Biology Revision Sheet: Chapter 1: Living organisms are classified into 5 major groups called kingdoms: Animalia (eukaryotic),

Plantea (eukaryotic), Fungi (eukaryotic), Protista - unicelullar (eukaryotic), Prokaryotic Bacteria unicellular and lack the nucleus( Two domains: Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) Order of classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) All living things have certain characteristics. Living things are called organisms. Movement - causes an organism to change its position or place. Plants move their leaves and stems towards the sunlight to get as much light as possible. Respiration - involves chemical reactions that release energy in cells Sensitivity - being able to detect and respond to stimuli (changes in the environment surrounding an organism). Animals have sensory cells and sense organs for detecting light, sound,... Growth - permanent increase in size and mass, involves making more complex chemicals such as proteins. Reproduction - produce offsprings or results in the formation of new individuals. Asexual reproduction is one parent giving rise to offsprings that are often identical to each other and to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves two parents produce gametes which fuse to rise an offspring. The offspring shows variation (differences). Excretion - the removal of waste chemicals made in the cells during metabolism e.g they exhale CO2 (from respiration) and they urinate (ejection of urine). Nutrition - involves the use of food for energy, growth and repair. Nutrients are compound that may be large (e.g carbohydrates) or simple (e.g mineral ions) The genus is a group of species that are closely related, but do not interbreed with each other. A species is a group of individuals that look alike. They live in the same habitat and breed together to give offspring which are fertile. The binomial system: The binomial system was first deisgned by Carl Linnaeus, is the "two-named" system. It is the genus and the specie name (trivial) of an animal or we can say the generic name and the specific name. Example: Suricata suricatta (meerkat), human (homosapiens) Invertebrates: animals that do not have a veterbral column or backbone Phyla of invertebrates: Nematodes/roundworms: a group of worms that have thread like bodies that taper at mouth and anus. They have no heads and no legs. Bodies are not made up of segments. Tiny. Live in soil and water. Some species are parasites means they live inside another animal as the host. Annelids: worms that have soft bodies made up of segments. Have paddle-like extensions for moving. Have chaetae or bristles for making contact with mud and soils. When they burrow through soil, they have pointed front end for moving and make mucus as lubricant. Most species live in the sea and some live soil and freshwater. Molluscs: have soft bodies that are not segmented. Have muscular foot for burrowing or movement. Many species have 1 or 2 shells for protection (e.g snail) - they can retreat inside the shell if a predator is close by or avoid excessive water loss. Octopus does not have shell.\ Arthropod: The largest phylum in the animal kingdom. An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton (external skeleton), a segmented body, and jointed appendages (external body part that protrudes from an organism's body). Arthropod classes: Crustaceans: body divided into a cephalothorax (head-thorax) and abdomen. Many have chalky exoskeleton that provides a very effective protection against predators. Have 2 pairs of antennae and compound eyes. Have 5-20 legs. Breath using gills. Nearly all live in water. Examples: crab, woodlice.

6) 7)

Myriapods: centipedes and millipedes. Have long segmented bodies and not divided into separate regions. Centipedes: 1 pair of legs each segment, fast-moving carnivores, have powerful jaws to paralyse their preys. Millipedes: 2 pairs of legs each segment, slow-moving herbivore, they feed in leaf litter. Insects: the largest arthropod group. Bodies divided into three parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. 3 pairs of legs on the thorax and many species have 2 pairs of wings. Have 1 pair of antennae on the head. Compound eyes made of tiny individual components. Breath through holes inside the thorax and abdomen called spiracles. They colonize most habitats, but very few species live in the sea. Success on land: covered with waterproof cuticle to prevent water loss, they can fly. Example: butterfly, cockroach. Arachnids: bodies divided into 2 parts: cephalothorax and abdomen. Have 4 pairs of legs and no wings. No antennae. Have several pairs of simple eyes. They paralyse their prey with poison fangs. Spiders - weave silken webs with their spinnerets. Example: scorpion. Vertebrates: animals that have the veterbral column or backbone. All vertebrates have an internal skeleton made of either bone or cartilage. Phylum chordata: Chordates are animals which are either vertebrates or one of several closely related invertebrates. Vertebrate Classes: Fish: live in water permanently, but some species can survive out of water such as mud skipper. Fish are streamlined and have fins for swimming and for balance. Have eyes and a lateral line for detecting pressure changes in water. They breathe dissolved oxygen from the water using their gills. Skin is covered with scales. Example: tuna. Other vertebrates have ears for detecting sound and four limbs. Amphibians: have smooth, moist skin. Most live on land but return to water to breed. Fertilisation is external since gametes are released into the water. Development is external - eggs hatched into offsprings that have gills for breathing. On land, adult amphibians breathe using lungs, in water they breath through their skin. Examples: salamander, frog. Reptiles: have dry and scaly skin to cut down water loss. They can live in dry regions since they dont have to return to water to breed. Fertilisation is internal, but developmennt is external as they lay eggs with leathery and water proof shell. They have lungs to breathe air. Example: Snake, crocodile. Birds: have feathers and front limbs (wings). Most are able to fly, except for penguins and ostriches. Have no teeth. Fertilisation is internal and development is external (female lays eggs protected by shells). They are homeothermic (warmblooded)-able to regulate temperature and keep it constant. Example: hawk, eagle. Mammals: have hair or fur. Both fertilisation and development are internal. Female mammals suckle their young on milk from mammary glands. All mammals even aquatic mammals use lungs for breathing. Mammals are homeothermic maintain constant internal temperature. Example: dolphin. Microorganisms: Many species of bacteria and fungi break down dead and decaying material. These are called decomposers. Microbes that cause disease are called pathogens. Bacteria: simple cell structure, shape: spherical or rod-shaped, exist in short chains of cells, size: a few micrometers, seen by light and electron microscopes, cells are surrounded by cell walls, some species have cells surrounded by slime capsule, no nucleus - just a loop of DNA within the cytoplasm; additional loops of DNA are called plasmids, dont have chloroplast or mitochondria, have flagella for moving through fluids, they are found everywhere, in good condition: may divide every 20 minutes, large group of bacteria is called colony, they secrete enzymes to breakdown simple molecule like sugar, can survive in harsh condition, produce spores within their cells - spores germinate and divide again.

Fungi: seen under light microscope, most are multicellular but yeast is unicellular, have nucleus, cell wall is made out of chitin, have no chlorophyll, main fungus body is called mycelium - consists of branching network called hyphae which release enzymes to digest food on the outside, food is absorbed by hyphae, reproduce by making spore, they feed on decaying matters (saprotrophs), some are parasites. Virus: extremely small, seen under electron microscope, they are not cells, made up of genetic material (DNA or RNA), surrounded by protein coat, they are parasites - enter other organisms as the host to multiply - take over the host cells and make new viruses, they reproduce quickly, do not respond to antibiotics, constantly changing into new strains. Flowering plants: multicellular, green since many cells contain chloroplasts. Have transport systems consisting of tiny tubes : xylem vessels (carry water and mineral salts), ad phloem tubes (transport dissolved food). Features of flowers: Stamens (male): anther, supported by filament, contains pollen cell Carpels/Pistil (female): stigma, style, ovary - contains sex cells (ovule) Petals: brightly coloured, attract insects for pollination Sepals: below the main petals, protect flower in the side bud Shoot: part of the plant above the ground Stem: bearing leaves, buds and flowers, support the structure of the shoot, spaces the leaves to receive enough light and air, holds flowers in position for pollination. Apical bud: part where stem grows new leaves. Root: part of the plant below the ground, dont contain chlorophyll therefore white, absorbs water and mineral ions from the soil. Dicotyledons: broad leaves with network of branching veins, stamens are in multiples of four or five in each flower, have two cotyledons (seed leaves) in a seed. Example: magnolia Monocotyledons: long narrow leaves with parallel veins, leaves with variety of shape, parts of the flowers are in multiple of three, have one cotyledons. Example: grasses, cereal. Dichotomous keys are used to identify living things. Dichotomous means diving into two. Chapter 2: Cells are the small building blocks that make up all living organisms.

