasion by
a representative of Carl Fisher, the
Speedway creator, co-owner and financial
genius, who had sent an emissary to Europe
in a quest to recruit men and machines to
race in the Indy 500, Peugeot sent Jules
Goux and Paul Zuccarelli, the Jenson
Buttons and Lewis Hamiltons of their day,
to race the L76 Peugeots. The result was a
victory for the Frenchman who finished
over 13 minutes ahead of his nearest rival.
While his average speed of 75.93 mph was
not a new record, he was the first winner of
the 500 to go the entire distance without
the aid of a relief driver.
The following year, Peugeot again sent a
two-car works team with a pair of 1913 GP
Delages being their biggest threat. However,
there was also a private entry for another
Peugeot, another twin-cam engine car but of
only 3.0-litre capacity. This greatly worried
the French car company as it was concerned
that it would damage its image and would
look absurd in a race for cars up to 450
cubic inches (7347 cc). It therefore
completely turned its back on the entry,
denying Arthur Duray, who had borrowed
the car from chocolate-fortune heir Jacques
Meunier who had purchased it from Peugeot
for his daily transport, any support. When
the car arrived at the Speedway all it had
was a set of plugs and a few hand tools to
serve as equipment and spares. In the event
the race was won by Ren Thomas in a
Delage at an average speed of 82.47 mph.
In contrast, the speed of the Baby
Peugeot, the darling of the huge crowd,
with half the displacement, was 80.99 mph.
As for the works Peugeots, Boillot crashed on
the 141st lap and Goux finished fourth.
While the teams returned home, they left
the cars behind so that they were examined
in great detail by the engine builders of their
day. While not exactly copied, the design
influences lived on for more than 60 years,
the influence on the Miller/Offenhauser era in
particular being very apparent.
The regulations governing the Indy 500 did
a great deal to inspire the rapid development
of American racing equipment in the 1920s.
As displacement was cut from 300 ci (4916
cc) to 183 ci (2999 cc) and then to 91.5 ci
(1499 cc) it saw the advent of high-
compression engines, superchargers, four-
wheel hydraulic brakes, hydraulic shock
absorbers, low-pressure tyres and exotic fuels.
However, in something that resonates today,
the principal manufacturers one by one
withdrew from racing because of their
inability to compete successfully against the
engine specialists, particularly Harry Miller, the
Duesenberg brothers and Louis Chevrolets
Frontenac specials. Then there was the four-
cylinder Offenhauser developed from a
marine unit that came second in the 1930
race that was the basis of this companys
racing engine for the next 35 years.
INGENUITY
There were also the one-off attempts to break
the mould during this period. Miller, whose
engines won every Indianapolis race from
1930-1938 although he had sold the
business that bore his name in 1930 in
disgust at the rule change that allowed
production engines of up to 366 ci (6 litres)
produced a V16 and two four-wheel drive V8s
in this period, but they were not a success.
Inspired by the Auto Unions, another
revolutionary jump was in 1938 with the
rear-mounted Miller Gulf special whose 2950
cc six-cylinder engine inclined at 45 degrees
drove all four wheels via a four-speed
gearbox. Four cars were built, running at
Indy in 1939, 1940 and 1941, but they
never completed a race.
A few years later the Novi V8 featured four
overhead cams, a centrifugal blower and
was credited with 600 bhp. Then there was
the six-wheeled Pat Clancy special and the
front and rear-powered Twin Coach in
which the driver sat astride the
superchargers between two Miller 90 ci
four-cylinder Offenhauser midget engines
that were shoehorned into the chassis.
However, none of these were winners but it
was not for want of trying and the
opportunity to have a go due to the open
nature of the regulations.
Perhaps the greatest technology leap,
though, was the turbine car. While it is the
Pratt & Whitney-powered STP car that almost
won the race in 1967 but for a five cent
www.racetechmag.com
58
Over the years you created an edge
with the technology from various
supporting vendor groups
ABOVE & BELOW The turbine cars represented
one of the greatest technology leaps in the races
history. Parnelli Jones came so close to winning
the 1967 event with the STP-Granatelli car
gearbox failing with only 10 miles left to run,
it was not the first such car at the Speedway.
In 1955 an ancient Kurtis roadster sported a
Boeing 502 turbine for tyre tests although it
never raced and in 1962 Dan Gurney was
behind the wheel of the Trackburner,
another Boeing turbine car. Unfortunately his
qualifying speed of 145 mph was 1 mph too
slow to meet the required speed to qualify.
Undaunted by the failure at the last hurdle
in the 1967 race, STP boss Andy Granatelli
reached an agreement with Colin Chapman
of Lotus to fund the development of the
Lotus-Pratt & Whitney type 56. However, the
project was blighted for a number of
reasons. Firstly, in order to meet the new
regulations concerning turbines at Indy, two
of the three axial compressor stages
preceding the main centrifugal compressor
were removed, similar in effect to reducing a
piston engines compression from around
6.3:1 to only 4.9:1 so the power output fell
back to a 430 bhp baseline.
TURBINES LOSE OUT
Secondly, the Drake-Offenhauser engines
were now developing between 600-700 bhp.
However, the killer blow for the project was
the death of Mike Spence testing the car at
the Speedway just a few weeks before the
race. Following the death of Jimmy Clark the
month before in a Formula Two race in
Germany, it rocked Chapman to his very core.
He was quoted as saying at the time: I am
filled with grief at the loss of my long-time
friend and associate Jimmy Clark, and the
additional loss, just one month later to the
day, of Mike Spence. As an understandable
result I want nothing more to do with the
1968 Indianapolis race.
In the event all three cars failed to finish but
once again defeat was snatched from the jaws
of victory when the turbine on Leonards car
shut itself down while in the lead with just
nine laps left to run.
Technological advantage or not, perhaps
the most stylish way to win the Indy 500
was demonstrated by a Frenchman (of
course) in 1913. Works Peugeot driver Jules
Goux informed the pits during a pit stop
that there was to be a bottle of chilled white
wine waiting for him the next time he
pitted. After some protestation by the team
manager, Gouxs will prevailed. At the next
pit stop he was greeted with a bucket filled
with ice and six pints of champagne. He
went on to win the race.