Feature cellulose cell wall shape present

Plant cell absent

Animal cell

permanent shape determined by the cell wall (can be box-like, cylindrical, or spherical present in some cells large vacuole containing cell sap

shapes very since there is no cell wall

chloroplasts vacuole

absent small vacuoles and do not have cell sap; some animal cells dont have vacuoles present (found anywhere within the cell)

nucleus

present (often at the side of the cell - close to the cell wall)

Function of cell structures

Cell structure cell membrane

Functions forms barrier between the cell and its surrounding keep contents of cell inside allow simple substances to enter and leave, e.g oxygen, CO2 and H2O control the movement of other substances into and out of cell, e.g glucose has tiny holes that allow small molecules to pass through but not large one (partially permeable) controls all activities inside the cell and how cells develop place where chemical reaction takes place e.g respiration and making proteins for the cell photosynthesis store starch stops cell from bursting when they fill with water allows water and dissolved substances to pass through freely (fully permeable) full of water to maintain shape and firmness of cell stores salts and sugars

nucleus

cytoplasm

chloroplast

cell wall

sap vacuole

1)

2) 3) 4) 5)

6) 7) 8)

Different types of cells: Ciliated epithelial cell (trachea and the oviduct of the female) - it has cilia on the surface to move mucus that trap dirts out of the lungs; back & forth movement of the cilia creates current in the fluid next to the surface of the cell. In the oviduct, cilia move the egg from the ovary to the uterus Muscle cell - be able to change and help to move. Nerve cell (neurones) - long cells to carry message around the body quickly Root hair cell - have long extensions to provide more surface area to absorb water and minerals ions from the soil more quickly. Thin cell wall - easy to pass through. Xylem vessels: cylindrical and empty, arranged into columns like pipes. Cell walls are thickened with bands or spiral of cellulose and a water proof called lignin, allow water and ions to move from the root to the rest of the plant, support stem and leaves. Palisade cell - large surface area and contain many chloroplasts to absorb sunlight and CO2 for photosynthesis, make up the upper layer of the mesophyll Red blood cell: have protein haemoglobin that carries oxygen, flatten disc shaped - provides large surface area - efficient for the absorption of oxygen. Muscles cells: make up fibre that is able to shorten and contract. Some muscles are attached to the skeleton (when they contract, they move bones at joints); muscles cells also found in gut and heart. Size of cells and specimens:

Actual size: image size/magnification (mm) Levels of organisation: Organelles to cells (the building blocks) to tissues (a group of similar cells work together to carry out a shared function) to organs (group of different tissues that work together to perform specific function) to systems (group of different organs with related functions that work together) to organisms (made up of different organ systems). Example of tissue: Muscle is a tissue capable of contracting and relaxing to create movement. Example of organs: Heart: made up of different tissues, e.g cardiac muscle, nervous tissue, fibrous tissue and blood that work together to pump blood around the body.

Organ system Circulatory System

Organs heart, blood vessels, & blood

Job transport nutrients,CO2, O2 and others around the body breakdown food and absorb nutrients filter out waste, toxin, and excess water secrete hormones destroy invading microbes and viruses in the body provide movement carry messages around the body gas exchange produce offsprings

Digestive System

gullet, stomach, pancreas, liver and intestines kidneys, ureter, bladder & urethra

Excretory System

Endocrine System Lymphatic/Immune System

glands lymph node, white blood cells

Muscular System Nervous System Respiratory System Reproductive System

skeletal and smooth muscles brain, spinal cord, nerves nose, trachea, lungs Female: ovaries, oviducts, uterus & vagina Male: testes, sperm ducts, prostate gland and penis. bones, cartilage, tendons, & ligaments

Skeletal System

provide support for the body, protect delicate organs

Plant tissues and organs: Mesophyll: tissue that carries out photosynthesis in leaves Palisade cells: make up the upper layer of the mesophyll, closely packed and full of chloroplasts for absorbing light. Palisade mesophyll tissue is made up of palisade cells. Plants organs: leaf, roots and stems. Flowers and fruits are modified leaves. See diagram on page 23. Chapter 3: DIFFUSION: Diffusion: the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient. Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance in two places

Molecules carry on diffusing until they are spread out evenly. When there is no longer a difference in concentrations, diffusion has stopped. A concentrated solution has a large mass of solute dissolved in a given volume of the solvent A dilute solution has a small mass of solute dissolved in a given volume of solvent. Cells gain some of the substances they need by diffusion from their surroundings. They also lose some of their waste substances to their surroundings by diffusion. These substances have to cross cell membranes that are partially permeable as they allow the small molecules to go across them (cell membranes are thin). Passive moment: the movement of molecules by diffusion across cell membranes, but cells do not need to use energy to move the molecules. Factors affect the efficiency of diffusion: 1) the distance molecules have to travel the concentration gradient - cells use the substances that diffuse in as quickly as possible, so they keep a low concentration inside the cytoplasm. The molecules from the outside keep diffusing since the cell is maintaining a steep concentration gradient.

2)

3) 4) 5)

the surface area - some cells have folded cell membrane to give a large surface area to allow many molecules to cross by diffusion. the temperature - molecules move faster and collide more often as the temperature increases. Diffusion is faster at warmer temperatures. The size of molecule - small molecules diffuse faster than large ones. Gas versus Liquid: diffusion through air is many times faster than through water. Animals and plants exchange the gases oxygen and CO2 with their surroundings at gas exchange surfaces. Mammal: Alveoli inside the lungs is where gaseous exchange takes place. Gaseous exchange is where oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood. Alveoli have a large surface area and one cell thick wall, it will be easier more gas to be diffused. Oxygen gets diffused into blood vessel and dissolved in the blood plasma. Breathing constantly refreshes air in the alveoli and blood constantly removes oxygen and brings carbon dioxide, so the concentration gradient are always steep. There are many alveoli to give a large surface area for gas exchange. Plant: Gas exchange occurs inside the leaves The spongy mesophyll cells provide large surface area for gaseous exchange and there are air spaces between the cells so each cell exchanges gases with this air. Cells exchange gases with the air in the space between the plant and the cells. Water as a solvent: Solute + solvent = solution A solute can be solid, liquid or gas because all of them can dissolve in the solvents. Substances that dissolve in a solvent is described as soluble. About 75% of cytoplasm is water. Water is the main component of transport fluids like blood, xylem sap and phloem sap in plants. Everything transported in plants and animals has to dissolve in water and most chemical reactions occur in cells happen in water. OSMOSIS: Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion involving water molecules. It occurs when 2 solutions are separated by a partially permeable membrane. It is a diffusion of water from a dilute solution into a more concentrated solution. Dilute solution: many water molecules but less solute molecules --> high water potential Concentrated solution: less water molecules (low concentration of water) but many solute molecules --> low water potential

Water molecules pass through the tiny holes of the cell membrane, but the solute molecules are too big to pass through. Water potential: the tendency for water molecules to move by diffusion. It is influenced by how much water is available and other factors such as the pressure exerted on the water in plant cells by the cell wall. The water molecules diffuses down the water potential gradient Example of partially permeable membrane: visking tubing (dialysis tubing) Osmosis in plant cells and animal cells: 1)Plant cells: When plant cells are placed in water, water moves into the cell sap inside the vacuole (a solution of salts and sugars) because there is a water concentration gradient. As water enters, it makes the cell swell up. The water pushes against the cell wall; the strong cell wall stops the cell from bursting. The cell is turgid. Turgid cells give the plant support. They keep the stems of many plants upright. When plant cells lose water, they are no longer firm and turgid; plant stems and leaves wilt. When plant cells are placed into a concentrated sugar or salt solution, water passes out of the cell by osmosis. The sap vacuole starts to shrink. These cells are no longer firm, and become flaccid. As more water leaves the cells the cytoplasm starts to move away from the cell wall. This is plasmolysis. 2) a) Animal cells: animal cells placed in distilled water --> water passes into the cells by osmosis; since there is no cell wall, the cells swell too much that they burst b) animals cells placed in a concentrated solution of salt --> the cells shrink as the water passes out of the cells by osmosis.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Cells take up molecules and ions and keep them in high concentration. Active Transport: the movement of molecules or ions in or out of a cell through the cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient) using energy released from respiration. The cell membrane contains carrier protein. These carrier proteins span their cell membrane and provide means by which ions and molecules can enter or leave a cell by active transport. First the molecules or ions combine with the carrier protein. Energy from respiration enables the carrier protein to change its change to carry the molecules or ions inside the membrane. The carrier protein then reverts to its original shape. Root hair cells and epithelial cells (lining villi in the small intestine) are adapted for active transport by having many carrier proteins in their cell membranes and a high rate of respiration to provide energy. Active transport relies upon respiration to take up ions or molecules against a concentration gradient. Any factor that affects the rate of respiration will also affect the rate of active transport, such as a lack of oxygen would reduce respiration rate or an increase in temperature in temperature would increase the respiration rate. The presence of poisons such as cyanide would stop respiration and there wont be active transport. Chapter 4: A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction and remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes are proteins, produced by organisms that speed up chemical reactions. They are known as biological catalyst. There are many different types of enzymes as each one catalyses a different reaction. Some enzymes work inside the cells and some work outside the cells. Three types of enzymes reaction:

1)

Breaking large molecules into small ones: large foods are broken down into small ones so that they can be absorbed and then used.

2)

Building up large molecules from small ones: small molecules such as glucose are joined together to make large molecules. These enzymes work inside cells to speed up the formation of storage molecules such as starch, and structural molecules such as cellulose for cell wall in plants.

3)

Converting one small molecule into another: Most chemical reactions that occur inside cells involve small changes to molecules, such as adding or removing atoms or group of atoms. Properties of enzymes: They are all proteins Each enzyme catalyses one reaction They can be used again and again They are influenced by temperature They are influenced by pH Protein molecules of enzymes can be folded into many different shapes and each enzyme has a shape that makes it suitable for catalysing one reaction. Protein is influenced by the conditions of their surroundings, and this makes them to change shape. Enzymes stop acting as catalyst when they change shape.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Enzymes work on substances called substrate. The reaction takes place on a surface called active site of the enzyme. The shape of an enzymes active site is maintained by bonds between different parts of the molecule. Only a substrate molecule has a shape that fits into the active site will take part in the reaction. Other substrates have the wrong shape will not be involved in the reaction. A small amount enzymes needed to catalyse a reaction because it can be used over and over again and they also can catalyse a large quantity of substrate. After the products leave the active site, more substrates enter in and the enzymes keep on working until all the sub strates are used up. Factors affecting enzyme action: The rate of the reaction that enzyme catalyses can be shown by measuring how much product is formed or how much substrate is used over a period of time. Effects of temperature on enzymes: The temperature at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs is called the optimum temperature. This is the best temperature for the enzyme. For example: 20C (fungal and plant enzymes), 37C (human enzymes), 90C (bacterial enzymes in industry). Increasing the temperature of an enzyme-controlled reaction will increase the rate. Enzyme and substrate molecules gain more kinetic energy so they move around more quickly and there are more chances of them colliding, the substrate fits into the active site and reaction takes place. At higher temperature, the bonds holding the enzyme molecule together start to break down. This changes the shape of the active site, therefore the substrate can no longer fit in. The enzyme has been denatured and it can no longer catalyse the reaction. Effects of pH on enzymes: Enzymes work best at its optimum pH. The shape of the active site changes in respond a change in pH. The bonds that hold the enzyme molecules together are broken by a change in pH. When the rate of reaction is zero, the shape of the active site has changed and substrates cannot fit in. At these values of pH, the enzymes are denatured. Enzymes in Industry: Enzymes are very important in the industry and some processes use enzymes as catalysts because enzymes work at lower temperature than other catalysts so reducing the cost of fuels.

1)

Making beer: Germinate barley seeds in warm and moist environment. Enzymes in the seeds become active and convert stored starch into the sugar maltose (this sugar is used by yeast in the fermentation process to produce alcohol in beer) Starch is stored in the seeds as a source of energy for respiration. Some other seeds like sunflower seeds contain oil as their energy storage. The enzyme lipase is produced inside these seeds to break down the oils when they germinate. These seeds can be harvested for their oils so they wont be germinated. Extracting juices: Pectinases are enzymes that break down pectins, which are molecules that act like glue in plant cell walls. Pectinases are used to extract fruit juices and to soften vegetables. 3) Industrial fermentation: Industrial processes use microorganisms to produce a useful products. The organisms involved might respire with or without oxygen. Industrial fermenters are large tanks that can hold 500,000 dm cube of fermenting mixture. Conditions inside are carefully controlled. Production of antibiotic penicillin: Stainless steel fermentation vessel contains the required nutrients such as sugars and ammonium salts. Some of the fungus Penicillium is added. Sugars provide energy for respiration and ammonium salts are used by the fungus to make proteins and ribonucleic acids (DNA and RNA). After a few days the fungus start to produce penicillin. A stirrer keeps the microorganisms suspended so they always have access to nutrients and oxygen and maintains the temperature throughout the process. An air supply provides oxygen for aerobic respiration for the fungus (In brewing, no oxygen is supplied) A water-cooled jacket removes the heat produced by fermentation to give a constant temperature of 24C. The probes maintain the temperature and make sure the pH is constant at 6.5 by adding alkali if necessary. After fermentation is complete, the mixture is drained and filtered. Penicillin is extracted as a salt like material.