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60
ABOVE & RIGHT The
race has a history of
innovation. Billy DeVore
drove the six-wheel Pat
Clancy Special to sixth
place in 1948 (above).
The rear-engined Lotus
29, driven by Dan
Gurney (pictured right,
car 93) and Jim Clark,
didnt win in 1963 but it
did signal the beginning
of the end for the
traditional Indy roadster
BELOW Winning in style:
Jules Goux at speed in
1913. The champagne
must have done wonders
for his bravery!
RT
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INDY 500 THE FUTURE
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62
FRESH START
WILL STOKE
MAY FEVER
I
TS SPRINGTIME in Indianapolis and
that always sparks the May fever in all
of us who love the Indy 500. After all,
Indy is still the biggest race in the world
and the largest single-day sporting event in
terms of attendance. Although its seen
many changes over the last 15 years, this
iconic event soldiers on because of its rich
history over the past 100 years. It thrives on
the good decisions and survives the not-so-
good ones. There is truly a very mystical
presence at this grand old race track.
Indianapolis is the undisputed Capitol of
Auto Racing and several statistics prove
this statement. The Indianapolis Motor
Speedway is the sole reason why this claim
can be made. The economic impact to the
local economy approaches one billion
dollars from the three events held at IMS:
the Indy 500; the Brickyard 400; and the
MotoGP race. Its the economic equivalent
of three NFL Superbowls each year.
Indiana is a state built on manufacturing
and with the IMS as the nucleus, both city
and state enjoy a very strong racing
industry with more than 1,700 racing-
related businesses. The state capital, which
boasts state-of-the-art composite, machine
and metal fabrication facilities and the ARC
wind tunnel and shaker rig, is home to
NHRA, ALMS, Grand-Am and the majority
of the IndyCar Racing League teams while
Sprint cars, Late Model and midgets
number in their thousands in the state.
The Indy 500 and IndyCar racing has a
huge effect on the local racing industry
and economy with many businesses relying
on the series for their primary source of
income. The race itself is like a magnet,
attracting racing colleagues and fans from
around the world, giving all of us in the
business an extended time to work with
teams and other vendors. As the series
grows with the excitement of a new chassis
and engine formula, as proposed for 2012,
the industry will grow and thrive with it.
While IRLs original decision to become a
spec series was made for sensible financial
reasons it led to an erosion of its fan base
over time due to the fact that by spurning
innovation, it was denying an element that
was very much part of its DNA. However,
there are signs that things are about to
change. In Randy Bernard, the new CEO, it
has a very dynamic person who may not
necessarily have a racing background but
who does have both a tremendous work
ethic and a willingness to consult with
experienced racers, listen, and then act.
Only time will tell whether he will be
successful but most of us have a good
feeling about his leadership.
The desire to introduce new regulations
for both the chassis and engine for 2012 is
very positive, to which various
manufacturers have responded. Existing
chassis supplier Dallara has already
submitted proposals, as have Lola from the
UK and Californian company Swift
Engineering. It has also attracted two new
entrants into the ring DeltaWing, as
reported in the March issue of Race Tech,
and BAT Engineering.
Seeing all the various chassis builders
Chris Paulsen argues that the future of the Indy
500 relies on technological innovation
ABOVE If the races aura is to be maintained,
technical innovation needs to be reintroduced. This
is DeltaWings proposed blueprint for the future
INDY 500
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63
ABOVE & BELOW The rich history of the Speedway is the
key to the Indy 500s near-mythical status. Contrast the
start of the 2009 race (above, photo: Jim Haines) with the
drivers preparation for one of the first races at Indianapolis,
in 1909 (Photos: Indianapolis Motor Speedway)
A serious change needs to take
place in terms of rejuvenating
innovation and becoming relevant
to todays automotive world
submit new designs is very exciting. We
also need competition among engines
from the automotive manufacturers. This
will bring money into the sport and create
excitement for the fans.
Looking at what may happen in regards
to the new rules package for 2012 has all
of us in the industry on the edge of our
seat. The one common agreement is that a
serious change needs to take place in terms
of rejuvenating innovation and becoming
relevant to the trends in todays
automotive world. The DeltaWing concept
certainly addresses these points. Its low
drag concept equates to high speeds being
achieved with a very low horsepower
requirement, which in turn leads to much
better fuel economy. Imagine a 500-mile
race being run at 230 mph and completed
using 50 gallons of fuel.
DeltaWing has also started a move to
build the entire chassis in Indiana, reaching
out to the state government and creating a
plan where funding will be in place for
companies that will build their chassis in
Indiana. After all, the resources are plentiful
in Indy to do this. Dallara, Lola and BAT
have all jumped on this bandwagon and
committed to manufacture their chassis in
the state while Swift is currently
manufacturing in California which still
keeps the revenue in the US. However,
there will be plenty of money spent
internationally with companies like Xtrac
and Alcon still likely to play a major role as
suppliers. Along with Dallara, they also
have facilities in the US.
BACK ON TOP
The excitement building around 2012
and the new car and engine package is
long overdue and very welcome but we
all are anxiously awaiting the direction
from the new leadership. The industry is
very supportive of Bernard and giving
him the backing he needs to be the new
leader but he must perform and make the
right decisions that put this series back
on top to the same level of success it saw
in the early to mid-90s. It is time to
bring innovation back into IndyCar and
put it on top. Something new and
exciting like the DeltaWing concept
would certainly do just that.
With the prospects of IndyCar racing
returning back to the cutting edge again,
it has to be said that this years race is
looking very strong and healthy, perhaps
the best it has been since the IRL/CART
split 15 years ago. Qualifying has been
revitalised with pole position being
decided by a new shoot-out format for
the top fastest cars while several cars will
be bumped during qualifying. There are a
number of drivers who have to be
considered potential winners, including
three times Indy 500 winner Helio
Castroneves, Penske team-mate Will Power
who has had two wins from three starts
this season, Chip Ganassi Racing drivers
Dario Franchitti and Scott Dixon, both of
whom have won the race, and Justin
Wilson. The race also has a reputation for
throwing up surprise winners and this year
looks no exception. RT
BELOW Sulzer Metcos SUMEBore
process, which can be applied to cast iron,
has found popularity in the NASCAR ranks
SPECIAL REPORT COATINGS
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64
F
OR A COUPLE of thousand years
before modern science mankind
became rather obsessed with the
subject of alchemy. Some of the greatest
thinkers of the day became bogged down
in the ultimately fruitless task of trying to
turn base metals into gold (although
some genuinely useful discoveries did also
come out of it). The actual task of turning
one elemental material into another,
though, turned out to be impossible
unless of course you happen to have a
nuclear reactor to hand, but even Formula
One budgets may struggle to
accommodate this at the moment. So, it
seems we need another way of making
the surface of one material behave like
another. Fortunately just such a technique
exists, and you wont need to don a
pointy hat or a wizards cloak.