2)

4)

Biological washing powders: Enzymes that are released outside tend to break down complex substrate, such as carbohydrate. Bacteria (bacillus) and fungi (aspergillus) are grown in fermenters to produce enzymes for biological washing powders. Enzymes released by the microbes that are extracted from the material in the fermenter by filtration. Biological washing powder may contain several different enzymes: Proteases - break down proteins stains Lipases - break down fat in oily stains Amylases - break down starch stains Cellulases - break down cellulose fibre to glucose on the outside of cotton fabric to remove dirt. These enzymes are modified to withstand high temperature and alkaline condition. Enzymes break down stains and the products of the reaction dissolve in water and then be removed. The newest biological washing powder work at lower temperature than non-biological washing powder to save energy. Enzymes are broken down into harmless products (they do not harm the environment) after they have been used. Plants: Green plants use light energy to convert raw materials from their surroundings into simple sugars. This process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + water + light -> glucose + oxygen CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 Balanced equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical bond energy in simple sugars. This provides energy for the plant and also for other organisms that feed on plants directly or indirectly . Photosynthesis is not a simple reaction, there are many chemical reaction take place in the chloroplasts (in leaf cells) to produce simple sugar and oxygen. Each reaction is catalyzed by one enzyme. Too much sugars produced --> dissolved in cell sap in the vacuole of plant cells --> water moves in by osmosis and causes the cell to swell so much that they would need to make thicker cell wall --> prevention: glucose molecules are linked to form starch which are insoluble. Testing a leaf for starch: 1) Put the leaf in boiling water to destroy its membrane, making it easier to extract chlorophyll 2) Turn of the bunsen burner 3) Put the leaf in a test tube of ethanol; chlorophyll will dissolve in the ethanol 4) Put the test tube in a beaker of hot water for a while 5) Was the leaf in cold water to remove the ethanol and rehydrate the leaf (the leaf becomes soft and easy to spread out) 6) Put some drops of iodine on the leaf surface 7) Postive: blue/black; negative: red/brown The requirements for photosynthesis: Light: provide energy for the process Chlorophyll: green pigment that absorbs energy from light; in the chloroplast of the leaf Carbon dioxide: diffuses into the leaves from the air, then diffuses into the chloroplast in the mesophyll cells. Water: absorbed by the plants root from the soil Water and CO2 are raw materials Investigations demonstrate that chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and light are needed for photosynthesis. We cannot test water because plants need water for many other reasons and most of the plant is water --> hardly to take water away. If there is photosynthesis, there are starch inside the plants. To make the investigation valid: 1) Make sure the leaves have no starch at the start (left in the dark for at least 48 hours) - destarching 2) The plant is then given all the things it needs except for the substance that we are testing Chlorophyll test: 1) Take a de-starched, variegated plant; variegated means some parts of the leaves are white because there is no chlorophyll there. 2) Place the plant in sunlight 3) Take one leaf 4) Test the leaf for starch 5) Green parts have blue/black colour; white part - no photosynthesis --> negative result Carbon dioxide test: Take a de-starched plant Enclose the plant in a bag with soda lime for absorbing carbon dioxide Leave the plant in the light for some hours Test a leaf for starch The leaf should show a negative result A control experiment is set up without the soda lime to show that it was the absence of CO2 that the plant did not photosynthesize and not keeping the plant inside the plastic bag. Light test: Take a de-starched plant Cover a apart of the leaf with aluminium foil to prevent light getting through Leave the plant in the light for some hours Test the leaf for starch Covered part: negative result; uncovered part: blue black (positive) Products of photosynthesis:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Simple sugars:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Converted into starch to be stored for energy in the leaves for future use, e.g at night Stored in seeds as oils for energy Converted into sucrose and transported to other parts of the plant in the phloem Used as energy to transport minerals from roots to the plant. Used to make other organic substances such as cellulose to build cell wall. Combined with nitrates from the soil to make amino acids, which are built up to form proteins (needed for growth and cell repair and for making enzymes and hormones) Required for respiration in the leaf.

Oxygen is a by-product (a secondary or unintended product produced from a process). Plants may use oxygen for respiration or oxygen can be diffused into the atmosphere to be used by other organisms. Plants provides raw materials for industry (e.g timber and cotton) food and medicine (e.g digitalis - heart drug); pro vides habitats for animals and microorganisms; photosynthesis helps to keep constant concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere (without green plants - concentration of CO2 increases and concentration of oxygen decreases) Plants as food: Fruits (apple), leaves (bokchoy), stems (celery), flowers (cauliflower), roots (carrot), beans (green beans), cereals (rice), nuts (peanuts). Oxygen produced in photosynthesis:

1)Take a pondweed put it in a funnel 2)Turn a test tube upside down to cover the smallest open end of the funnel 3)Put the set up in a beaker of water 4) A lamp provides light energy 5)CO2 is dissolved in water (add sodium hydrogen carbonate powder in water to provide CO2) 6)Place the funnel upon the plasticine gives gaps to allow CO2 dissolved in water to reach the pondweed 7)Collect the number of bubbles of gas every minute 8) Test the gas for oxygen with a glowing splint
Rate of photosynthesis: We can determine how fast or slow photosynthesis occurs by measuring the amount of oxygen produced in a certain time. This can be done by counting bubbles or measuring the volume of oxygen produced. The rate of photosynthesis can also be measured by measuring the amount starch produced by measuring the change in dry mass in a given time. Faster photosynthesis --> plants grow bigger --> more food is made --> increase yield of crops. Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, water supply and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis. Limiting factor: something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life processes. Limiting factors of photosynthesis are light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. The only way to increase the rate is to increase the limiting factor. There is only one factor can limit the rate any anytime as it depends on the one that has the shortest supply. Water is not a limiting factor because there is enough water in the plants. However, in dry condition, plants reduce their water loss by closing their stomata --> carbon dioxide cannot diffuse in --> slows down the rate of photosynthesis. Light intensity (determines energy available) Photosynthesis increases when light gets brighter but only up to certain point because other factors such as carbon dioxide concentration or temperature are restricting the rate. Light intensity experiment:

1)A beaker filled with water

2)Attach a small piece of pondweed to a paper clip to stop it floating on the water surface in the beaker 3)Put the lamp at a certain distance and measure the distance 4)Count the number of bubbles every 5 minutes. Repeat several times and calculate the average 5)Repeat this procedure with the lamp placed at different distances from the plant 6) The number of bubbles should decrease as the distance between the lamp and the plant increases because the
pondweed is receiving much less energy, therefore the rate of photosyntheses decreases. Many plants spread their leaves wide to receive as much light as possible. Strong light can damage the chloroplasts. Shade plants: plants that are adapted to grow in areas such as under forest tree where they have dim light. Temperature (influences the activity of enzymes in the chloroplast) Chemical reactions catalysed by enzymes increase with temperature. Increase in temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis until it reaches the maximum rate. The maximum rate occurs at the enzymes optimum temperature. The rate of photosynthesis decreases at higher temperature because the enzyme are denatured. Tropic plants have higher optimum temperature than those in colder regions. Carbon dioxide concentration: The higher the CO2 concentration, the faster the rate of photosynthesis and the greater the crop yield. It is not possible to control the carbon dioxide concentration outdoor because the air usually contains 0.04% carbon dioxide. CO2 experiment:

1)A beaker filled with water 2)Add sodium hydrogencarbonate to give more CO2 which dissolve in water. 3)Attach a small piece of pondweed to a paper clip to stop it floating on the water surface in the beaker 4)Put the lamp at a certain distance and measure the distance 5) Light intensity and temperature must be kept constant 6)Count the number of bubbles every 5 minutes. 7)The plant produces more bubbles as the CO2 concentration increases. The rate of photosynthesis should increase up to a point and then becomes constant because another factor becomes limiting. Glasshouse production: Crops are grown in glasshouse so that the growers have the opportunity to control the factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis. Growers always try to improve the yield of their crops by giving them the best conditions for photosynthesis to take place. This allow the plant to:

1)grow earlier in the year 2)grow in places where they would not normally grow well
Temperature: sunlight heats up the inside of the glasshouse, the glass stops the heat from escaping, electric heaters are used in cold weather, ventilator flaps are opened to cool the glass house on hot days. Light: glass lets in sunlight, artificial lighting is used when the light intensity is too low,. Carbon dioxide: growers can pump more carbon dioxide into the glasshouse, they can burn butane or natural gas to give CO2 and heat to raise the temperature inside the glasshouse during cold weather. Water: have automatic watering systems using sprinklers and humidifiers which ensure planets always get enough water. These are all controlled by computer --> few staffs needed: there are sensors to detect changes in CO2 concentration, humidity, light intensity, and temperature. Computers control sensors, heating, ventilation, lighting and shading. Leaves: The leaf structure: Leaf has an ideal shape for photosynthesis. Leaves have:

1)a large surface area to absorb light rays 2)a thin shape so that gases can diffuse in and out easily 3)many chloroplasts for absorbing light 4)veins to support the leaf surface, carry water and mineral ions to the leaf cells and take sucrose and amino acids
to other parts of the plant.

Structure Upper cuticle

Description this is not a tissue but a waxy layer covering the outside of the leaf one layer of cells, no chloroplasts, transparent long cells lined up close together with short side facing top (fence-like), has many chloroplasts, irregular shaped cells with air spaces between, has fewer chloroplasts than the palisade layer because it receives less light no thick cuticle, closely fitting cells, has many tiny holes called stomata(surrounded by guard cells) reduces water loss

Function

Upper epidermis Palisade mesophyll layer

secrete waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, prevents gas exchange, allows light to pass, barrier against infection photosynthesis

Spongy mesophyll layer

air spaces: allow rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide; less friction and wider space photosynthesis

Lower epidermis

stomata open and close to allow gas exchange and reduce water loss, secretes cuticle, barrier against infection

Stomata are small pores (holes) that allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf. Stomata are usually present in the lower epidermis, but some plants like water lily has them in the upper epidermis. Opening and closing of stomata: Stomata are opened and closed by guard cells Day: water moves into the guard cells by osmosis, the guard cells bend and so the stomata opens, CO2 diffuses in for photosynthesis, oxygen made in photosynthesis diffuses out, water vapour diffuses out Night: water passes out of the guard cells by osmosis and they straighten and move closer together so closing the stomata pores. Stomata closes in hot and dry weather to prevent the plants from wilting. Looking at stomata:

1)Paint a small square (1x1cm) of nail varnish on the underside of the leaf 2)When the nail varnish dries, peel it off 3)Put it on a slide with drop of water and cover slip 4)Observe the stomata using high power of the microscope.
Mineral requirements: Plants need mineral salts or plant nutrients. Nutrients are absorbed by the root from the soil in small quantities as ions by active transport. Lack nutrients --> presence of deficiency symptoms

Nutrients Nitrate ions

Function make amino acids which are then built up to proteins for growth. Deficiency symptom: poor growth used to make chlorophyll Deficiency symptom: chlorophyll looks yellow (chlorosis) used to make compounds such as DNA and for respiration Deficiency symptom: poor root growth, younger leaves turn purple rather than green.

Magnesium ions

Phosphate ions

Fertilisers: Farmers add fertilises if there is not enough nutrients in the soil. NPK fertilisers contain:

1)Nitrogen (in the form of nitrate ions) for growth of leaves and stems 2)Phosphorus (in the form of phosphate ions) for healthy root 3)Potassium (in the form of potassium ions) for healthy leaves and flowers.
The proportion for each nutrient is written in the ration N:P:K Natural fertilisers and artificial fertilisers: Chemical/ artificial fertilisers: used in huge quantities, easy to store and add to the land, release nutrients quickly, short lasting, there is a definite amount of nutrient in the fertilisers, growers have to be careful of how much fertiliser is used and when. When it rains, fertilisers run off into rivers and streams: Provide nutrients for algae Algae grows fast in the lake, use up lots of oxygen and block sunlight Aquatic plants die - provides food for microbes More oxygen is used up - fish die Natural fertilisers: farmyard manure and composts --> add humus to soil --> improves structure of the soil, releases nutrients slowly and over a long period of time, the mass of each nutrient in the fertiliser is not known. Plant transport: Most organisms need a transport system. Organisms with small bodies only rely on diffusion alone to gain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. Transport systems in large organisms like vertebrates and flowering plants move fluids through tubes so that all the fluid moves in the same direction within each tube. This transport is called mass flow. Vertebrates have a circulatory system. Flowering plants have two separate transport systems: xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem are tissues composed of cells that are specialised for transport. These tissues are found roots, stem, and leaves.

1) 2) 2) 3)

Transport tissues Xylem

Structure Pipes - like Contains xylem vessels Walls are thickened with cellulose and lignin --> waterproof and strong to hold the stem upright Inside the vascular bundle --> help to support the stem Made of dead and empty cells (no cytoplasm and organelles) --> no obstruction to the flow of water and mineral ions

Function Transport water and mineral ions One direction: root through stem to leaves

Phloem

Sieve plate contain holes that allow sucrose and amino acids to pass from one cell to the next. Made up of living tissues that have some cytoplasm.

Transport sucrose, amino acids, and hormones throughout the plant. Transported in 2 directions: downwards: leaves to root upwards: leaves to flowers, fruits, and buds; storage organs to new stems and leaves.

Sucrose is made for transporting energy. It is made in the leaves with the sugars from photosynthesis and sugars from starch in storage organ, such as swollen roots and stem. Hormones control cell division for growth of the stem, roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Structure of the root: The tip is called the root cap --> protects the root tip as it grows (cells divide) through the soil Phloem: transport sucrose and amino acids from the leaves which are used to make new cells at the root tip Xylem: transports water and ions up the root Cortex: stores some food as starch Root hairs: the extended cells of the epidermis (on the outside of the root); absorbs water and mineral ions Structure of the stem: Vascular bundle: made up of phloem, xylem and cambium Cambium: cells make new xylem and phloem as the plant grows Epidermis:a single layer of cells on the outside of the stem which protects the stem and reduces water loss Phloem: transports sucrose and amino acid to the root and up to the flowers and fruits Xylem: transport water and mineral ions up to the leaves. Water uptake: Roots: anchor the plant in the soil and take up mineral ions Soil water is a dilute solution of various solutes. Root hairs have thin, permeable cell walls and provide a large surface area for absorbing water. The cell sap in the root hair cells is a more concentrated solution (contains mineral ions, sugars, and other solutes). The cell membrane is partially permeable so water diffuses from the soil into the root hair cells by osmosis down the water potential gradient. Water passes across the cortex to the xylem in the centre of the root (most water move in the space between cell walls, but some also move from cell to cell) down the water potential gradient.

Water then moves up the xylem through the stem to the leaves and finally enters the spongy mesophyll cells. Much of the water enters the cell wall, evaporates to form water vapour and then diffuses through the stomata into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the leaves and the loss of water vapour to the atmosphere. Water vapour diffuses when the stomata open. Water is pulled up the xylem in the stem from the roots to the leaves by transpiration pull. As water is used up for photosynthesis or lost from the leaves, more water is sucked up from the root. The mass flow of water relies on 2 properties of water:

1)Cohesion: the water molecules attract together or stick together 2)Adhesion: the water molecules stick to the side of other surface, in this case it is the internal surface of
the xylem vessel. There is a continuous flow of water from the roots to the leaves. The movement of water up the xylem through the stem is called transpiration stream. Transpiration: In the spongy mesophyll layer, the air spaces are lined by mesophyll cells which have damp cell walls. Water evaporates from this huge internal surface so the air spaces become saturated with water vapour. There is more water vapour in the air spaces than in the outside air, so water vapour diffuses out through the stomata into the atmosphere. The volumes of water lost by transpiration is slightly less than the volume of water taken because some of the water is used for photosynthesis and keeping the plant cells turgid. Wilting: More transpiration takes place at day the stomata tend open during the day and closed at night. The stomata close at night to reduce the volume of water lost by transpiration. They may also close in hot, dry conditions during the day as water loss in transpiration is not replaced by the water from the soil. When the plants do not get enough water, they start to wilt. The plant cells become flaccid and then soft, so they cannot give the plant support; as a result, stem is not upright and the leaves droop. Wilting may not be a bad thing. The leaves move downwards and they dont get much contact from the sunlight. When the temperature decreases, they absorb more water to pay back for the water lost by transpiration. Environmental factors affecting transpiration:

1)Light: as the light intensity increases, the stomata opens wider. The rate of transpiration also increases
to the maximum point.