The answer, of course, is to coat the
relevant surface with a material of the
desired property, be it thermal insulation,
wear-resistance or low-friction. There really
is little more to the principle of coating, but
the array of different materials and methods
is both bewildering and often extremely
sophisticated. New applications are being
found all the time, particularly now there is
an increasing emphasis on efficiency, and
the fields importance in motorsport is
constantly growing. This month in Special
Report we catch up with some of the
companies leading the charge.
CALICO
Our rundown of the industry begins with
Calico Technologies, based in Denver, North
Carolina. The company supplies extensively to
the motorsport industry with applications
ranging from dry lubricants and thermal
barriers to ultra-hard diamond-like carbon
(DLC) coatings. Vice president of R&D Bala
Kailasshankar gives us the lowdown: Friction
and thermal management continue to drive
coating and surface morphology
developments, but these days people are also
An ever-increasing number of applications are being found for
sophisticated surface coatings in motorsport. Chris Pickering reports
MOTORSPORTS
GOLD RUSH
Special Report.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:51 Page 1
ABOVE A stream of powder is fed into a jet of
plasma during the SUMEBore coating process
SPECIAL REPORT
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65
putting an increasing emphasis on reducing
contact pitting fatigue and longevity of parts
is also being looked at with greater attention.
Kailasshankar and his colleagues are
seeing an increasing number of applications
for thin vacuum coatings like diamond-like
carbon, which combine greatly reduced
friction properties with high wear
resistance. The thicker DLC coatings
designed for longer life (those greater than
5 m) have the inherent problem of a
higher quantum of residual stresses (in the
order of 2 to 3 GPa), which leads to
reduced adhesion, he explains. The various
solutions looked at to overcome this
problem include deposition of thin metal
interlayers to produce a continuous change
in thermal expansion coefficient, which
helps to reduce the stress in the films.
Other techniques include surface
implantation, chemical interlayer gradients,
variation of self bias voltage and use of
surface thermal treatments. Meanwhile,
different deposition parameters and
machinery configurations are also being
investigated in the search for faster
deposition rates.
Thats not the only change.
Atmospheric coatings of higher
thicknesses using chalcogenic solid
lubricant layered compounds are
increasingly used in combination, says
Kailasshankar. The compositions use finer
particle sizes (in the order of 1 m or less)
and bonding compositions with higher
operating temperatures are being looked
at for close-toleranced parts exhibiting
high localised heat.
Thermal management coatings are
considered as part of a material-coating
pair. More refractory materials like nickel
alloys, precipitation hardenable stainless
steels and ceramic matrix composites
(CMCs) will be candidate materials for
thermal management systems. CMCs have
a distinct advantage on the basis of
strength to weight ratio, comments
Kailasshankar. Air entrapped porous
coating with matching thermal expansion
coefficient to the substrate is the biggest
challenge for thermal barrier coatings.
Its not simply a question of applying a
coating, either. Surface morphology and
coatings go hand-in-hand for reduced
frictional losses, he says. Micro finishing
methods producing finishes better than
0.025 m Ra have been used for critical
parts like valves. More such processes can
be used for other high contact stress parts
to reduce contact pitting.
SULZER METCO
Swiss surface finishing specialist Sulzer
Metco is perhaps best known for its
SUMEBore process. The process, which is
used widely in motorsport and suitable for
any type of engine, is used to treat cylinder
bores in several distinct stages.
Firstly, the machined bores (supplied with
ca. 250 m oversize in diameter to allow for
the thickness of the coating) are cleaned to
remove any oil or grease. Next they are
subjected to a rotary grit blaster in a
stage known as activating the surface
which creates a rough finish that the
coating can adhere to. This is necessary
because there is no metallurgical bond
between the substrate and the coating; it is
purely a mechanical adhesion that therefore
requires a large surface area. The activation
can also be achieved with a high-pressure
water jet or a special spindling process.
Next a cleaning process is used to remove
any residue before the coating is finally
applied. This is done by feeding a stream of
powder (typically a mixture of around 70%
low alloyed carbon steel and 30%
molybdenum) into a jet of plasma, which is
fired by a rotating torch. The block remains
stationary while the torch rotates within it,
coating the inside of the bore, where the
mixture promptly flattens, cools and solidifies.
The process can be applied sequentially to
bores at opposite ends of the cylinder block
to prevent thermal distortion (for example,
cylinder one followed by cylinder eight and
so on), which is particularly useful for
aluminium engines. On some Formula
One blocks, which are very thin-walled, the
material heats up very quickly so we also
use forced cooling during the coating
application, explains Dr Ernst, the
companys head of automotive venture.
This is obviously more critical with
aluminium blocks than it is with cast iron,
which allows higher block temperatures to
occur without the risk of deteriorating the
mechanical properties. Once the full
coating thickness is applied to all cylinders
the surface is then honed to a mirror finish
using diamond stones, before finally being
checked with non-destructive testing.
One of the benefits of using powder as a
feedstock is that it opens up a huge number
of material options. Many plasma spray
processes work by feeding a wire stream into
the plasma, Dr Ernst explains. Ultimately, this
limits the coating materials to those which
can be built into the structure of a wire and
it can also impose handling restrictions
(some, for example, cant be wound onto a
spool). The SUMEBore approach, however,
works with practically anything thats
supplied as a powder and capable of being
melted, from pure metal, to metal matrix
composites right through to full ceramics,
such as TiO2 or Cr2O3, to name only a few.
Anything you want to use, we can do it,
quips Dr Ernst.
Any combination of powders can be
introduced to achieve the desired effects.
One example is the addition of
molybdenum, which is added in 30 to 50
per cent concentrations to reduce scuffing
and friction, and is applied to both iron and
Friction and thermal management
continue to drive coating and
surface morphology developments
aluminium blocks. In order to increase bore
hardness and reduce wear, non-abrasive
ceramic particles are added, typically up to
35 per cent by mass. Meanwhile as much
as 30 per cent chrome can be added to
reduce corrosion problems, something
which has proved particularly popular with
manufacturers using alternative fuels.
Whatever the coating material, the
process itself is also claimed to have an
inherent advantage. The spray process
inevitably leads to a degree of porosity in
the finished coating, with around two to
three per cent of the volume taken up by
microscopic voids. When the bore is honed
some of these pores (typically 10 to 20
micrometers in diameter) are exposed,
leaving pockets on the surface for the oil to
enter. We believe this structure leads to
inherently low friction and reduced oil
consumption, notes Dr Ernst.
The overall process is extremely adaptable
and can also be handled in various
locations. Sulzer Metco offers the service at
both its Swiss and US facilities and it can be
tailored to just about any material type or
block configuration. It also has an
arrangement with Capricorn Automotive (as
featured in this article), which can provide
specialist honing facilities as well as shipping
from treatment in Switzerland. Meanwhile,
the companys preferred partner for honing
services in the US is SUNNEN.
CAPRICORN
Capricorn Automotives UK division built its
name around cylinder bore honing and
finishing. As a result its engineers know a
thing or two about the use of coating
techniques on cylinder bores.
One of the services offered by the company
is nickel ceramic coating. Its an electrolytic
process that has been widely used as a
cylinder bore coating since the 1970s.
Initially it was developed to allow rotary
engine rotors to work directly against the
aluminium housing, but these days the
applications are far more universal.
The coatings are applied using an electrolytic
nickel solution which has silicon carbide
suspended within it. The composition is
typically around 10 per cent silicon carbide
and the particle size is sub 10 microns.
According to Capricorn the use of an
electrolytic process (as opposed to electroless
coating, performed without an electric
current) means the parts can be processed
to the same standard much more quickly.
The thickness of the coating depends on
the length of time the part is treated and
the current applied, but both can be
tailored to the customers requirements.
The process typically takes approximately
one to two hours from start to finish with
various pre-treatments being required
depending on the material being coated,
explains Capricorn Automotives managing
director Martin Keswick. Once parts have
been coated we diamond hone the hard
nickel ceramic surface to give a typical
finished coating thickness of between
0.070-0.090 mm.
Capricorn uses nickel ceramic as a bore
surface coating on its range of aluminium
and steel liners. Whats more, it also uses
the material as a direct bore coating on
aluminium engine blocks. Weve
developed our own specially formulated
pre-treatment process and apply the
coating under very strict controls, says
Keswick. This ensures that plating solutions
are maintained to optimum standards. The
nickel ceramic coating has a minimum
hardness value of 500 Hv, he explains,
which gives good wear resistance and low
www.racetechmag.com
66
We diamond hone the hard nickel
ceramic surface to give a typical finished
coating thickness of 0.070-0.090 mm
ABOVE & BELOW Capricorns nickel
ceramic cylinder bore coating is applied
through an electrolytic process
friction characteristics. It remains an
aluminium-only process, however: nickel
ceramic is not applied to cast iron engine
blocks as the impurities in iron can result in
poor adhesion of the coating to the surface.
Being able to deliver high-quality parts to
strict tolerances with a relatively short lead
time is a crucial benefit when working in an
industry like motorsport, Keswick
concludes. Using electrolytic nickel
ceramic coatings can be a major advantage
because of this.
PRECOTE
The idea of coatings in motorsport may
tend to conjure up images of hard
substances like DLCs, but look a little
further and youll notice a whole field of
coating technology thats been going for
decades. The idea of applying coatings to
threaded fasteners is by no means a new
one indeed our next company has been
doing it for decades but it is an area of
huge potential.
Munich-based omniTECHNIK
Mikroverkapselungs GmbH is perhaps
better known by its Precote brand name.
The company designs and produces pre-
applicable reactive and non-reactive
coatings for fasteners, designed to improve
functions such as sealing, bonding,
chemical locking and anti-galling.
First up is Precote 85, a high-strength pre-
applied thread locking coating. Its reactive
ingredients use the companys patented
micro encapsulation technology and are
integrated into a binder-like resin for
application to screw threads. It dries to a
solvent-free non-tacky coating, explains
Axel Hertneck, the companys head of sales
and application technology.
Upon assembly into a mating thread there
is an immediate sealing effect. The screwing
action causes the micro capsules in the
coating to shear, thus releasing the reactive
components and initiating the
polymerisation.
Because of its excellent and constant
thread friction values Precote 85 is
especially useful in high tensile applications
where torque/tension control is an essential
part of the assembly process, Hertneck
claims. It also has excellent temperature
resistance, retaining substantial disassembly
torque values at up to 170C and its fully
compliant with all major standards and
automotive specifications.
High-temperature applications
can prove a particular challenge
to thread coating companies.
The materials traditionally used
in high-temperature
threaded applications are
often associated with
problems such as galling,
seizing and high friction. These
features are difficult enough to overcome
during the initial assembly, but after heat
the ageing phenomenon is accentuated yet
further. It can become a real problem for
servicing, often culminating in thread-
stripping fastener rupture, notes Hertneck.
The companys response was Precote 709,
a pre-applied anti-seize film for threaded
assemblies used in high-temperature
applications. Its said to have excellent
friction values (0.09/0.13) as well as an
inherent lubricant effect, while also
operating at temperatures of up to 850C.
It can be applied either to a specific portion
of a thread using automatic equipment
such as the firms patented CS unit, or it
can be applied as a dipspin coating. This
method is particularly useful for nuts or
hollow parts, explains Hertneck, and it
also allows for easy application under the
heads or flanges of fasteners.