2)Humidity: in a humid condition, there is no water potential gradient between the air and in the leaves.
The water vapour is not diffused and so there is less transpiration.

3)Warmth: warm condition increases the rate of transpiration. The stomata opens and so water vapour diffuses out. Increasing temperature increase the rate.

4)Windy condition: water molecules are blown away by the wind, so the air becomes less saturated. There
is a steep concentration gradient so more water vapour diffuse out.

Measuring transpiration: We use the potometer to measure the rate of water uptake. The potometer is submerged in water. The distance moved of the air bubble in the capillary tube measures the rate of transpiration. Adaptations of plants to different environments: All plants have to balance water uptake with water loss. Very high rates of transpiration can kill a plant if it cannot absorb enough water to prevent long-term wilting. Xerophytes: plants that are able to survive in hot, dry regions where water is scarce, for example, cacti. Cacti reduce water loss and conserve in a number of ways: Leaves reduced to spines --> reduce surface area so not so much water evaporated Have thick, waxy cuticle to cover the leafs surface --> reduce transpiration Have swollen stem containing water-storage tissue Have a shallow, spreading root system to absorb water quickly Have round, compact shape --> reduces surface area --> not much water can be lost Have shiny surface which reflects heat and light Stomata close during the day to reduce water loss; stomata open at night to absorb CO2 which they store for use in photosynthesis during the day. Hydrophytes: plants that grow submerged in water. Benefits:

1)Buoyed up by water --> no need for water transport --> save energy because they dont need to produce
xylem tissue

2)Roots, if present, are for anchorage; there are no root hairs to absorb water and mineral ions. 3)Have no cuticles on leaves and stem because there is no need to conserve water.
Problems: CO2 and oxygen diffuses through water much more slowly because they are not very soluble in water, therefore the rate oh photosynthesis may slow down. To solve this, hydrophytes have extensive system of air spaces in their stems and leaves so that gases can diffuse through quickly. The air spaces give buoyancy to the plants so that they have closer contact with the sunlight. Mesophytes: plants that do not experience extreme water supply and do not have extreme adaptations like xerophytes to reduce water loss. Most garden plants are mesophytes: colourful, scented flowers --> provide an attractive environment. Translocation: Food is made in the leaves by photosynthesis. Soluble products include sucrose, amino acids, and fatty acids. These are carried in the phloem to other parts of the plant. This movement is called translocation. The transport of food takes place from the region of production to the region of storage or the region where respiration and growth take place. Simple sugars produced by photosynthesis are converted into sucrose. Sucrose:

1)broken down by enzymes to give simple sugars for respiration 2) changed to starch for storage in the root cortex and in seeds 3) used to make cellulose for cell wall at the tip of the root and the shoot 4) stored in some fruits to make them sweet
Translocation of systemic pesticides:

1)Farmers use pesticides to control pests and diseases that spoil crops and reduce yields. 2) Contact pesticides kill the pests that are sprayed onto, but the spray may not reach to those pests that
hide under the leaves

3) Systemic pesticides are sprayed on the crop plants that absorb them. The pesticides are translocated to
all parts of the plant in the phloem. The pests would ingest the pesticide when they feed on the plants. This would kill them. Transpiration and translocation:

1)Source: the part of the plant where the substance starts its journey, e.g the leaves 2) Sink: the part of the plant where the substance ends its journey, e.g region growth (root and shoot tips),
region of storage (root cortex and seeds), and respiring plant tissues.

3)The movement of water in the xylem vessel is passive, since it relies upon the evaporation of water
vapour from the leaves producing the tension in the xylem. Transpiration involves dead tissues. Transpiration is greatest on hot, dry, and windy days.

4)Translocation is an active process in the phloem. Movement in the phloem requires active transport of
the sucrose at the source. Water enters the phloem to build up a pressure that forces the phloem sap to travel to the sinks. Translocation is most active on warm and sunny days when the amount of sugar produced is big.

Chapter 5: Living organisms need useful substances called nutrients. Nutrients are compound that can be complex (like carbohydrate, proteins and vitamins) or simple (like mineral ions). Animals get nutrients from plants and nutrients that animals require are present in their diet. There are 7 different nutrients needed for a balance diet of human: carbohydrate, proteins, fats,vitamins, minerals, fibre, water. Carbohydrates: Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Include sugars and starches Glucose: simple sugar, made in photosynthesis, used in respiration, transported in blood, consists of six carbon atoms arranged into a ring.

Complex sugar: made up of simple sugar joined together by chemical bond, e.g sucrose (the sugar that you add to food and drinks), maltose (used by yeast in fermentation to produce alcohol in beer), and lactose (milk sugar). All these sugars are sweet and soluble and provide energy in a ready-to-use form. Complex carbohydrate: made up of many simple sugars molecules joined together by chemical bonds. Plants stores starch - polymer (macromolecule composed of repeating structural units) of glucose - as an energy store. Glycogen (animal starch) is another complex carbohydrate made from glucose by animals as a store of energy. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscle. Starch and glycogen are insoluble and do not taste sweet. Proteins: complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur; proteins are long chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called amino acids. After formation, they can be folded into different shapes or arranged into long fibre. There are about 20 different types of amino acids. The sequence of the different amino acids determines the type of protein that is formed. Amino acids are joined together by the chemical bond called the peptide bond. Each kind of protein must have all 20 different types of amino acids to become a complete proteins. Haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies and some hormones (e.g insulin) are soluble proteins. They dissolve in water cytoplasm or in the blood. Keratin is an insoluble protein used to make fibre and is found in hair and skin.

Fats: Oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats. Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Each fat molecule is made up of 1 molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Different types of fatty acids form different fats with different properties. Fats are used for energy storage and thermal insulation (cut down heat loss) in the body.

Chemical tests for nutrients: Make an extract from the material that you are testing; it involves grinding up the extract with some water with pestle and mortar or putting it into a blender. The chemical is put into the solution in the extract. Starch test: Half fill the test tube with the extract Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution Iodine looks yellow or light brown, so a positive result shows a blue-black colour and a negative result remains yellow or light brown. Reducing sugars test: Put a known volume of the extract in the test tube Place a beaker on a heat-proof mat Half fill the beaker with boiling water from the kettle Add Benedict solution into the test tube and place it in the beaker Benedicts solution is bright blue

changes: green --> yellow --> orange Green means the extract contains a small amount of reducing sugars; deep orange colour means the extract contains a lot of reducing sugars; blue colour means the extract does not contain reducing sugars. Reducing sugar is any sugar that has an aldehyde group or is capable of forming one in solution through isomerization (the process of one molecule transforms into another molecules but still has the same composition that is arranged into a different structure. The aldehyde group allows the sugar to act as a reducing agent. The sugar that give a positive result reduces the copper ions in the Benedicts solution when the mixture is heated. The type of reaction occurs is a reduction reaction. Reducing sugars are simple sugars such as glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar and gives a negative result because sucrose contains 2 sugars (fructose and glucose) that are joined by the glycosidic bond which prevents the glucose to isomerize to aldehyde.