ZIRCOTEC
2010 has had a busy start for coatings
specialist Zircotec. The Oxfordshire, UK-
based firm is in the process of moving to a
new, larger facility in Abingdon, in part to
cope with an expanding range of coatings.
The new centre will house three spray
booths including a robotised sprayer for
higher volume applications.
We are now supplying half of the F1
grid, says sales director Peter Whyman.
Regulation changes have seen demand
increase for thermal management
solutions in 2010 and not just for
exhausts. Whyman cites the refuelling ban
as a key reason. We understand there is
10 per cent more energy going through
the braking system this year, yet brake disc
thickness remains at 28 mm, he explains.
The teams use coatings to manage the
higher temperatures in the ducting and
brake components and we have been able
to assist them in optimising packaging
which helps weight distribution. The
refuelling ban has led to the larger tanks,
and Zircotec claims to have a solution here
too. With around 235 litres, tank sizes
have grown, making packaging more
www.racetechmag.com
68
BELOW The Precote range is
designed to improve functions
such as sealing, bonding,
chemical locking and anti-galling
ABOVE
An illustration of the
applications of Zircotec
coatings in a GT1 car
T
HE 2008/2009 Formula One season has been
one of the hardest fought of recent years. The
author looks closely at the various phases of
development carried out by all the teams during the
season. This book has now become a literary classic
devoted to the fascinating world of Formula One.
The book is available from This book is available
from Racecaar Graphic Ltd at 25.00 + P&P,
33.00+ P&P, US$39.00 + P&P. Send your order to:
Racecar Graphic Ltd, 841 High Road, London N12
8PT, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 8446 2100, Fax +44 (0)20
8446 2191, or email info@racetechmag.com We take
Visa, Mastercard, American Express, Switch and Delta.
FORMULA 1 2008/2009
BY GIORGIO PIOLA
www.racetechmag.com
N
E
W
!
www.racetechmag.com
70
challenging, says Whyman. Our
ZircoFlex foil, just 0.25 mm thick, is easily
applied to fuel bladders, protecting them
from heat sources.
Away from thermal management, Zircotec
is also actively developing its anti-abrasion
and anti-wear coatings. The company
previewed some samples at the Autosport
Show earlier this year, including stainless
steel, tungsten and molybdenum coating.
The latter provides a thin hard-wearing
surface that can be applied to composites to
reduce abrasion and increase service life.
Whyman is coy on where the F1 teams are
using Zircotecs technology but confirms
that a GT team is assessing it for front
splitters. The GT application is driven by an
opportunity to reduce costs, he explains.
Meanwhile, other metallic coatings from the
company include a reflective aluminium
surface that can be applied to composites
where radiant heat is a problem. Its surface
can be highly polished after spraying and
offers a durable finish that can be applied to
intricate surfaces.
REM SURFACE ENGINEERING
Although not strictly a coating company,
REM Surface Engineering is the inventor of
what it calls isotropic super finishing,
otherwise known as ISF. This physical
process is claimed to greatly reduce the
surface wear on treated components, with
similar end results to some coatings.
It works by removing the microscopic
peaks and troughs that might otherwise
lead to stress concentrations on the
surface of a component. The part is
placed in a vibrating bowl, containing a
chemical solution and high density
ceramic particles which are used to
control its exposure. The solution softens
the top layer until the rubbing action of
the particles removes it. This process is
then repeated to create an extremely
smooth finish, before a second fluid is
added to neutralise the initial solution and
polish the surface of the part.
Applying REMs revolutionary ISF
Process to motorsport components results
in faster, more efficient vehicles that win
races as well as parts that last considerably
longer than standard OEM components,
claims Justin Michaud, REMs director of
operations. It produces a smooth, micro-
textured surface that can be applied to a
variety of motorsports components from
transmission gears and camshafts to
clutch hardware and tappets. The
claimed benefits include extended
component life, reduced friction and
lower operating temperatures.
BEKAERT
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings have
become a familiar ingredient in racing
drivetrains. These extremely hard, low-friction
materials typically have a polished black
appearance and can be found in applications
such as camshaft running surfaces and piston
rings. One company thats become known
for its range of DLC coatings is Belgian
materials specialist Bekaert.
The company delivers what it refers to as
a one-stop service from surface
preparation (in-house superfinishing and
tribofinishing) to coating application and
traceability. The coating itself is applied in
several stages using a plasma-assisted
chemical vapour deposition (PACVD)
procedure in an evacuated chamber.
Typically an adhesion layer something
designed to bond well to the substrate
material is applied first, before a middle
transition layer, and then finally the
functional carbon layer. The atomic
structure of this carbon top layer could
best be described as halfway between
diamond and graphite, hence the tag
diamond-like carbon.
Late last year Bekaert launched the
Cavidur HT and the Cavidur D DLC
coatings for the American market. Cavidur
HT is designed as an alternative to
chromium nitride coatings for high
temperature applications, such as exhaust
valves. Cavidur D, meanwhile, is pitched as
a more affordable version of the firms
existing Cavidur N coating, and uses the
same three-layer structure. Remaining
Stateside, the company is also planning the
installation of a microfinishing machine in
its North American facility, which will allow
it to offer pre-coating treatments for
components such as camshafts.
ABOVE A differential gear cluster treated in
REMs isotropic super finishing process
RIGHT A valve
coated by materials
specialist Bekaert
RT
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TRANSIENT
SUCCESS!
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TECHNICAL
KNOCKOUT
HOW BAR-HONDA
FLOORED ITS BIG
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INDY SPECIAL
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ENGINEERING BUDDY
RICE TO POLE POSITION
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Racetech MEDIA 2010 (definitive).qxd:SECTION 1(2-82) RET 010.qxd 30/4/10 21:31 Page 6
PRACTICAL RACER 750FORMULA BUILD PROJECT
www.racetechmag.com
74
Front wishbones are on the agenda as Graham Templeman
and Rod Hill embark on their T5 750Formula build programme
LIGHTS,
CAMERA,
ACTION!
T
HIS WAS all supposed to be quite straightforward. After
the big were building another racing car announcement,
it seemed like a good idea to do something that involved
cutting metal and sticking it back together again. Nothing too
demanding in terms of research or design, just quality time spent
in the workshop.
That was until we realised that we would need to buy some tube
and that all the suppliers seem to insist on a minimum order
charge. So it made sense to place an order for the material for the
whole chassis while we were at it and that involved some
measuring up so that we knew how much and what sizes to buy.
It took a few hours to commit the front part of the frame to
CAD. Now we know that there are 45 individual tubes in the front
with a total length of about 25 metres (82 feet) and if we make it
out of mainly 22 mm square, electrical resistance welded (ERW)
mild steel tube with a wall thickness of 1.22 mm, the front part
will weigh 19.6 kg (43 lbs).
SQUARE TUBE vs ROUND TUBE
SIZE ROUND TUBE SQUARE TUBE
Weight Index Weight Index
20 mm x 1.22 mm 13.2 kg 100 17.4 kg 131
20 mm x 1.5 mm 16.9 kg 128 21.5 kg 162
20 mm x 2 mm 21.9 kg 166 27.9 kg 211
22 mm x 1.22 mm 15.2 kg 100 19.6 kg 148
22 mm x 1.5 mm 18.7 kg 123 24.2 kg 183
22 mm x 2 mm 24.4 kg 160 31.6 kg 239
The table shows the effect of different sizes and sections of tube. It is
self-evident that the round tube will weigh less than square, but it is
interesting to see the weight penalty quantified. The heaviest option,
2 mm wall, 22 mm square tube would weigh 2.4 times as much as
the lightest 20 mm round tube with 1.22 mm wall thickness. Opting
for square over round brings a weight penalty of around 30% size for
size. On the other hand, square sections are stiffer since more of the
material is further from the centre line.
It would take a detailed analysis to work out the strengths of a
frame constructed from the various options and to evaluate the
strength to weight payoffs, but since our objective is to get it built
we will be influenced by the following factors. One is that the
existing chassis is adequately stiff and not significantly heavier than
its competitors. The other factor is that the current chassis was built
under the old regulations that demanded the use of two two-inch
square tube chassis rails and so the frame is based on two car-
length pieces of this size. The rules have now changed so these
need not be included. That leads us to changing the lower chassis
rails which gets in the way of our initial aspiration of copying the
old chassis tube for tube. So since the tube lengths are changing,
so could the section and thickness.
The original was constructed from mainly 19 mm (3/4-inch) square
with 1.6 mm (the old British 16 gauge) wall thickness. The intention
with the new frame is to increase the size to 22 mm and reduce the
wall thickness to 1.22 mm (18 gauge in real money). But, since
experience shows that, in order to avoid cracks, tubes that have loads
fed in to them need to be of thicker gauge than those that dont,
these will be 22 mm by 1.5 mm. Going back to our 45-tube list and
using 1.22 and 1.5 mm wall thickness where appropriate, gives us a
predicted weight of 22 kg. Round tube was never a serious option
because the extra complication in cutting and shaping even the
simplest joint would compromise the build time.
This was an interesting diversion that was necessary in order to be
able to order the steel for the wishbones. But, as always, there was a
problem arising from our intention to use some form of aerodynamic
tube. The options were:
Proper aero tube from an aircraft component supplier such as
Aircraft Spruce.
Elliptical oval tube offered by most UK steel stock holders.
Flat oval tube which is readily available from most suppliers.
Practical Racer-F750.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 01:55 Page 1
PRACTICAL RACER
www.racetechmag.com
75
BELOW The finished
components
representing about
four man-days of work
Aircraft tubing fell out of the running
when one website mentioned a price of
34 per foot. Whether that was dollars or
pounds was not even considered.
Elliptical oval would have been great
according to my airfoil analysis program
it offered an almost identical level of drag
to the proper aero stuff. The drawback
was that more companies listed the stuff
than sold it. A suitable bulk order would
have got us what we wanted and an
awful lot left over to sell on to anyone
interested. That left flat oval which is
readily available and used on a wide
range of professionally built cars.
Before the decision could be made, Rod
had taken matters into his own hands
and had decided to make his own aero
tubing. This was not a total surprise since
the T4 featured flat oval tube that had
been converted from round tube by the
simple expedient of flattening it over a
die in a small hydraulic press. Before you
complain about the crudeness of the
process and the risks involved in
overstressing the material, bear in mind
that these wishbones have done 12 races
per season for 12 years and enjoyed their
fair share of contact and grass cutting
without a single failure.
Now he wanted to try a more
sophisticated technique this time the
round tube was to be drawn over a
mandrel. The scheme went something
like this: take a short length of steel, give
it an elliptical cross section and pull it
LEFT The tool used to
convert round tube to
elliptical showing the die
(top left) and the end
stop and thrust bearing
that allow the nut to pull
it through the round tube
through the tube using a length of
threaded bar and a nut. The results were
spectacular. After a bit of experimentation
which showed up the need for a thrust
bearing under the draw nut and the need
for lashings of grease on the die and the
thread, we managed to create a very fair
imitation of the elliptical oval that the
suppliers would not supply and in a size
that we wanted and that was not listed.
It is a sign of a successful experiment
by gently reheating to about 300 degrees
C. This is best done in a tray of sand on
the kitchen cooker when your significant
other is significantly otherwise engaged.
Put enough sand to cover the part on to
a small tin tray and put it on the heat.
The sand is to ensure the heat is applied
slowly and evenly but it obscures your
view of what is going on. You rely on the
oxidisation phenomenon that sends
motor cycle exhaust pipes blue so you
will need to uncover a part of the die to
let the air in and allow you to judge
when the colour has reached a nice rich
blue. Then remove the heat and wait for
it to cool.
This will have tempered the metal so
that when used, it will not shatter. The
various colours that appear indicate the
temperature and the temper. The metal
goes through various shades from light
straw through browns and deep purple to
blue. At the light straw (low temperature)
end of the scale the process results in a
very sharp but brittle tool (use it for
scribers); brown will make cutting tools
and by the time the deeper colours have
been reached, you have softened the tool
enough to be used as a metal cutting
chisel or a spring. As things turned out,
high carbon steel was not needed and the
mild steel tooling did the job.