Protein test: Half fill the test tube with the extract Add 5-6 drops of biuret solution ( a mixture of copper sulfate solution and sodium hydroxide solution - corrosive) Biuret solution is blue A positive result shows a colour of purple, violet or lilac; negative result remains blue. Fats test: Fats do not dissolve in water but they will dissolve in ethanol. A solution of fat in ethanol added to water gives a cloudy white emulsion Chop up a small a mount of the material you wish to test for fats Put the extract in test tube and add ethanol to cover it Put the stopper over the open end of the test tube and shake up the contents. Half fill the test tube with distilled water Shake one more Positive result: cloudy white emulsion or milky colour emulsion, negative result: no cloudy white emulsion. Sources of nutrients: Carbohydrates - They are needed for instant energy that is easily respired; simple sugars are absorbed almost immediately by the stomach to give immediate source of energy (from respiration) Rice, pasta, and breads are good sources. Proteins - Needed to make new cells for growth and repair damaged cells; our bodies digest proteins into amino acids and we use them to make our own proteins such as enzymes. Our bodies need to have all 20 different types of amino acids to make proteins. Cell membranes and cytoplasm contains a great amount of proteins. Proteins can also be respired to provide energy. Meat, fish, and milk are good sources.

Fats - Provides a long term energy store and provide insulation; fats are stored under the skin and around the heart and kidneys, it releases twice the amount of energy that carbohydrate or proteins release. When we are short of energy, our bodies use fats. Fats give buoyancy to marine animals such as whales thick layer of blubber. Meat, dairy product and nuts are good sources. Vitamins/Minerals - Needed to stay healthy; only need small and regular amount of minerals and vitamins lack of vitamins or mineral result in some deficiency disease. Found in many foods, especially vegetable and fruit.

Vitamins/ Minerals A

Foods

Needed for

Disease

butter, carrot

keep cells in respiratory system healthy Involved in many chemical reaction in the body tissue repair, resistance to disease strengthens bones and teeth used in formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells for transporting oxygen strengthens bones and teeth

Cells in respiratory system infection, night blindness Beri-beri

wholemeal bread, liver

oranges, lemons, other citrus fruits butter, fish oil, milk

Scurvy (bleeding gums) Rickets (soft bones, legs bow outwards) tiredness, lack of energy (anaemia)

iron

liver, meat, eggs

calcium

milk, fish, green vegetables

weak, brittle bones and teeth (rickets), weak muscle and cramps

Water - make up 2/3 of our body mass, needed for chemical reaction that take place in solution, waste chemicals are passed out in urine, and water in sweats cool our bodies down, intake of water each day must be equal the loss of water in urine, faeces, sweat and breath. Fibre/Roughage - made up of cellulose from plant cell walls, cannot be digested, adds bulk to food, does not provide energy, helps the movement of food in the alimentary canal by peristalsis so preventing constipation, absorbs poisonous wastes from bacteria in the gut, lowers concentration of cholesterol in blood, reduces the risk of heart disease and bowel (intestine) cancer. Found in fresh vegetables, cereals, and wholemeal bread. Use of microorganisms in industry: Biotechnology: branch of industry in which microorganisms or their products are used. Bacteria are used to produce yoghurt and a fungus is used to make mycoprotein (a form of single cell protein which is manufactured into meat substitute). Microbes grow and reproduce very quickly in suitable condition. In many of the food productions processes, microbes are fed on waste materials of other industries because this helps to reduce the costs. Yoghurt:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Milk is pasteurized to kill disease-causing bacteria The milk is thickened with skim milk powder Set the temperature at 40C (ideal for growth of the bacteria), add bacteria Bacteria respire anaerobically (without oxygen) and use lactose as their source of energy The bacteria produce lactic acid, which lowers the pH of the milk and causes the milk to coagulate (becomes semi-solid) Cool the yoghurt and then mix the yoghurt with fruit to create different types of yoghurt with different flavours Some yoghurts are treated to kill all bacteria, while others contain live culture. These bacteria are naturally found in our gut that help our digestion. Yoghurt production is an example of batch culture. Fermentation takes place in stainless steel tanks and after the yoghurt is removed, all the equipments are cleaned before starting a new batch. Mycoprotein: Microbes are very good at producing proteins.

6) 7)

1) 2)

Mycoprotein is a material produced by a fungus Fusarium. Mycoprotein is made by continuous culture - the nutrients are continually added ad the products are continually removed. The fermenter works continually without having to be emptied or sterilised. The fungus is supplies with glucose and oxygen as their energy source; mineral salts and ammonia (source of nitrogen) are added for the fungus to make amino acids. The fermetner is kept at 30C. Fungal hyphae give a meat-like texture and flavourings are added so that it can be into a variety of products. Mycoprotein: high in protein, low in fat, Food additives: Benefits of food additives: preserve food --> e.g ethanoic (acetic acic) in vinegar of pickled food acts as a preservative --> the low pH prevents microbes growing on food (which causes its decays --> tastes and flavours ruined) Sugars and salts are 2 traditional preservative. Food additives can also colour and add flavour to food. Some are natural substances and some are artificial substances. Colourings: used to make food more attractive to customers. Preservatives and anti-oxidants: protect food from being decomposed by bacteria and fungi or oxidised by oxygen in the air. For example, fats in food are oxidised to acid make the food become rancid. Flavourings: smell of strawberry: a complex mixture of 280 different compounds, flavour enhancers like salt are used to increase the taste sensation; monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used to enhance the original flavour of the food.

3)

4) 5)

Emulsifiers and stabilisers: enable fats and oil to mix with water. International numberings system for food additives:

Additives number 100 -181 200 - 290 296 - 385

Use of additives colouring (tartrazine is 102) preservatives (ethanoic acid is 260) anti-oxidants and acids (ascorbic acid - vitamin C is 300) emulsifiers and stabilisers anti-caking agents and mineral salts flavour enhancers (MSG is 621) others, e.g sweeteners and wax glazes on fruit

400 - 495 500 - 585 620 - 640 900 - 1520

Disadvantages of food additives: 1) 2) 3) Tartrazine (artificial substances): causes asthma attack and hyperactivity in children, banned in Norway Butylated hydroxyanisole (320): causes cancer, banned in Japan, McDonald stopped using it in 1986 Saccharin (artificial sweetener - 954): banned in USA in 1977, but then some further research in 2000 had not shown any hazards to human health. Animal Nutrition: A balanced diet: Humans need to eat a balanced diet. This really means some of every food group but not too much or too little of a particular one. A balanced diet provides an adequate amount of nutrients to ensure good health and growth. Nutrient functions:

1)To provide energy: role of carbohydrate and fats. Proteins are used to provide energy when they are in excess of
requirements for growth, development, repair and replacement.

2)To allow growth and repair of body cells and tissues. Proteins provide amino acids for cells to make their own proteins.

3)To regulate the bodys metabolism - require all nutrients.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR): the energy required for the body functions. This varies from person to person. Diet depends on age, sex and activity.

You exercise: uses up energy, increased protein requirements when muscles start to develop bigger --> need extra protein in the diet (for sporty people in general)

You are growing: have higher BMR, need more protein for developing and making new cells.

You are ill: lower metabolic rate --> need more nutrients such as carbohydrate and fats to produce energy and more proteins for white blood cells to make antibodies to fight against disease.