More sensible people would go out and
buy tube that suits their aspirations and
budget. In fact this whole do-it-yourself
aero tube should probably carry the now
traditional warning of Dont try this at
home, children. Also by now you should
be beginning to realise the primary
objective of getting the thing built is
modified somewhat whenever there is
the chance to spend an afternoon playing
with the toys!
Once we have the tube, we need some
that the initial test rig is used to complete
the process without the need to build
proper production equipment. Rod
started with a mild steel die cobbled up
from some strips of scrap steel welded
together and if this worked had intended
to make the proper die from a piece of
carbon steel. The results were so good
that in the end the proper steel tooling
was never made.
The plan had been to use an old file to
provide cheap, high carbon steel. This
process involves finding a suitable file,
softening it by heating it to a bright
cherry red and leaving it to cool very
slowly. Oxy acetylene provides the heat
and the cooling should be done away
from any draughts. Grandfather used to
do this by putting the file in the kitchen
fire after dinner so that it got red hot and
leaving it to cool in the ashes overnight.
Once softened it can be filed to shape to
create the die and adapted to allow the
threaded bar to be welded on.
Re-hardening involves reheating to a
bright red and cooling rapidly in a
bucket of water or used engine oil. If you
use the oil-cooling method, do it outside
and be prepared to deal with a small
flash fire. The tool is now dead hard and
would chip as soon as it was put to work.
So the next step is to temper the metal
www.racetechmag.com
76
ABOVE & BELOW The wishbone jig with the bushes
already bolted in (above). The markings for the upper
wishbone can also be seen. Below, the tubes are
marked out and cut and filed carefully to shape
ABOVE Fitting the tube to the
threaded bush. A good fit is
essential for a successful weld
Tempering the metal is best done in
a tray of sand on the kitchen cooker
when your significant other is
significantly otherwise engaged
Bernoulli is a quarterly journal that explores in unprecedented depth
the theory and practice of road and race car aerodynamics. Its incisive
content includes road and race car aero design and development
studies and insights into wind tunnel design and operation, the use of
CFD and on-track aero testing techniques.
Clearly, Bernoulli is essential reading for all involved in the operation of
wind tunnels, wind tunnel developers and suppliers of rolling roads,
instrumentation and flow visualisation technology. It is equally vital for
model makers and testing service providers and for suppliers of CFD
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Above all, this unique publication is essential reading for everyone
involved in optimising the performance of road and race cars, from
design right through to the actual competitive events.
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UNF thread. As with all the components
used on the front suspension, this
ensures interchangeability of parts. A
new build would probably be well
advised to use 10 mm bearings. The
sizing is generous, evidenced by the fact
that the original bearings have served
their 12 years and are still perfectly OK.
It is likely that 5/16-inch (8 mm) joints
could have been used, but this is a case
where a decent margin of safety costs
very little extra cash or weight.
At the outer end, things are more
complex, although they do not need to
be. For the top outboard joint (7/16 bore
and 7/16 UNF shank) there is a threaded
bush but with a concentric plain hole.
The rod-end joint is screwed into the
bush and a sleeve nut slides into the plain
hole to act as a locknut for the rod-end
joint. This limits the adjustment to a half-
turn of the rod-end at a time but this is
OK since the bottom variant provides for
the fine adjustment. The bottom
arrangement is similar. The rod-end joint
is bigger (1/2 bore, 1/2 UNF thread) to
reflect the extra loads seen by the lower
wishbone in general and the outer end in
www.racetechmag.com
78
hardware to enable it to carry our choice
of bearings. We are using rod-end
bearings all round because they are a
simple, effective way of articulating the
suspension. The alternative would be to
use nylon bushes at the inboard end, but
this would mean that the bores of these
bushes would need to be absolutely in
line with each other or they would bind
up and add unwanted stiction into the
movement. At the outer end, a spherical
joint is a much more satisfactory method
but needs a specially machined housing.
The photo shows the hardware that we
made. It is firmly rooted in 1980s
Formula Ford technology but an easy
afternoons work on the lathe. Simple
threaded bushes (eight of them) provide
the location for the rod ends at the
inboard end of the wishbones. The
chosen size has a 3/8 bore with a 3/8
LEFT The aero tube
had to be reshaped to
accept the cylindrical
bush. This was done
with a series of
tapered drifts
ABOVE The finished components are
fitted to the jig and tack welded. Note the
packing to raise them to the right height
and the weights to keep them in place
Opting for square tube over
round brings a weight penalty
of around 30% size for size
particular but the main bush has no thread in it. The rod-end is
held and adjusted by an outer lock nut and the threaded sleeve-
nut. These enable fine adjustment of the joint and the camber.
Not quite in the modern mode of a stack of machined shims,
but more appropriate to the accuracy with which we will are
able to fabricate.
If you dont have access to a lathe, some suppliers will provide
threaded bushes sized for the rod-end and to fit into nominal
tubing sizes. So you can buy for instance a bush that takes an
M10 thread and fits into 25 mm (1 inch) tube. A friend in the
UK uses an ebay trader (McGill Motorsport) who also sells round
housings complete with a circlip housing for spherical bearings.
A more upmarket solution is to buy ready-machined housings
with tabs designed to fit into aero tubing. Amongst the UK
hillclimbing fraternity, Nick Skidmores name gets mentioned
frequently as a suitable supplier.
The actual construction takes place using a simple jig made up
of a solid base (a thick piece of kitchen worktop in our case)
and three pieces of angle iron. These are fitted to the base to
provide mounting points for the wishbone fittings. A jig is not
essential but it makes life easier and speeds up the process of
making replacements should they ever be needed. The diagram
should enable you to make your own jig if you decide to do so.
The distances shown in the table are between the centres of the
locating holes in the pieces of angle iron. The line BX is
perpendicular to AC.
Dimension Top Wishbone Bottom Wishbone
AB 420 mm 430 mm
AC 446 mm 496 mm
BC 342 mm 454 mm
AX 158 mm 231 mm
A careful look at the photographs should explain more than
my words can. The jig will need to be modified if you decide to
use something other than rod-end bearings so if you do decide
to plough your own furrow, you would be well advised to wait
until the next instalment in case you need to reconsider in the
light of the upright design.
Next time we will look in more detail at the kinematics of the
suspension and the manufacture of the uprights.
PRACTICAL RACER
www.racetechmag.com
79
ABOVE The wishbone is then returned to
the jig so that the pushrod tabs can be
fitted. The square bar is bolted between
the tabs to locate them in the right position
ABOVE After tacking, the
wishbone is removed from the
jig and the welding completed
RT
80 www.racetechmag.com May 2010
www.racetechmag.com
80
RED RACE EQUIPMENT DIGEST
Edited by Chris Pickering
MoTeC HAS unveiled a new evolution of its
Sport Dash Logger. The SDL3 is a fully
programmable display, controller and data
logger aimed at serious amateur racers as
well as the more affordable end of the
professional market. It features a flexible
architecture that allows users to configure it
to their requirements. Those with
considerable data requirements can opt for
maximum memory from the outset, while
teams with no immediate need for data
logging can purchase the dash as a display-
only unit then enable logging later if desired.
The screen layout is configurable via
MoTeCs SDL3 Dash Manager software,
which offers separate pages for practice,
warm-up and race sessions so drivers can
choose the most relevant parameters to
display during each instance. Data analysis,
meanwhile, is provided by MoTeCs i2
Standard analysis software.
The SDL3 features no less than two
independent CAN buses. These not only
allow the integral logger to pick up CAN data
signals, but also let the SDL3 communicate
with other MoTeC accessories such as ECUs,
beacons and power distribution modules.
The two buses feature independently
selectable baud rates, catering for installations
where devices communicate at different
speeds. This means that if data needs to be
exchanged between MoTeC devices at one
speed and third party systems at another, for
example, the SDL3 can act as a central hub.
It also helps to spread the load when the
CAN bus demands exceed the available
bandwidth of a single bus. Over 300
channels can be derived from a mixture of
analogue and digital inputs at up to 500Hz,
as well as RS232 and CAN data channels. The
unit also has the provision for up to 48 user-
defined warning alarms and features an
Ethernet connection for rapid downloads.
EVOLUTION OF THE SPECIES
EVER WONDERED how drag racers get such traction for the
incredible sprint times they record? The answer lies partly
with the traction compounds used to coat the road surface,
and one such product is VP Racing Fuels Lane Choice 7
(LC7). The latest compound in the LC line is intended to
provide a universal traction compound for all conditions. As
well as maintaining performance in hot conditions LC7 has
been formulated specifically to improve upon the existing
compounds cold weather performance.
I found that a couple of tracks were mixing our LC6
product with another compound to get the required adhesion
they liked how LC6 worked in the heat but they were
worried about it in the cold, explains Jason Rueckert,
director of motorsport, VP Racing Fuels. After consulting with
the companys chemists the decision was taken to remove
some of the resin and add some more adhesive. The result is
what has become known as LC7. It replaces LC6 Cold and is
expected to take over from LC6 in due course.
LC7 PROMISES IMPROVED COLD WEATHER PERFORMANCE
RT
RT
RED 115.qxd:Racetech.qxd 30/4/10 13:50 Page 1
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in fact, all who seek knowledge of the art
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MOTOTECH MEDIA.qxd:SECTION 1(2-82) RET 010.qxd 29/1/10 10:57 Page 1
82 www.racetechmag.com May 2010
www.racetechmag.com
82
RED RACE EQUIPMENT DIGEST
AUTO-BLIP ON THE RADAR
NOT SO long ago we featured a sneak
preview of Penny+Giles new NRH280DP
contactless rotary position sensor. Well it
seems the finished product is now upon us.
As per the prototypes it uses Hall Effect
technology (like many position sensors) but
removes the magnet from the sensor
altogether and places it externally. This
means there can be an air gap of up to
7mm between the two and they can be up
to 2mm off-centre with no contacting parts
to wear out. In practical terms it means you
could, for example, embed the magnet in a
gearbox shaft and position the sensor on
the outside of a (non-magnetic) casing.
Designed for use in extreme conditions,
the NRH280DP is sealed to IP69K and
boasts an operational temperature range
extending from -40 to +140C. Its already
found use in Formula One, as well as
applications as diverse as the tip control on
dumper trucks and the 4-wheel steering
system on road sweeping vehicles.
The design allows engineers to configure a
wide selection of parameters including
measurement range and direction. This also
allows the two channels to be configured
individually so, for example, the sensor can
be configured so that one signal can be
used in a control function while the other is
used for position monitoring or display
purposes. Similarly, its two outputs can be
used for error checking.
To ease configuration, NRH280DP is
available with analogue (0.5 to 4.5Vdc) or
digital (PWM) signal outputs as standard,
but it can also be factory programmed to
offer 0.1 to 4.9Vdc output range, matching
the equivalent signals from a potentiometer.
It also features electromagnetic immunity to
100V/m and has a maximum output signal
noise of less than 1mV. This, claims the
company, means that no additional signal
filtering is required on the output signal.
NEW SENSOR BREAKS COVER
RT
ELECTRONIC GEAR shift specialist Pro-
Shift has recently unveiled an accelerator
pedal mounted auto-blip system. The unit
physically activates the cars accelerator
pedal with a solenoid to replicate
traditional heelntoeing. And, while this
may sound like an unconventional
approach in the era of fly-by-wire throttles,
its not alone; there are a variety of auto-
blip systems out there already.
The existing auto-blip systems tend to
work on a vacuum system however; using a
diaphragm powered by the depression
generated in the inlet manifold to activate
the throttle valve directly. Pro-Shift argues
that these systems only offer a limited
throttle opening and arent suitable for
engines with high idle speeds or those
using turbocharging. The company also
claims that the need to mount vacuum
systems in the harsh environment of the
engine bay also creates packaging issues
and makes them prone to failure. Instead
Pro-Shifts system mounts in front of the
pedal box and its solenoid activation allows
for 16mm of travel even before it goes
through the leverage of the pedal assembly.
The companys PS3 paddleshift system
does support conventional fly-by-wire
throttle blipping, but the auto-blip
system is pitched as an alternative that
doesnt rely on a compatible engine
management system. Its thought to be
the first time an auto-blip system has
been designed to operate directly onto
the throttle pedal and Pro-Shift has high
hopes for the design, which it is currently
in the process of patenting.
RT
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