You are pregnant: need extra nutrients when pregnant and breast-feeding. You are old: lower BMR, lower protein needs, need to have a balanced diet to stay healthy Women have a relative higher fat content in their bodies than men. Fat is stored in fat tissue, e.g under the skin. Fat tissues have lower metabolic rate than muscle, so women have lower energy requirement for men. Fats:

1)Two main types of fats: saturated fats (solid at rtp; from animals), unsaturated fats (liquid at rtp; from fish and
plants)

2)Saturated fat increases the level of LDL (low density lipoprotein - bad cholesterol); it is not heart-healthy (arterial
disease)

3)Unsaturated fat decreases the level of LDL and increases the level of HDL (high density lipoprotein - good cholesterol). There 2 types of unsaturated fat: mono-saturated fat (have little effect on blood cholesterol) and poly-unsaturated fat (reduce cholesterol concentration in the blood --> reduce the risk of heart disease)

4)Cholesterol is chemical made in the liver and found in the blood. The quantity of cholesterol depends upon our
diet and our genes that determine our metabolism. High concentration of cholesterol in the blood leads to the narrowing of the arteries which then induces high blood pressure and heart disease.

5) High fat diet increases the risk of producing more cholesterol and having a high concentration in the blood. 6) Cholesterol is carried in the blood by molecules called lipoprotein (a compound contains both lipid and protein).
The lipid is bound to hydrophyllic protein so that it can move through water because fats are hydrophobic.

7) There are 5 types of lipoproteins: chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL. 8) LDL carries cholesterol from the liver to cells; if there is too much of LDL --> harmful buildup of LDL inside the
cells

9) HDL takes cholesterol away from the cells and back to the liver. In the liver the HDL is broken down or expelled
from the body as waste. Function of cholesterol: It builds and maintains cell membranes (outer layer) It is essential for determining which molecules can pass into the cell and which cannot (cell membrane permeability) It is involved in the production of sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) It aids in the production of bile It converts sunshine to vitamin D Balancing energy needs: If you eat more food than you need, you body store the extra as fat. Energy intake: the energy you get in a day from you food such as protein, carbohydrate, fats. Energy output: the energy your body uses in a day. If energy intake is greater than energy output, then fat is stored in the body and body mass increases --> become overweight and obese. People with lower BMR are more likely to get overweight or obese than those who have higher BMR. It is likely that their diet consist of a lot of fatty foods or refined food with a lot of added sugars.

Obesity: Causes:

1)High intake of fatty food and refined food containing a lot of added sugar 2)Too little exercise 3) Emotional stress which leads to comfort eating
Obese people tend to have health problems such as heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes caused high blood sugar and arthritis (worn joints) Lose some weight:

1)Eat less high-energy food (lower the energy intake) 2) More exercise (increase the energy output) 3) Have a balanced diet 4) A gradual increase in exercise
Definition:

1)Being 20% above the recommended weight for his or her height 2)Having a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30
BMI = body mass (in kg)/ height squared (in metres) --> for adults (different interpretations are made to children)

1)< 20 : underweight 2) 20 < x < 24: acceptable 3) 25 < x < 30: overweight 4) 30 < : obese 5) 40 < : severely obese
Constipation: Roughage or fibre is indigestible and adds bulk to our food --> the food becomes harder --> stimulate the muscles of the gut wall to contract effectively to squeeze the food along and keep the food moving down the alimentary canal. If the movement of food is slow (due to soft foods) --> constipation --> difficult to defecate (discharge faeces from the body) Fruit and vegetables contains a lot of roughage. Malnutrition: diets are not balance due to either to little energy or too much energy, shortage of nutrients or far too much of that nutrients. Constipation is a form of malnutrition because the diet lacks fibre. Starvation:

Digestive System: We ingest our food into the mouth, our teeth grind up (mastication) the food into small pieces and our tongues mix the food up with saliva. (physical digestion) Saliva is formed in the salivary glands and it contains the enzyme amylase, which breaks down starch. The food travels along the oesophagus. The epiglottis covers the way to the trachea so that the food wont go into the wrong way. The food then enters to the stomach. There are goblet cells along the way to secrete mucus to make food slide easier. The stomach has a very strong muscular wall so that it can break up the food with hydrochloric acid and protease pepsin. Hydrochloric acid kills all the bacteria in the food. In the small intestine, there are pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The pancreatic juice contains protease trypsin, amylase, and lipase. Amylase breaks down starch to glucose, protease breaks down proteins into

amino acids and lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol. Bile helps to digest fats into small fat droplets - emulsification. (chemical digestion) Soluble food molucule will be absorbed into the bloodstream and there are villi on the wall that are only one cell thick to absorb food easily. They also have large surface area so that the food can be absorbed more quickly. Food that cannot be absorbed go along the large intestine, where water is reabsorbed. They are stored in the rectum and egested through the anus as faeces. Peristalsis is involved throughout the alimentary canal. Key terms: Ingestion: taking food into the digestive system Digestion: breaking food down into molecules small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream. Absorption : taking molecules into the bloodstream. This happens almost entirely in the small intestine (ileum) Assimilation: using food molecules to build new molecules in our bodies. I.e. the food molecule physically becomes part of our body. Egestion: Removing unwanted food from the digestive system ). This is not excretion, because the unwanted food has never, technically, been inside the body. Peristalsis: the contraction of muscle in the intestine wall behind a bolus of food (ball of food). This pushes the bolus through the intestine.

Adaptation of the small intestine in absorbing digested substances:

Feature It is very long, about 5 m in an adult

Function This gives plenty of time for digestion to be completed, and for digested food to be absorbed as it passes through This give the small intestine a very large inner surface area. The larger the surface area, the faster the food can be absorbed.

It has villi. Each villus is covered with cells which have even smaller projections on them, called microvilli Villi contain blood capillaries

Digested food passes into the blood, to then taken to the liver and then around the body. Fats are absorbed into the lacteals The digested food can cross the wall to reach the blood capillaries and lacteals easily and quickly.

Villi contain lacteals Villi have walls only one cell thick

Teeth:

Human teeth are specialized for eating both plant and animal food. Viewed simply, humans are carnivores in the front of the mouth and herbivores in the back (see figure 48.6). The

four front teeth in the upper and lower jaws are sharp, chisel shaped incisors used for biting. On each side of the incisors are sharp, pointed teeth called cuspids (sometimes referred to as canine teeth), which are used for tearing food. Behind the canines are two premolars and three molars, all with flattened, ridged surfaces for grinding and crushing food.

Transport in humans: Circulatory System: Artery - away from the heart; Vein - in the heart; Capillaries - connect arteries and veins This is a transport system which collects and delivers materials around the body. It contains arteries, veins, and capillaries, and the heart which pumps the blood around the body. Inside the blood vessels, there are many red blood cells carrying oxygen around the body and they contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen to make oxyhaemoglobin (red). RBC- no nucleus - more haemoglobin The blood moves through the capillaries and some of the plasma leaks out and form tissue fluid. Oxygen diffuses out of the red blood cells, through the plasma and tissue fluid and into the body cells and joins with glucose for respiration. Respiration produces carbon dioxide and water and releases energy. Carbon dioxide diffuse into the plasma. The blood is now deoxygenated and carried by veins to the heart. The blood enters the vena cava (the biggest vein in our body), to the right atrium, to the right ventricle and finally goes out of the heart through the pulmonary artery which leads to the lungs. The oxygenated blood from the lungs travels back to the heart entering from the pulmonary vein into the left atrium, to the left ventricles and to the Aorta (the biggest artery and also the main blood vessel in our bodies). It will then go to the rest of the body cells for respiration. This is also called double circulation and it will repeat over and over again ALL the time. Note: In each part of the heart, there are valves to prevent the blood going backward.

Substance Oxygen Nutrients CO2 Lactic Acid (Anaerobic)

From Lungs Small Intestine Cells Muscle cells

To Cells Cells CO2 Liver